Gravity, LIGO, and Gravity Waves.

-  1858  -  Gravity, LIGO, and Gravity Waves.  A new era in astronomy has occurred this year with the detection of gravity waves created by 2 merging Blackholes.  Many new discoveries are forthcoming.
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--------  -  1858  -  Gravity, LIGO, and Gravity Waves.
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-  Detecting gravity waves is no small feat.  Gravity by far is the weakest force we know.  The other 3 forces electromagnetism, the weak, and strong nuclear forces are millions of times stronger.  You can easily pick a book up off the ground with the mass and gravity of the entire Earth pulling the other direction.
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-  Gravity is unique in also always pulling in one direction, it is only an attractive force.  There is no “negative” gravity.  Unless it could be a form of Dark Energy?
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-  The electric force between the electron and the proton inside the atom is a quintillion times stronger than gravity. (10^ 30).  That is a 1 followed by 30 zeros.  Gravity is so weak science does not know exactly how weak it is?
-  In addition to our inability to measure the force of gravity it is better understood as not a force at all but a natural path of mass following the warped fabric of space-time.
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-  Gravity and weight are not the same thing.  Astronauts in the Space Station say they are floating in “ zero gravity”.  That is not really true.  The force of gravity is there , about 90% the force felt on the surface of Earth.  What astronauts feel is they are constantly free-falling, as gravity pulls them around the Earth at a constant velocity making it feel like “zero gravity”.
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-  If you use a bathroom scale in an elevator your “weight” will fluctuate as the elevator accelerates and decelerates while the gravitational force remains the same.
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-  Gravity makes waves that travel at the speed of light.  This phenomenon was predicted in Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.  Two large masses in binary orbit will slowly get closer together in their orbit as gravity waves carry energy away.  Even the Earth is orbiting ever closer to the Sun, but, in this case the mass is so small and the energy loss too tiny to be noticed.
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-  Astronomers have had indirect evidence of gravity waves for 40 years.  But, gravity waves were not directly detected until this year (2015).  LIGO, the Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory , detected bursts of gravity waves coming from the collision of 2 Blackholes 1.3 billion lightyears away.
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-  Gravity waves traveling at the speed of light means that if the Sun disappeared instantaneously we would not realize it for 8 minutes.
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-  The other three forces have defined quantum force carrier particles , photons, Gluons, and Bosons.  However, no force particle has been discovered for gravity.  Quantum Theory has given the undiscovered particle a name, the “graviton“.
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-  Loop Quantum Gravity theory proposes that space-time itself is particle-like at the smallest dimensions.
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-  String Theory uses gravitons described as vibrations of strings coiled up in extra dimensions.
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-  However, Quantum Theory has yet to be successful in describing the microscopic behavior of gravity.  Stay tuned.
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-  If gravity has force-carrier-like gravitons they would likely be massless like photons.  But, an extremely tiny mass can not be ruled out.  Stay tuned.
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-  Even though the force of gravity is weak it would become stronger when masses become larger or closer together.  Theoretically, it does not reach the strength of the other forces until it reaches distance of  Plank Lengths,  1.6*10-35 meters, many times smaller than the nucleus of an atom.
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-  From the smallest scales to the largest scales gravity still serves us some mysteries.
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-  A breakthrough was announced this year (2016) when LIGO detected the merger of two Blackholes that violently shook the fabric of space-time and sent a burst of vibrations traveling to us, and through us.
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-  LIGO detected the ripples in two “L-shaped” mile long detectors in Louisiana and Washington State.  This achievement introduces a new field of study in gravitational-wave astronomy.
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-  In addition to the study of Blackholes this technique will allow cosmological distance measurements to be made more accurately.
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-  In 1974 radio astronomers studying a pair of Neutron stars orbiting each other observed indirect evidence of gravity wave radiation.  One was a “Pulsar” star that allowed measurements of the loss of orbital energy as the stars inward spiral exactly matched the math in Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.
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-  For the first time, September 14, 2015, direct evidence was observed by LIGO.  The gravity waves were being generated by two merging Blackholes.  The LIGO interference pattern measured a frequency of 30 cycles per second corresponding to 15 orbits per second for the two Blackholes
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-  In just 0.2 seconds the signal surged to 250 cycles per second then disappeared.  The orbiting Blackholes reached velocities half the speed of light before they merged.
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-  The two masses orbited so close to each other they had to be Blackholes. ( not Neutron stars ).  The vibrations of space-time created a sine wave with a steadily increasing frequency and amplitude due to their near perfect circular orbits.
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-  Using computer simulations to recreate the data astronomers estimate the Blackholes to weigh 36 and 29 Solar Mass combining into a 62 Solar Mass Blackhole.  The energy released was equivalent to 5,000 supernovae explosions.  The 3 Solar Mass difference was dispersed as gravitational radiation.  Our most powerful thermonuclear bomb was 1,030 times lower in energy.  The single Blackhole emerging was spinning at 100 revolutions per second.
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-  How did these binary Blackholes first form?
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-  One theory is that two massive stars were born as a binary-star system formed from interstellar gas like a double-yoked egg.  After a few million years the stars went supernova resulting in binary Blackholes.
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-  A second theory has the stars forming independently but in a larger globular cluster.  Massive stars sink towards the center of the cluster.  Complex interactions at the center form these binary system.  By gathering material around the center they transform into Blackholes.
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-  Massive stars are more likely to form at the center of clusters where there are frequent collisions and mergers.
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-  LIGO is hoping for Blackhole collisions closer to home.  This one was 1.3 billion lightyears away.  Closer and lighter binary Blackholes, or Neutron stars, would chirp with higher amplitudes and would last longer, several minutes.  This would provide more data for astronomers to learn more.
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-  The next step is to get more interferometers around the world involved, Japan and India are working on theirs.  By timing the single event from different directions astronomers can triangulate and more closely determine the direction to search for Blackholes, or Neutron stars.
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-  Determining direction would allow for the exact amplitude of the signal to be calculated.  The perpendicular direction produces the biggest signal.  Knowing the amplitude more accurately would allow the distance calculations with higher precision.
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-  Matching gravity wave observations with electromagnetic observations could greatly enhance astronomy studies.  A more accurate “Hubble’s Constant” could be measured., the rate of Cosmic expansion, Ho  = 72 km/sec/mps  =  47,000 miles per second per million lightyears.
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-  Albert Einstein predicted gravity waves would exist like light waves except they would be waves or ripples in space-time.  He also predicted they would be too slight to ever be detected.
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-  100 years later the technology progressed to beyond that which Einstein could have imagined.  On September 14, 2015 the first gravity waves were detected just as his math predicted.  After 5 months of checking and double checking by the two separate LIGO interferometers the announcement was made in February, 2016.  The gravity wave source was the collision of 2 Blackholes 1,300,000,000 lightyears away.
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-  The two interferometers work by shooting  infrared lasers breams through 4 kilometer arms in a near-perfect vacuum.  Bouncing off quartz mirrors the beams come back to their starting point and merge together into an interference pattern.
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-  The redshift of the source Blackhole merger is between 0.05 and 0.12 through expanding space.  This means the waves traveled between 700 million and 1,500 million years before reaching us.  1.3 billion years is a best estimate.
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-  Where the 2 perpendicular laser beams come together a signal above the null is sensitive enough to measure the distance the width of a Hydrogen atom.  In effect we are hearing the Blackhole merger, since we can never actually see it.
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-  Today we have finally heard gravity waves, a sine wave chirp.  When did the wave concept even begin?  In 1865 James Maxwell predicted that light traveled in waves.  But, it was not until the radio was invented by Heinrich Hertz that it was realized the light and radio were the same thing, electromagnetic radiation waves.
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-  In 1905 to 1915 Einstein introduced two new theories of gravity to be simply a warping of space-time caused by mass and energy.  And, mass was really just concentrated energy according to E= m*c^2.  He reasoned at the time that  very massive objects moving rapidly would create gravity waves, ripples in space-time.
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-  LIGO was the first to measure these waves as they pass through the Earth at the speed of light.  The waves were squeezing one perpendicular arm and stretching the other as the wave passed by.  The interference pattern of the 2 laser beams were sensitive enough to hear these changes in distances.
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-  LIGO detection begins as massive orbits spiral and tighten to 5 revolutions per second.  At that point the orbiting wave frequency is 10 hertz, 10 cycles per second.  The 2 Blackholes merge in 0.2 seconds.  At that point the frequency and sensitivity is strong enough for LIGO to detect it.
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-  This detection was possible because of the amazing engineering needed to separate the signal from noise and other interferences.  The detection was so sensitive it could hear a car passing by the site at 10 miles per hour.  The engineering feat was to pull the “ gravity chirp” out of this extraneous static.
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-  The next technology leap will put these interferometers into outer space where we can find a quieter place to make measurements.  This space instrument is under design today.  We are beginning a whole new field of gravitational wave astronomy.  Stay tuned, more announcements will be made shortly.
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-  #1827  -  Gravity Waves discovered using the LIGO telescopes.
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-  #1776  -  Gravity Waves using computer simulations.
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-  #1754  -  The tides of gravity.  The tidal forces of galaxies.
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-  #1751  -  Einstein’s Theory of Gravity.  A spinning massive body pulls space-time along.  It is like a spoon stirring honey.  Einstein’s Equivalence Principle has withstood 100 years of challenges.
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-  #1728  -  and   -  #1686  -  Measuring the size of the Universe.
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-  #43  -  The Gravity of it all.  If the Earth were spinning 5 times faster what would happen to gravity?  Nothing, gravity is a function of mass and distance, not rotation.  If you dropped a bowling ball off a 10 foot ladder and fired a bullet horizontally at the same time which would hit the ground first?  They both hit at the same time.
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-  #1534  -  Getting used to bending light.  Gravitational lensing.
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-  #1470  -  Are there atoms in space-time?
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-  #588  -  Gravity Probe B to  discover the effect of Frame-Dragging.
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-  Matter can barely feel the presence of a gravity wave.  Not only is it the weakest of the 4 known forces, its strength falls off sharply as it traverses space.  The gravity wave LIGO detected squeezed and stretched the Milky Wave Galaxy that is 100,000 lightyears in diameter the width of your thumb.  And, you did not feel a thing.  Or, did you?
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How do we know Cosmic Inflation happened?

-  1854  -  How do we know Cosmic Inflation happened?  It explains why the Universe geometry is flat and homogeneous and how quantum fluctuations grew into galaxies.
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-----------------------  1854  -  How do we know Cosmic Inflation happened?
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-  Ludwig Boltzmann discovered the concept of “Entropy” as a randomness that increases, entropy always increases as time progresses in a closed system.  The Universe started out with minimum Entropy and it has been increasing ever since.  ( See Footnote 1)
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-  Nature is full or irreversible phenomena.  Mathematics on the other hand tends to run backwards and forwards equally well to get a solution.  So mathematics can see things differently than the way Nature behaves.
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-  Mathematics has laws like for gravity, or Faraday’s laws for electricity.  Entropy is a different kind of law, it is a “probabilistic” law.  If you flip a nickel a million times it won’t come up with a buffalo a million times.  It is just not within the statistical probabilities., but, it is still “possible”.
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-  So we should say randomness probably doesn’t decrease over the long term.
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-  To illustrate this direction for randomness increasing or Entropy increasing, drop a black ink in a glass of water.  The ink spreads out eventually as the atoms oscillate and eventually the water becomes gray.  Now, take a glass of gray water, what are the odds the ink inside will coalesce into a single black drop?  Randomness tends to work in one direction, to more randomness, higher entropy.
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-  Randomness increases because it is “more likely” to increase.  Statistical probabilities tell us it is so.
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-  Astronomically thinking: “ the Universe must have started with a very low degree of randomness, a very low degree of Entropy.  There is this uncertainty that grows in the Universe.  In this environment you can not prove something to exist by the very fact you can not disprove it exists.  (Hamlet used this argument when it came to proving that God exists)
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-  This leads us to a discussion of “ beauty” and “truth” and what do they have to do with each other.  Just because a theory is simple and beautiful does not mean it is true.  No matter how much we like it , it may not be right.
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-  “Group Theory” is mathematics that transforms symmetry into a precise science or intuitive aesthetic beauty.  To illustrate the dichotomy here is an example using crystals.
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-  Math can show us that to fill a space with identical shapes, meet edge-to-edge, and leave no spaces,,  we can only use squares, rectangles, triangles , parallelograms and hexagons.  No other polygons will work.
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-  Pentagons, heptagons, octagons and every other polygon can not accomplish this.
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-  Mathematically this explains crystals we find in nature.  Aluminum oxide with Chromium will form the ruby crystal.
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-  Elegance and simplicity works and we often find it useful criteria in judging theories. But, that can often mislead us.  We could be wrong.
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-  It turns out that Quasi-crystals have been shown to exist in 3-dimensions that are not subject to these beautiful rules in crystallography.  So, for some crystals new rules apply.  We still think simplicity leads to beauty, which leads to symmetry, an aspect of beauty.
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-  So let’s try to get to some simple rules in astronomy:  Gravity is universal, everything responds to gravity in the same way.  Einstein realized that if gravity affects everything equally it is not right to think of it as a “force”.  Rather, gravity is a feature of space-time itself through which all objects move.
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-  Gravity is a curvature of space-time.  Space and time bend and stretch because of the influence of matter and energy.
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-  Einstein also realized the “light” consists of energy “ quanta”, later called photons. He realized that Entropy, randomness of radiation, changes with the volume of its container the same mathematical way as for atoms.  Randomness increases with the logarithm of the volume.  Einstein understood that the Entropy of a gas because it consist of atoms then radiation (light) too must consist of particles (photons).
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-  The most incomprehensible thing about the Universe is that we are here trying to comprehend it.  We assume the laws of physics used for our comprehension are the same everywhere.  Mathematicians and physicists can only live in a Universe that is comprehensible.  The laws of mathematics must work everywhere and all the time.  Or, the laws have to change.
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-  The Universe is “flat” and “homogeneous” because of Cosmic Inflation.  The Universe expanded at an exponential rate, doubling in size every instant of time for a very short time after the Big Bang.
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-  Say a  human baby after conception its cells double roughly daily, day by day, 1,2,4,8,16,…..  After nine months 274 doublings the baby would weigh more than all the matter in the Universe.  Thankfully the mother knew better and slowed the growth of the baby down to end at about 8 to 10 pounds.
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-  The same thing happened with the Universe.  It started as an atom doubling in size every instant of time, but, it somehow transitioned to slower growth when it reached 10 centimeters in size, about the size of a grapefruit.
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-  At that point slower growth occurred hot plasma diluted, cooled into particles, coalesced in to nuclei, atoms, molecules, stars and planets.
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-  Mass can not be creating itself from nothing.  But, mass can be created from energy and energy can be created from mass, E=mc^2.
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-  We can create mass by adding energy.  An inflating Universe has to have negative pressure and an enormous amount of energy.  We think Cosmic Inflation is correct because it explains some stuff:
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---------------------  The Universe is flat, parallel lines never meet, measured to 1% accuracy.
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-------------------- The Universe is homogenous, the same in all directions, with only 0.002% fluctuations place to place.
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-------------------- Inflation explains how Quantum Fluctuations ( The Uncertainty Principle) at the micro scale in the beginning are galaxies and the cosmic structure in today’s macro scale.
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-  There are many constants in our Universe that are so fine-tuned for life.  Cosmic Inflation still has some explaining to do.  Starting with, “ how could any of this even be possible?”  God only knows.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more on Cosmic Inflation:
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-   #1855  -  about cosmology that shows how simplicity and beauty evolves from chaos and randomness.
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-   Footnote (1)  -   Ludwig Boltzmann  -  an Austrian physicist ( 1844 - 1906 ) worked on the kinetic theory of gases using a statistical interpretation of the 2nd law of Thermodynamics.  That Entropy always increases because it corresponds to lost heat and lost energy that is irreversible.  Entropy is a measure of disorder, or randomness.  He committed suicide because of depression due to no one at the time believing in his theories.
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What caused Cosmic Inflation?

-  1853  -  What caused Cosmic Inflation?  New satellites use polarization to gain new data to tell the story after the Big Bang.  New calculations were made for age, geometry, composition, and weight of the Universe.
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-----------------------  1853  -  What caused Cosmic Inflation?
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-  In 2003 The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe satellite measured slight temperature variations in the haze of radio microwaves that were ubiquitous in all directions.  This radiation is like the blue sky but with much wider microwave wavelengths than blue light wavelengths.
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-  The temperature variations correspond to the first stars in the Cosmos that appeared 200,000,000 years after the Big Bang.
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-  The microwave data supported the theory that the Universe is expanding at an ever faster rate.  It permitted calculations for the age, geometry, composition, and weight of the Universe.
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-  The Universe is 13.7 billion years old. ( with error bars between 13.63 BY to 13.84 BY)
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-  The weight of the Universe is 4% atoms, 23% Dark Matter, and 73% Dark Energy.  (Remember:  matter and energy are 2 forms of the same thing, Energy = mass * c^2.
c^2 is the speed of light squared.)
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-  The Universe is geometrically “ flat”, meaning it is neither spherical or saddle shaped in its geometry.  In a flat universe parallel lines never meet.
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-  These microwaves in the Cosmic Background were first discovered in 1965.  They today represent a “snap shot” picture of the Universe as it was cooling to the point where neutral hydrogen and helium atoms could first form.  The Universe was only 380,000 years old.  The Universe at that point became neutral charge and became transparent to light.  Up to that point the Universe was opaque, a sea of charged particles called a plasma.  It was like looking into a cloud where you only see the white surface.
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-  The measurements made were not just variations of brightness and temperatures but also polarization of these microwaves.  Like skipping off a lake where Polaroid sunglasses work so well, here electric and magnetic fields constituting light were bouncing off an electrified gas.  The light was polarized having a preference to vibrate in a particular plane, horizontal or vertical planes.
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-  Later in the evolution of the Universe polarization should occur again when the ultraviolet light of the first stars stripped electrons from the hydrogen atoms.  Those electrons scattered the cosmic microwaves, polarizing them for a second time.  This would have happened when the Universe was about 800,000,000 years old.
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-  The first stars in the Universe were monsters, 100 times as massive as our Sun.  They burned out rapidly and violently as supernovae.  Massive stars have shorter life spans than smaller stars.  Their massive gravity causes then to burn hotter and exhaust their fuel quicker.
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-  When a supernova explodes hydrogen and helium become fused into the heavier elements like carbon and oxygen in the high temperatures, high pressure explosions.  These new elements were spread into empty space to become the material for future generation stars and future supernovae.
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-  The microwave temperature data was also used to rule out many other Cosmic Inflation theories.  Cosmic Inflation that we understand today was an enormous growth spurt during the first trillionth of a trillionth of a second ( 10^-24 seconds), where a powerful unknown anti-gravity field expanded space at an exponential rate.
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-  There is still not a clear explanation for why or how Cosmic Inflation happened.  It is still open for discovery.  Precision cosmology from the data collected by WMAP is a major step forward.
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-   Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.  Maybe my nephew or granddaughter will be the ones making this announcement.
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-  #1854  -  to learn more about cosmic inflation.
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-  #1852   -  about how astronomers measured cosmic inflation.
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-  #1851  -  about how we measured velocities in an expanding Universe.
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How do we measure Cosmic Inflation?

-  1852  -  How do we measure Cosmic Inflation?  The Universe is getting bigger.  How big is it?  And, how fast is it growing?
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---------------  1852  -  How do we measure Cosmic Inflation?
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-  The Universe keeps getting bigger.  Let’s say you graduate from college and you decide to pursue your dream.  You dream is to answer 3 simple questions:  How big is the Universe today?  How  fast is it growing?  How old is it?
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-  How fast is it growing has been given a name.  It is called the “Hubble Constant”  It is named after Edwin Hubble who first discovered in 1929 that there were galaxies outside our own galaxy and the distant ones are all moving away from us.  The farther away the faster they were receding.  And, this ratio was a “ constant”.  We call it a constant because it appears to be a constant today.  We don’t know if it was the same in the past or will be the same in the future.  In fact it appears to be accelerating, not a constant velocity?
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-  Edwin Hubble died in 1953 but the space telescope named after him is still trying to answer these questions.  Today, it is measured as for every 3.26 million lightyears distance the galaxies are receding with a velocity of 74 kilometers per second faster.
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-   The Hubble Constant is usually written as 74 kilometers per second per mega parsec. The mega parsec is 3.26 lightyears distance. Translating this to highway speeds we get 47,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears distance.  Astronomer’s today believe this number is accurate to within 4.3%
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-  So that is how fast we are moving.  Not sure what direction, but, expanding “outward”.    Expanding into what I am not sure?  But, if space is expanding everywhere at the same time maybe there is not a “direction” per se.  Whatever “outward” means.  Since all of space is expanding in all directions at once, it is like a tumbling astronaut in space trying to decide which direction is “up”?
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-  Ok, how about how old is the Universe?  The Universe makes sense to today’s astronomers if it is 13.7 billion years old, 95% full of Dark Matter and Dark Energy and speckled with galaxies that grew from gravity from random microscopic fluctuations in the Quantum Soup created in the Big Bang.  ( The microscopic fluctuations are called the Uncertainty Principle).  We are here in the remaining 5% trying to comprehend the rest of this stuff.
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-  How do astronomers make these cosmic measurements and calculations?
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-  Looking into the dark night sky we might assume the bright stars are closest and the distant stars are faintest and the farthest..  Apparent brightness (b)  can be a simple calculation for distance (r).  First we need to know the Absolute Brightness (AB) of the light source.  Then:
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----------------------------------  b  =  AB  /  r^2
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---------------------------------  brightness falls off  as the square of the distance.
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-  But, how do you know the Absolute Brightness of all these stars?  Some big, some small, some are binary stars, some are single stars?  Well, we only use a certain type of star, called a “ Cepheid Variable “ star.  This particular star dims and fades in a particular saw tooth pattern.  The more luminous (Absolute Brightness) the longer the cycle of this pattern.  So, a winking star is broadcasting its luminosity and we can calculate the distance to that particular galaxy.
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- But, at very great distance even Cepheid Variable stars are too dim to discover.  We need something brighter to be the “standard candle“.  The new choice is the Type 1A supernovae explosions that occur with a standard luminosity.
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-  Type 1A supernovae are brilliant enough to be seen across the Universe.  They occur when a binary star, two stars orbiting each other, one a White Dwarf star stealing mass from the other star.  When the White Dwarf reaches a mass of 1.4 Solar Mass ( 40% larger than our Sun), the gravity at 1.4 Solar Mass breaks down the electromagnetic force holding electrons and protons apart collapsing the two into neutrons at the nucleus.  This causes a collapse of the entire star where all the outer mass slams into the core.  This in turn causes a bounce, an enormous explosion that should have a know mass and a known brightness every time it happens.  (See footnote 1).
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-  Now we have Cepheid  Variable stars and Type 1A supernovae as standard candles to climb the distance ladder across the Universe.
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-  Even with all this astronomers, physics, and science with different measurements get results ranging from 70 km/sec/mpc to 62 km/sec/mpc.  That is 15% apart with 10% error bars for each measurement. That is the best we can do today.  There is a lot more to learn.  So, the graduate student picked the right questions to make a career out of it.
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-  To reduce the errors in measuring our distance ladder we need better rulers.  Here is one example using the Hubble Space Telescope.  Focused on a single galaxy, NGC4258 in Ursa Major Constellation there are clouds of water vapor emitting a single frequency spectrum in radio waves.  The galaxy also contains Cepheid Variable stars.  By tracking the motion of the radio observations to triangulate a distance that could match up with the Absolute Brightness of Cepheid’s astronomers calculate a distance of 23.5 lightyears.
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-  Knowing the distance astronomers could calibrate the Absolute Brightness of the Cepheid’s.  Knowing that they could calibrate the Absolute Brightness of a Type 1A supernova occurring in the same galaxy.  Knowing that they can say the Universe is expanding at 73 km/sec/mpc with an error of less than 4.3% .   Wow!  It took a whole career to get to that number.
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-  Footnote (1)  -  Supernovae as Standard Candles.  We use supernovae explosions as cosmic yardsticks to chart the expansion of the universe.  If we know the Absolute Brightness of a light source we can calculate its distance by measuring its apparent brightness.  We know mathematically the brightness falls off as the square of the distance light travels
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-  To do this calculation we depend on each supernova explosion to be exactly the same.  There is a particular “ Type 1A” White Dwarf supernova.
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-  One type occurs in a binary system whereby a White Dwarf reaches a mass of 140% of the mass of our Sun where gravity overcomes the electrons degeneracy pressure.  This limit is called the Chandrasekhar Limit after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, an Indian astrophysicist who made this calculation in 1930 when he was only 19 years old.
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-  The second type of Type 1A supernova explosion that can occur is when two White Dwarf stars collide.  The explosion that results may look the same but the brightness could be much brighter.  This would mean we have a different model for a “standard candle”, called the “ double-degenerate model”.
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-  Stars collapsing with greater than 1.4 Solar Mass evolve into stellar remnants, directly into Neutron Stars or into Blackholes.   White Dwarf stars exactly 1.4 Solar Mass explode before they undergo this collapse.  White Dwarf stars under 1.4 Solar Mass simply remain White Dwarf stars.
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-  Our sun will remain a White Dwarf star after it exhausts all of its nuclear hydrogen / helium fuel.  That will occur 5 billion years from now.  Of course, that assumes we do not collide with another star and become a “ double-degenerate “ supernova.
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Cosmology - Energy flows, Chaos ensues.

-  1849  -  Cosmology  -  Energy flows, Chaos ensues.  Stuff happens.  Does statistical force create Nature?
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---------------  1849  -  Cosmology  -  Energy flows, Chaos ensues
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-  Everything in our world, every atom in our bodies is made of elements found in the Periodic Table of elements.  There are 92 elements in Nature ranging from the lightest , Hydrogen, with one proton and one electron to one of the heaviest, Uranium, with 92 protons and 92 electrons.
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-  Your body is mostly water, made of Hydrogen and Oxygen, H2O, Oxygen with 8 protons and Carbon with 6 protons.
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-  The two lightest elements, Hydrogen and Helium, were born in the Big Bang.  All the rest of the elements were made with fusion in the center car of the stars.  The early stars were like our Sun but much larger, maybe 100 Solar Mass.  So the elements in our bodies are essentially the by-products of nuclear fusion.
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-The intense temperatures and pressures at the core of these large stars molded the elements that were heavier than Helium.  When the fusion furnace ran out of fuel, there were no lighter elements to fuse into heavier elements, the fusion stopped, the star collapsed with no radiation to hold it up, the collapse to the core reacted as a rebound causing the star to explode outward with enormous force.
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-  The violent death of a star is called a “ supernova“.  The explosion spreads these heavier elements into space.  They have enough gravity to form clouds of atoms and molecules.  Gathered up by relentless gravity they eventually create another star causing the whole process to repeat.
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-  The heavier elements in the bones of your body ( Calcium ) required a few cycles of these supernovae explosions.  The Big Bang started 13.7 billion years ago.  Our Earth has been around for 4.6 billion years ago.  The Sun was another fusion furnace formed by gravity and the planets were formed by the atoms in the Accretion Disk that was orbiting the Sun.
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-  Somehow life swept up a sub-set of these atoms to make the elements becoming our mortal selves.  It all came from the exploding dust of the stars.
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-  What could explain this extraordinary complexity forming out of this total simplicity.  Energy flows.  Chaos ensues.  Quarks form protons while the Universe accelerates its continued expansion.  Gravity is loosing the game.  Dark Energy is winning accelerating expansion ever faster.
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-  God made Nature having this “natural instability” .  Energy always flows.  Chaos ensues.  Instabilities create “ phase changes”.  Like water vapor ( simplicity ) can go through energy flows to produce snow flakes ( complexity ).  No two snowflakes discovered to date are exactly alike.  Complexity in trillions and trillions of alternatives.
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-  The Big Bang started with an instability called a “ false vacuum” which decayed into an “ ordinary vacuum”  ( I have know idea what this  means, but  ? )  The hot plasma of charged particles, Quarks with positive charges,  and Gluons, force particles that could somehow hold positive like charges together to form protons.  The plasma also contained electrons and neutrinos.  Today we call this soup the Standard Model of Particle Physics.
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-  When the Universe expanded and cooled enough Quarks bound together to produce protons and neutrons.  Another phase transition with neutral atoms, protons and electrons coming together, and the Universe became “ transparent”.  Light could escape and photons were released to spread electromagnetic energy throughout all of space.
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-  Gravity pulled clouds of atoms together to form stars and galaxies.  The next instability occurred when Hydrogen and Helium fused at the core of stars releasing energy that lasted for billions of years.  Our Sun is 5 billion years old.  It should last for 10 billion years.  When the fuel runs out the larger stars release their energy in supernovae explosions.
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-  Planets like Earth have instabilities and energy flows too.  Gravity has pulled the heavier elements into the core.  Water and air as lighter elements are left on the surface.  The heat from the Sun makes energy flow from the equator to the poles.  These energy flows create chemical laboratories.  Complexity ensues in this chemistry.
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-  Somehow this complexity and energy flow transformed from chemistry to biology.
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-  Today we know that there are at least as many planets as there are stars.  All are dealing with the same or similar instabilities, complexities, that are constantly evolving.  Could life simply be a “ statistical force” within all this complexity?    Is it simply the theory of large numbers.  If the numbers and alternatives are large enough anything can happen.
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-  Just like rolling 5 die.  Enough rolls taken will produce 5 sixes.  It is simply the result of statistical force.  It is hard to comprehend.  All this came from star dust. Where did the star dust come from?  I am trying to comprehend it?  Where did I come from?
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Cosmology:
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-    There 12 reviews available upon request:  #1775 (Maay4, 2015),  1771, 1697 ,1602, 1601, 1215, 767, 759, 713, 50, 14(May 31 2003)
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-  #1775  -  Cosmic Evolution.  There is irony in the arrogance implied in our figuring this stuff out.  At the same time it gives us the humility that there is much more to learn.
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-  #1771  -  Life is complex.  Cosmology is a form of intellectual time travel.  The Observable Universe extends 250 billion trillion miles in every direction.  There is a limit to the faster you go the heavier you get.
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-  #1697  -  The story beginning to end.  Space began stretching out and carrying matter along with it.  If the current rate of expansion was always constant the Universe would be 14.7 billion years old.  It was not.  Gravity slowed expansion during the first 5 billion years.
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-  #713  -  The Cosmological Constant.  The constant expansion rate today is 0.046107 miles per hour per lightyear.  The Cosmological Constant is just one of dozens of Natural Constants fine tuned for life to exist.
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-  #1602  -  Cosmology tells us composition.
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-  And several more reviews on Cosmology going back to 2003.  It is strange astronomy.
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Velocity - Your motion in the Universe?

-  1851  -  Velocity  -  Your motion in the Universe?  It is more complicated than you can imagine.  And, it is all relative.  Motion is where you are to where you get to divided by the time it takes.  Each of those variables depends on “Relativity“.
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---------------  1851  -  Velocity  -  Your motion in the Universe?
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-  The Teacher says to the students, “ Sit down and remain perfectly still.”
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-  The Student replies:  “That is hard to do.”  “Relative to what?”
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-  In the time it took the student  to say that we have already moved 224 miles ( See Footnote 1)
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-  I know that you did not feel a thing.  That is because you are traveling at a constant velocity.  You feel motion when are accelerating or decelerating, i.e. changing velocity.  Moving at a constant velocity is the same as being at rest as far as you can tell.  Remember the bodies at rest tend to stay at rest and bodies in motion tend to stay in motion and the bodies can’t tell the difference.
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-  You are also traveling 470,000 miles per hour around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.  That is 130 miles per second.  This is our 21st trip around the galaxy (footnote 3).  From the time homo sapiens first appeared on the Earth we have swept around the galaxy less than the comparable sweep of a second hand around the clock with a single tick. (Footnote 4)
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-  That is not all.  You are gliding along at 67,000 miles per  hour in a circular orbit around the Sun.  It takes one year, 316,000,000 seconds, to complete one trip and return to where you are today.  The journey covered 580,00,000 miles. In 2 seconds you traveled 37 miles.  (Footnote 2)
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-  That is not all.  The Earth is spinning.  The equator travels 24,902 miles in 24 hours.  If you were on the equator you would be moving 1,038 miles per hour.  If you are standing in Santa Rosa you are spinning in a smaller circle.  At 37.7 degrees latitude and 122.42 degrees longitude the circumference of the circle you are traveling is :
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-------------------  Earth Radius  =  3,958.7 miles * cosine 37.77 degrees * 2 * pi  =  19,661 miles in 24 hours  =  819 miles per hour heading east in a daily circle.  That is 0.23 miles per second so in 2 seconds you traveled one half mile due east.
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-  Also during these 2 seconds the Universe has been expanding adding 70,000 miles of additional space between the Milky Way Galaxy and the cluster of galaxies in the Hydra, Taurus, 150 lightyears away.
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-  The Observable Universe contains at least as many galaxies as there are stars in the Milky Way.  Our Milky Way is 12,000,000,000 years old and during that time has produced 400,000,000,000 stars.
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-  If we look outside our Milky Way Galaxy into deep space we have found other galaxies speeding away from us at 26,000 miles per second.  That is 93,600,000 miles per hour or 14% the speed of light.  The fastest photon in the Universe in free space is traveling 670,633,500 miles per hour.
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-  Of course, by now you realize it is all relative. We could just as easily say we are speeding away from those other galaxies at 26,000 miles per second.  In that case you can tell the teacher in 2 seconds we moved another 52,000 miles.
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-  The first stars began shinning 13,700,000,000 years ago.  That is the farthest distance a line of sight can be extended and still run into a star.  The whole reason the night sky is black is because when we look far out into space we are looking far back in time, to a point in time when stars had not started to shine yet.  In a dark sky we are looking back in time before there was anything to see.
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-  Even if we ignore our movement through the sky we are also moving standing on solid ground.  Continental drift is still happening .  You are moving away from Europe and Africa at a break neck speed of 3 centimeters / year.  ( 0.00000021 miles per hour).  This is caused by the great rift in the Atlantic ocean.  If you are in Santa Rosa and standing at the San Andreas fault you are moving 1.3 center meters per year
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-  During the course of the school year we moved 1.08 centimeters to the northwest.  If you go back in time at that speed, 47,000,000 years ago, you would be standing where Los Angeles is today.  Of course , at that time , you would be the only humanoid (Footnote 5)
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-  The rest of the humanoids will not appear for another 30 million years.  This was in the Eocene epoch of the Cenozoic era when whales, penguins, roses, bats, camels, early elephants, dogs, cats, and weasels first arrived.  Homo Habilis , the first human species, mammoths, giant sloth’s and armadillos will not arrive for another 40 million years.  As we humans came on board the planet, the tectonic plate was drifting from Los Angeles to San Francisco at 0.000,000,000,922 miles per hour.  A Velocity you can hardly notice, until an earthquake happens.
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-  Astronomers have observed infant galaxies, called Quasars, that are 12 billion lightyears away traveling at 90% the speed of light  So we see them as they were 12 billion years ago.  And, we could just as accurately say that the Quasar is stationary and we are traveling 603,570,150 miles per hour.  It we were traveling much faster we would be going backwards in time to when the Universe first turned on the lights.  (Footnote 6)
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-  I warned you it was hard standing perfectly still.  All motion is relative.  There is nowhere you can stand still and measure everything else.  Wait, there is something that may work to measure against.  The Cosmic Microwave Background radiation, the CMB.  Every direction we look the CMB is 2.725 Kelvin.  That is the radiation background left over form the Big Bang.
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-  The CMB is “ stationary” because it happened everywhere at once in space 13.8 billion years ago.  The Universe has been expanding and cooling ever since.  The photons have spread out to a density of 400 per cubic centimeter.
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-  But, the CMB is not completely uniform.  The CMB in the relative direction we are moving is hotter, 2.728 Kelvin.  The opposite direction from where we are moving is measured at 2.722 Kelvin.  Light and microwave radiation gets blue shifted towards higher energies when it is moving towards you.  Light gets redshifted to lower energies when the source is moving away from you.
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-  Therefore, measuring this velocity of our movement through CMB space is 823,193 miles per hour.  Now, you add to that our  motion in the Local Group of Galaxies and we get our velocity in our region of space to be 1,404,559 miles per hour  + or - 49,000 mph.  That uncertainty of 3.5% is due to measurement uncertainties in our motion about the Milky Way center.
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-  As we approach the speed of light space shrinks and time slows.  God created time so everything didn’t happen at once.  When time stops is everything all happening at once?  Or, is nothing happening?  With greater expertise we are learning more and more about less and less until we know everything about nothing.
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-  #4  -  Speed of light, has been found to be “constant” to one part in 10^20.  ( January 22, 2003).
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-  #684  -  Velocity is space / time.  The only thing going faster than light is the expansion of space itself.  Today the edge of the Observable Universe is 45 billion lightyears away even though the Universe is only 13.7 billion years old.  Those galaxies “appear” to be traveling faster than light.
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-  #628  -  Velocity from the very slow to the very fast.  Bamboo can grow 3 feet per day.  0.0000237 miles per hour.  Electric cars have been clocked at 314.96 miles per hour.
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-  #399  -  Students -  Sit there perfectly still.  (February 7, 2004)
-  Footnote (1)  It takes the student 2 seconds to tell the teacher.  The Earth is traveling around the Sagittarius A, center of the Milky Way Galaxy, at a radius of 28,000 lightyears.  The time o complete on orbit is 220,000,000 years.  The Milky Way Galaxy is 10,000,000,000 years old so this is the 45th orbit.
------------------  Radius  =  2.8*10^4 lightyears  *  5.88*10^12 miles / LY
------------------- Radius  =  16.46 *10^16 lightyears
------------------  Circumference  =  2*pi * radius  =  103.4*10^16 miles
------------------- Velocity  =  distance / time  =  1.034*10^18 / 2.2*10^8  =  0.47*10^10 miles / year  =  404,000 miles / hour  =  112 miles / second.
-  In 2 seconds you travel 224 miles.
-  Footnote (2)  The radius of Earth’s orbit around the Sun is 93,000,000 miles.  The circumference is 584,000,000 miles.  It takes one year or 8,760 hours to complete one orbit.  Velocity  =  5.84*10^8  /  8.76*10^3  =  0.66*10^5
-------------------  Velocity around the Sun  =  66,666 miles per hour.
-  Footnote (3)  The Earth was born 4,500 million years ago.  Since one orbit takes 220 million ears this is only our 21st trip around the Milky Way.
-  Footnote (4)  -    The first homo sapiens  appeared on Earth 2,000,000 years ago.  Since one galactic orbit takes 220,000,000 years we have completed only 0.9 % of one orbit.  A one second tick competes 1/60 = 1.7% of its orbit around the clock.
- Footnote (5)   -   The San Andreas fault is 600 miles long and moving north west at 1.3 centimeters per year.  This is 0.000,000,000,922 miles per hour.  (9.22*10^-10 mph).  Los Angeles is 377 is south.  Time =  distance / velocity.  Time  =  377 miles  /8.078 *10^-6 miles per year  =  47 million years before my time.
-  Footnote(6)  -  If Isaac Newton blasted off from Earth on a spaceship traveling at the speed of light, we would observe him alive today through the telescope.  He could be waving at us at the porthole of the spaceship through the telescope at the same time we know he is buried in Westminster Abbey.  The same is true of the infant galaxies , we call Quasars, that we observe through the telescope.  We see childhood galaxies 12 billion years in the past.  We do not know what these galaxies are like when they are mature adults.  We assume they are like our Milky Way Galaxy that is 10 billion years old.  To find out for sure we would have to wait another 12 billion years and invent much  more powerful telescopes.
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Dark Matter, do we have it right this time?

-  1850   -  Dark Matter ?  Is it 23% of the Universe?  Is it 90% of all the matter? Do we have it right this time?   That would mean everything we know and love is less than 5% of what is out there.
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---------------  1850  -  Dark Matter?  Do we have it right this time?
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-  We can not see Dark Matter.  We only believe it is there due to its effects on Gravity.  We assume we know the laws of Gravity and the same laws exist throughout the Universe.  If we modify the equations for gravity we can duplicate the results we see in observations.  But, should we?  Maybe we are missing mass in the equations?
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-  This is not the first time our laws had to change in order to match observations.  The laws of Gravity started with Isaac Newton in the 1600’s.  Newton’s equations matched the motion of projectiles, rolling weights, pendulum clocks, the orbit on the Moon, even put 2 astronauts on the Moon in 1962.
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-  Kepler’s laws were a special case of Newton’s laws and they matched the observed orbits of the known planets.  Planets moved in closed ellipses with the Sun as one focus.
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-  “  The area swept out by each planet as it orbited the Sun was the same in any given time interval at all points along the orbit.  The period of the planet’s orbit, squared was proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis. “  See footnote (1) that illustrates this equation for the asteroid Ceres:
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-----------------------  p^2  =  a^3
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---------------------period^2 =  radius ^3
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-  When Uranus was discovered in 1781 observations showed that its orbit speed dipped below Gravity equations predictions.  Was the law of Gravity needing modification?  Or, is there Dark Matter out there that we do not have in these equations?
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-  That “Dark Matter” turned out to be the planet Neptune that was discovered in 1846.  It was discovered based on the projected influence of Gravity.  The equations worked!
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-  A similar problem occurred with the planet Mercury.  Kepler’s law of perfect ellipses with the Sun as a focus needed modification to match observations.  Ellipses precessed over time possibly caused by another unseen planet.
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-  The undiscovered planet was even  named, “Vulcan”.  The precession was 43 seconds of arc per century, 0.012 degrees over 100 years.  (  See footnote (2) to learn the calculations using pi).
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-  Was the law of gravity wrong or was there an unseen planet, Vulcan?
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-----------------------  F  =  G * m * M  / r^2  ,   does it need modification?
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-  In 1915 the new law modifying this equation came along.  It was Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.  With the new law for Gravity the warping of space-time explained how the math matched observation for the planet Mercury.  But, space had to shorten and time had to slow with relative motion.  Space and Time were not absolutes, they were relative to motion.  Again the math was king!
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-  In 1970’s this idealism in perfect math failed again.  Vera Rubin measured velocity profiles of galaxy’s spiral discs using redshifts and blueshift data on either side of the spiraling galaxy.  She expected the interior stars to be rotating faster, the outer stars more slowly.  Vera’s data showed rotational speeds to be constant regardless of radius.  This was totally contrary to how our Solar System works.  The laws of Gravity for spiral galaxies meant the galaxies should be flying apart.
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-  Again, were the laws of Gravity in need of more modification, or, was there unseen mass that needs to be added to these equations?
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-  In 1981 the calculations were made showing the equations need only be changed fractions of nano-merters-per-second-squared to match Vera’s galaxy rotation curves.
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-  For Dark Matter to match observation it would need to not be Normal Matter, made of protons, neutrons and electrons.  It would need to be a large halo of mass surrounding the galaxy that did not interact with light.  It didn’t stick to itself.  It didn’t stick to normal matter, and it has never been discovered before now.
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-  Modifying the laws of Gravity were a better match than calculations made with adding massive Dark Matter halos in the Einstein equations.  At first.
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-  Except, the gravity law equations failed with more observations on other distant galaxy clusters.  Then, Gravitational Lensing was discovered where some unseen mass was bending starlight magnifying the background distant galaxies.  Dark Matter could explain time dilation and gravitational redshifts.  It cold explain the effect of Gravitational Lensing.
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-  Either laws of physics need more modification or there is Dark Matter out there yet to be discovered.  Collision less, cold Dark Matter now has a name, WIMPS,  Weakly Interactive Massive Particles.  There needs to be 5 times as much Dark Matter as visible matter.
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-  We do not know if Dark Matter is just found in halos around galaxies  It may be spread out in the space between galaxies/
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-  More confirmation was found in the collision of two galaxy clusters.  The gas inside the collision should heat up, slow down and emit X-rays.  But, gravitational lensing showed the unseen matter surrounded the visible matter in the collision as the two masses separated in the collision.  Dark Matter extends 10 to 20 times the size of visible regions of galaxies.
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-  Today’s conclusion:   .  At least 90% of the matter in the Universe is Dark Matter. We still believe the laws of Gravity from Newton and Einstein to be correct.  Now, it is up to astronomers to discover WIMPs and explain to us what Dark Matter really is.  Then, when they get that done ,explaining 23% of the Universe, start working on Dark Energy that is 73% of the Universe.
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-  More work to do.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  The Sloan Digital Sky Survey measured and averaged 50 background galaxies using gravitational lensing of light piercing the halos of 30,000 foreground galaxies. (1999).
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-  The averaged result showed that typical galaxy halos extend at least 1.3million lightyears into space from the luminous galactic disks.  The Milky Way Galaxy is 100,000 lightyears across and contains 100 billion stars.  That is the visible part.  Using gravity to make this measurement and not just light the invisible galaxy is 1,000,000 lightyears across and weighs 5 trillion Solar Mass.
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-  The Andromeda Galaxy is 2 million lightyears away.  Using these metrics the 2 galaxies may actually be brushing up against each other.
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-  What are the right answers?  Do we need new math or do we discover new mass.  Or, is the undiscovered energy acting like mass.  Stay tuned.
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-  Dark Energy Reviews:  1800, 1749, 1516, 1499, 1290, 1147, 1083, 1084, 1085, 1047, 822 and  nine more reviews.
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-  Dark Matter Reviews:  1535,  1823,  1820,  1777, and twelve more reviews

-  Footnote (1)  The largest asteroid, Ceres, at one time was once thought to be a planet.  It orbit’s the Sun at a distance of 2.77 AU.
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----------------------  a^3  =  (2.77)^3  =  21.25
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----------------------  p^2  =  21.25
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----------------------  p  =  4.6
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-  The period for Ceres orbit around the Sun is 4.6 years.
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-  Footnote (2)  The calculations using the number pi:  In 1424 Jamshid al-Kashi, a Persian astronomer, calculated pi to 17 digits.  Today NASA only uses pi calculated to 15 digits, 3.141592653589793.  Is this accurate enough to send a spacecraft across the Solar System?  Voyager I is 12.5 billion miles away.  If we drew a circle with that radius and used this value of pi the circumference would be 78 billion miles.  How much of an error do we get cutting off pi at 15 decimal points.  Do the calculation to satisfy yourself.  But, the answer is you could be off by 1.5 inches.  78 billion miles around and off by 1.5 inches.  Close enough for government work.
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