Schrödinger’s wave equation describes the atom.

-  1886  -  Schrödinger’s wave equation describes the atom.  Equations have been the tool to derive and describe the fundamentals of Nature.  Here are six of these equations growing from F=ma to the forces in the atom.
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- It starts with Isaac Newton:

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------------  1886  -  Schrödinger’s wave equation describes the atom.
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-  There are fundamentals found in Nature that we can describe and make predictions quite accurately.  Then, we can code them in the form of an equation, a shorthand that describes the same thing we put into words.
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-  These equations become essential to out ability to understand the past and to predict the future.  Isaac Newton in 1687 developed his equation to predict the motion of objects.  It simply says that a force equals mass times acceleration.
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---------------------------  F  = m*a
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-  The greater the mass, ”m”, the greater the force needed to change its velocity.  Acceleration is a change in velocity with a change in time.  A constant velocity with no friction needs no force to remain constant forever.  The acceleration of objects due to the force of gravity on the surface of Earth is :
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-----------------------  9.8  meters per second^2
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-----------------------  or, 32 feet per second per second.
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-  Multiply this acceleration by your mass in kilograms and you calculate you weight in Newtons.  That is the force pulling you towards the center of the Earth.
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-  Isaac Newton came up  with another fundamental law about the force of gravity also in 1687
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----------------------  F  =  G  * m*M  /  r^2
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-  The force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of the two masses ( m * M) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.  Two masses pull on one another across space but the force decreases rapidly the further apart they are ( r ) .  “G”  is the constant of proportionality for the units used.
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-  Newton’s equations were used to get us to the Moon and back but Newton could not explain “ why” his equations worked.  230 years later Albert Einstein explained why gravity existed as a warping of space-time around massive objects.  Einstein’s equations in the Theory of Relativity became important when we had GPS satellites 330 years after Newton’s equations had been doing all the work.  GPS satellite calculations for locations on Earth’s surface only work accurately enough if Einstein’s equations are added to Newton’s first approximations.
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- In 1824  the law in thermodynamics was defined requiring Entropy to always increase .  Entropy is a measure of disorder in Nature.  Sadi Carnot, a French physicist,  developed the equation requiring heat to always travel from a warm object to a cold one.  The process is not reversible.  Since the Big Bang which was at zero Entropy the Universe’s Entropy has always increased.  And, the Universe will end in “ heat death” when all the stars burn out and Entropy is at its maximum.
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-  In 1831 and 1865  Maxwell and Faraday’s equation showed that a changing electric field (E) created a changing magnetic field (B) and vice-versa.
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------------------------  E  = dB  /  dt
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-  These equation are today used in modern electrical engineering, communications technology and optics.
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-  In 1905  Albert Einstein’s defined the equations that equated mass and energy:
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-----------------------  E = mc^2
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----------------------  Energy  =  mass *  90,000,000,000,000,000
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----------------------  c  =  speed of light at 3 * 10^8  meters / second.
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-  An enormous amount of energy can be release through the conversion of a small amount of mass.  In 1945 one gram of mass produced an explosion over Nagasaki, Japan, that was equated to 20,000 tons of TNT dynamite.
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-  In 1925  Erwin Schrodinger developed the wave equation for electrons orbiting the nucleus of the atom.  Using Quantum Mechanics theory he calculate how quantum particles move and interact.  The particles are described as interfering waves.
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-  Schrödinger starts out with Newton’s equation,  F = ma in the first paragraph, and applies it to the structure of the atom.  It becomes a differential equation describing time evolution of a wave function.
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-  Erwin Schrodinger ( 1887 - 1961) in 1921, reading a footnote in one of Einstein’s papers on the concept of the electron having wave properties, decided to apply it to electrons having orbits around the nucleus of atoms.  He had the electrons orbiting only in an exact number of wavelengths.  This created “ standing waves” that did not radiate light waves which Maxwell’s changing velocity of an electron required.  This in turn required discrete orbits of electrons in each atom.  In 1926 he published the “ wave equation” for this property in all atoms.
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-  Equations are shorthand that describes precise equalities.  Using them in math analysis leads to new discoveries.  New discoveries leads to new math.  Every thing we think we know is only a theory.  New knowledge will bring new theories.  That is a never ending process in science.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about science:
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-  #1649 -   What is Science?
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-  #1649  -  New ideas to change your life?
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-  #1463,4,5,6   -  covers 4 decades of science discoveries.
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-  #1194  -  What’s likely to happen in the next 30 years?
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Gravity a property of space and time?

-  1885  -  Gravity a property of space and time?  We are making new discoveries as science is just detecting gravity waves coming from merging Blackholes.
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-----------------------  1885  -  Gravity a property of space and time?
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-  Gravity is a property of nature where by all things with energy are brought together with an attractive force.  Mass is concentrated energy and the greater the mass the greater the force of gravity bringing them together.  Gravity affects all mass from stars and galaxies to sub-atomic particles.
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-  Gravity creates energy through the fusion of hydrogen gas in the cores of stars.  On the surface Earth’s gravity gives “weight “ to all masses and causes the tides in the oceans.
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-  This attractive force of gravity decreases as the square of the distance of separation.  Although its range is infinite its effects get increasingly weaker on farther objects.  As a force, gravity is easier to recognize.  It was the genius of Albert Einstein that opened our minds to think of gravity as a curvature , warping, of space-time.  Objects falling due to the “ force” of gravity are actually following the path of least resistance in the warped medium of space and time.  It is hard to wrap your mind around that one.
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-  This “curvature” occurs whenever there is an uneven distribution of mass-energy.  The result is a gravity time dilation whereby time slows down in lower, stronger, gravitational potentials.
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-  This Einstein General Theory of Relativity becomes most relevant in strong energy-mass fields.  Isaac Newton’s approximation for the effects of gravity is adequately accurate for our everyday earthly activities.  Even for short journeys across our Solar System.  His equations worked fine to get us to the Moon and back.
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-  Put simply:  The attractive force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
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-------------------------  F  =  G * m * M  /  r^2
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-  There are 4 fundamental forces in Nature known so far.  Gravity is by far the weakest.   The Strong Force that holds the nucleus of atoms together is 38 magnitudes stronger than the force of gravity, 10^38 times.  It is 10^29 times weaker that the Weak Force that holds Neutrons together in the nucleus.  For example: The electromagnetic force of the refrigerator magnet can easily overpower the gravity of the enormous mass of the Earth.
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-  At the sub-atomic distances Gravity has negligible effects.  At macro scale levels of familiar masses Gravity becomes the dominant force of the interactions we routinely observe.
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-  The “ Equivalence Principle” is the observation that all objects fall the same way and the effects are indistinguishable between gravity and the effects of acceleration ( a change in velocity).  This principle also equates the free-fall of inertial motion to the acceleration to the relative, non-inertial observers on the ground.
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-  Einstein’s explanation is that free-falling objects are moving along locally straight lines that are curved by space-time.  These “straight lines “ in curved space-time are called “ geodesics”.
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-  Einstein’s explanation also predicted that “ gravity waves” would propagate from the interactions of very massive objects ( like orbiting Neutron Stars, or Blackholes).  These waves were first detected by LIGO experiments in September, 2015.
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-  Using Newton’s equations for Gravity can not explain why the distribution of velocities of stars in spiral galaxies are faster on the outskirts of the galaxies.  At the velocities measured these stars should be ejected from the galaxy like the water from a lawn sprinkler.
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-  The same calculations apply to galaxies within a rotating cluster of galaxies.  The mystery is explained by the existence of “ Dark Matter” located in a “ halo” around the Normal visible matter.  It is the mass of Dark Matter that is holding everything together.
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-  The devil is in the details and the closer and farther we extend our observations of gravity the more we are convinced we have more to learn.  For example:  The planetary orbits are widening faster than the Sun is losing mass by radiating energy.  We can not explain why?
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-  Another example comes from photons traveling through the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation somehow carry twice as much energy as we calculate.
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-  And, there is the proposal that the gravity force is weaker because it exists in extra dimensions beyond the three “space” dimensions and the one “time” dimension we are familiar with.  Maybe there are 6 more dimensions that gravity is leaking into?
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-  Stay in school, we need more knowledge than we have if we are ever going to understand this stuff that we consider fundamental properties of Nature.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about gravity:
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-  #1875  -  Planck’s Constant, 6.625*10^-34 Joules*seconds, is the uniform ratio of the energy of one photon to electromagnetic radiation and the frequency of that radiation.
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-  #1875  -  Footnotes  list 17 other reviews about gravity, mass, and light.
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-  #1870  -  Are the smallest scales of gravity granular?  Are there force carrier particles called “ Gravitons”?
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-  #1751  -  Einstein’s Theory of Gravity.  A spinning massive body pulls space-time along with it like a spoon stirring honey.  The spinning system can radiate gravity waves.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about “space“:
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-  #1861  -  Today the curvature of space tells us that 96% of the Universe is composed of unknown Dark Matter and Dark Energy.
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-  #1861  -  Footnotes list 5 more reviews about space.
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-  #1831  The space between galaxies contains only a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.
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-  #1790  -  Space bends and time slows.
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-  #1407 -   Space is anything but empty.
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-  #1241  -  How can space and time even be related?  Space is what gives objects and events relative position and direction.  Space is part of a boundless 4 dimensional continuum of space-time
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-  #1241 -  Footnotes lists 14 other reviews about “ space-time”.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about “time“:
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-  #1774  -  Time, we can’t live without it.  Quantum uncertainties state the future is not determined until it happens.
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-  #1758  -  Time is a mystery.  The events in our lives undeniable for a uni-directional sequence.
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-  #1735  -  We are running out of time.  Optical clocks are so good we can see the effects of relativity slowing down time in the lab.
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-  #1735  -  Footnotes lists 16 other reviews about “ time”.  Are we really expanding into space or are we falling into something else?  Time is a measure of change and if nothing changes time is done.  Can time even exist without space?
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-  #842  Let’s say the Big Bang happened on January 1st and we compressed known history into the same year.  This review is the history of the Universe.
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-  #743  -  Time is what God created to keep everything from happening all at once.
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-  #1808  -  The Universal Calendar from 10^-43 seconds to 15 billion years in 5 pages.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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What we know about the expansion of the Universe?

-  1884  -

What we know about the expansion of the Universe?  Making accurate distance measurements to stars and galaxies is an amazing challenge for astronomers.  This review discusses how we got to what we think we know about the Universe’s expansion and what could be causing it.
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------------  1884  -  What we know about the expansion of the Universe?
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-  We know the Universe is expanding at an ever faster rate.  What is causing this expansion?  We don’t know.  We call it the repulsive pressure of “Dark Energy“.  What is it expanding in to?  We don’t know.  We call it “past the edge of the Observable Universe“.  This review is about how we know what we think we know about the expanding Universe.
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-  It was in the 1920’s that Henrietta Leavitt discovered that some stars pulsate and the faster they pulsate the brighter they are.  Knowing their distance we could calculated their intrinsic brightness.  Once intrinsic brightness is known we can calculate other unknown distances:
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---------------------  Apparent Brightness  =  Intrinsic Brightness  /  4 * pi * (distance)^2
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---------------------  Distance ^2  =  Intrinsic Brightness  /  Apparent Brightness  * 4 * pi
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-  Space is expanding between those galaxies that are close enough together to be gravitationally locked.  If galaxies are separated by enough space then Dark Energy overpowers gravity and their separation accelerates.  The Milky Way Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy are gravitationally locked and these two galaxies will merge in about 5 billion years from now.  Galaxies further away will be flying away from us.
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-  Gravity is a force that falls off, weakens, with the square of the distance of separation
 ( r ).
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------------------------  F  =  G *m*M  /  r^2
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-  Dark Energy is a repulsive force that remains constant with distance.  Or, possibly even increases with distance.  The Universe is expanding and may be even be expanding at an ever increasing acceleration of expansion.
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-  How do we know this?
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-  We are saying that the faster galaxies are away the faster they are moving away.  Eventually all these galaxies will be so far away their constant speed of light will never reach us.  Unless galaxies are gravitationally locked and merging they will all disappear from sight.
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-  How do we measure these distances and the receding velocity of these stars?  We measure the brightness of exploding stars.
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-  Since 1995 observations of distant supernovae have convinced astronomers that galaxies are speeding away from us at an accelerating rate.  Edwin Hubble taught us in 1923 that galaxies were receding.  The further away the faster they were receding, but we did not know that this rate was accelerating.  Empty space is growing in volume.  The more volume the faster space grows.
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-  Astronomers calculate distances by measuring the brightness of a “ known “ light source residing in the galaxy.  Astronomers measure the receding velocity by the redshift ( Doppler shift) of the wavelengths of a known light element.  The acceleration conclusion came from the discovery that exploding stars are dimmer than expected and therefore more distant than expected.
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-  Could this conclusion be incorrect?  Could it be that the supernovae themselves are not as “ bright “ as expected?
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-  This scenario happened to astronomers once before:  In 1923 Edwin Hubble measuring “spiral nebulae” thought to be inside our Milky Way galaxy.  At the time we thought everything , the universe, was inside our galaxy alone.  Hubble was studying “ nova’ , variable stars, and these spiral nebulae not realizing they were actually other galaxies outside our own.
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-  The variable stars were Cepheid stars.  An astronomer , Henrietta Leavitt, discovered that Cepheids get brighter- and -dimmer with a certain “period”.  If we measure the period we know the Intrinsic brightness of the Cepheid. By measuring several Cepheids we can develop an ( Apparent Brightness  /  Distance)  relationship.
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-  Hubble used this relationship to calculate the distances to these “spiral nebulae”.  Hubble used his distance measurements combined with “ redshifts” of light to derive the rate of expansion, the more distant the galaxies the faster they were moving away.
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-  His calculations were correct in theory but incorrect in magnitude.  His problem was there were two types of Cepheids and he was only using the type Henrietta was studying.  This made his calculations for the rate of expansion to be far too high.  Hubble later corrected his mistake and the rate of expansion is today known as the “ Hubble Constant”
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--------------------  Hubble Constant  =  h  =  50,245 miles per hour per million light years.
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-  Today’s Constant comes from measuring Type 1a Supernovae explosions, not only Cepheid variable stars because they get too dim in distant galaxies.  Supernovae shine brighter, for a short time, than their entire galaxy.  They can be observed over billions of light years distance.  ( Cepheids  are able to be seen over only  millions of lightyears distance)
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-  Our distance measurements depend on the light-curve ( brightness versus time) of a Type 1a Supernovae , that is a fusion reaction of a White Dwarf star exploding at 1.4 Solar Mass.
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-  By 1995 enough of these measurements were made of supernovae that astronomers were convinced the universe is expanding at an ever increasing acceleration.  They do not know what or how but there is a “Dark Energy” of repulsive force that dominates the Universe.
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-  These distance conclusions depend on a White Dwarf star accreting matter from a companion star.  But, could the same supernovae explosion occur by the collision and merger of two White Dwarf stars?  Are there two different brightness’s to take into account just like the different Cepheids?
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-  Could the distant supernovae be a different composition than those measured closer where distances are well known.    Earlier stars did not have the heavier elements in their composition because these heavier elements are only created in supernovae explosions.
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-  Could the enormous distances of light travel be dimming the light.  Intergalactic dust or some other light dimming property could cause this.  ( photon-axion interactions).
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-  Could there be two types of Type 1a Supernova.  One a little brighter in the blue, ultraviolet side of the spectrum.  The other a little brighter in the red, infrared side of the spectrum.  Are these two light curves slightly different?  Higher redshifts could be intrinsically fainter and not farther away?
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-  Never the less, astronomers have looked at every angle and concluded the Universe is expanding 7% faster than previously calculated.  It was 47,000 miles per hour per million lightyears.  The new calculation is 50,245 miles per hour per million lightyears, +or -  2.4% uncertainty.
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-  The 50,245 mph is the calculation using 2,400 Cepheids measured in 19 galaxies and 300 Type 1a supernovae.  To add to this there is a totally different measurement using the “ Cosmic Microwave Background” radiation.  Recognizing the pattern in the radiation background to be the result of quantum fluctuations occurring in the plasma shortly after the Big Bang.  That pattern has expanded into the pattern we see today.
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-  The CMB calculations are that the Universe is 68% repulsive Dark Energy accelerating the expansion of the Universe.  Gravity needed to reverse this comes from only 5% Normal Matter and 27% Dark Matter.  The Supernovae calculations listed above have the composition of the Universe at 75% repulsive Dark Energy.
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-  One more angle for these distance calculations comes from the discovery that there are clusters of galaxies occurring 500  million lightyears apart.  The theory is that Normal Matter gets pushed out by radiation while Dark Matter does not.  The result is cosmic waves called “ Baryon Acoustic Oscillations”  ( BAO).  Baryons are the name given for protons and neutrons combined.
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-  The 500 million lightyear pattern becomes a “ standard ruler” to  measure cosmic distances.  Using this measurement astronomers calculate that the Universe is 70% Dark Energy.
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-  All three methods of distance measurements are approaching the same answer, the Universe is accelerating its expansion due to Dark Energy repulsive force occupying all free space.  More accurate measurements will bring these percentages closer together, 68%,  70%, 75% (  CMB, BAO, Supernovae ).
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-  OK, regardless, what is causing this repulsive force?  Here are 3 theories:
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--------------- Could it be undiscovered hyper-fast particles called “ sterile neutrinos”?  These particles could have a greater effect in early expansion and a lesser value in local expansion.
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---------------  Could gravity not always follow the General Theory of Relativity?  Do we need to modify Einstein’s equations for gravity and the warping of space-time?
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----------------  Could we just be dealing with systematic errors and wider uncertainties in our distance measurements?  95% of the Universe emits zero light.  Its existence is only surmised by its gravitational influence on visible galaxies.  What we are observing took 13.77 billion years to get here.  A lot of things could have happened in that amount of time..  We are still learning. Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Dark Energy and Cepheids and Type 1a Supernovae.:
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-  #1864  -  How is Dark Energy expanding the Universe?  Listing 7 other Reviews on this topic.
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-  #1055  -  Cepheids used to discover America.
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-  #1881  -  Supernovae are like snow flakes.  Listing 9 other Reviews about supernovae.
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Saturday, June 11, 2016  -----
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Venus passed in front of the Sun

 - 1480   - Venus passed in front of the Sun on June 5, 2012.  Called a transit, it will not do it again until 2117.  Here is the math used to calculate how long the transit will last, 6.7 hours.
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---------  #1480  - Venus passed in front of the Sun on June 5, 2012.   
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-  Venus has not crossed the face of the Sun since 1882.  It transited the Sun again in 2012, June 5th.  We are fortunate in the U.S. to be on the sun-facing side when this happens.  The Venus transit will not happen again until 2117, someone needs to take notes for me.  I will miss this one.
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-  (See footnote 1 for the years of Venus’ transits).  On Tuesday, June 5, Venus crossed from one edge of the Sun to the other.  It takes 6.7 hours.  You need a welder’s mask or eclipse glasses to witness it.
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-  There is a lot of interesting math involved.  One equation is used to learn the distance from the Earth to Venus.  We use the “ small angle formula” to do these calculations.
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------------------------------------  angle arc seconds  =  206,265 Diameter / Distance
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------------------------------------  angle in radians  =  57.2958 Diameter / Distance
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-  This equation works because for very small angles the cosine = 1   The sine and tangent = the angle.  And, one complete circle is 2*pi radians  =  360 degrees.  1 radian = 57.3 degrees.  An example of how small an angle one arc second is the angular diameter of a tennis ball 8 miles away.
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-  The Moon is about ½ angular degree.  The Sun is about the same size in the sky as evidenced by a total eclipse.  The angular degree of the Sun is 0.5244 degrees.  The diameter of the Sun is 139,000 kilometers.
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------------------  0.5244 angular degrees * 3600 =  1,888 arc seconds.
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-  The diameter of Venus as it transit’s the Sun is 58.6 arc seconds , which about 3% of the total transit distance.  The diameter of Venus is 12,600 kilometers.  Using the equation above to calculate the distance to Venus:
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-------------------------  Distance  =  206,265  /  58.6  *  12,600 kilometers.
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------------------------  Venus Distance  =  44.3 million kilometers
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------------------------  Venus Distance  =  27.6 million miles.
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---------------------  Earth is 149.6 million kilometers from the Sun
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--------------------  Venus is 108.2 million kilometers from the Sun
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--------------------  Distance from Earth to Venus when they are lined up with the Sun  =  149.6  -  108.2  =  41.4 kilometers.
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-  How long does it take Venus to transit completely across the face of the Sun as viewed from the Earth?  How fast is Venus and Earth traveling?
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-  If we assume the planets orbit in perfect circles the travel distance is 2 * pi * radius.  The time for the Earth is one year to complete one orbit.
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---------------  Earth travels  =  2 * pi * 149.6 million km  =  940 million km, or 584 million miles.
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---------------  Earth year  =  365.24 days * 24 * 3600  =  31.6 million seconds.
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----------------  Earth speed =  distance / time  =  940 / 31.6  =  29.7 km / sec, or 66,543 miles per hour.
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---------------  Venus travels  =  2* pi * 108.2 million km  =  680 million km
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---------------  Venus year  =  224.7 days * 24 * 3600  =  19.4 million seconds.
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-----------------  Venus speed  =  680 / 19.4  =  35 km / sec,  or,  78,410 miles per hour.
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-  The difference in the speed of Venus to the speed of the Earth  =  35 - 29.7  =  5.3 km/sec.
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-  Traveling at 5.3 km / sec how long does it take to cross the diameter of the Sun, 139,000 km?
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----------------  Time  =  Distance / time  =  139,000 /  5.3  =  26,264 seconds
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----------------  Time to travel diameter  =  7.3 hours.
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-  The transit on June 5, 2012 does not cross a perfect diameter.  The transit time crossing the cord of the circle is 24,000 seconds or 6.7 hours.  Did you miss it?  It will not happen again until 2117. 
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-  (1) Years Venus transit across the Sun occurs:   1631, 1629, 1761, 1769, 1874, 1882, 2012, 2117, 2125, 2247, 2255, 2360, 2368.  Occurring in the months of June and December.
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 -----   707-536-3272    -----------------   Wednesday, June 8, 2016  -----
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Fundamental particles and the 5th Force Carrier?

-  1883  -  Fundamental particles and the 5th Force Carrier?  Particles coming from the Sun.  New fundamental particles and possibly a discovery of a 5th fundamental force carrier.  May be our first glimpse into the composition of Dark Matter.
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------------  1883  -  Fundamental particles and the 5th Force- Carrier?
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-    Our Sun sends a cloud of charged particles at us every day.  Called the “ Coronal Mass Ejections”.  These charged particles enter the upper atmosphere but are re-directed to the magnetic North and South poles by the Earth’s magnetic field.  We see evidence of this in the dancing Northern Lights.  Other evidence of a disrupted magnetic field shows up in satellite and communication blackouts, electric power grid outages, and maybe a few DNA mutations.
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-  These particles would be deadly if they all got to the surface of the Earth directly.  But, the weaker radiation could actually have helped the evolution of life 4 billion years ago.  Back then the young Sun was 30% fainter but still warm enough for water to remain liquid on the surface.  This was even helped by the Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.  Violent volcanic activity produced enough carbon dioxide to make up any heat deficits through the Greenhouse effect.
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-  Another Greenhouse gas contributor was nitrous oxide, “ laughing gas”.  It is 300 times more effective than CO2, carbon dioxide.  Even today nitrous oxide levels surge higher in the upper atmosphere due to summer lightning storms.
-
-  Some of the charged particles are positive protons.  Some are negative electrons.  The electrons are “ fundamental “ particles.  The protons and neutrons are made up of 3 Quarks each and the Quarks are “ fundamental” particles.
-
-  Fundamental particles are thought to not be built out of any smaller units.  And, each particle of a given type are precisely identical to each other.  For example: any two electrons will always produce the same result.
-
-  Light is made of particles called “photons”.  Particles can change type under certain circumstances.  Radioactive Beta Decay has a neutron changing into a proton plus an electron and another fundamental particle called an anti-neutrino.  If an electron meets a positron the two annihilate each other leaving Gamma Rays, and a whole slew of new particles.
-
-  Making a particle requires energy proportional to its mass ( E = mc^2).  Photons are the easiest to make because they have no mass.  The Higgs Boson on the other hand requires a huge amount of energy.
-
-  You can create photons by accelerating electrons through a magnetic field.  When the electrons approach each other they stir up the electromagnetic field creating photons like ripples on a pond.  The photons in turn push the electrons apart.  “ Like charges repel each other”.
-
-  Electrons are particles but they are simultaneously waves in an electric field.  Photons travel freely through space as a wave even though they can be counted as though they were particles.
-
-  Until physics comes up with something better we are stuck with particles, waves, and fields that carry them to describe what we observe is going on.
-
-  Physics may be on the verge of discovering a new force, and therefore, a new force carrier.  Today we describe the world with 4 forces, gravity, electromagnetism, strong and weak nuclear forces.
-
-  Gravity holds planets and galaxies together.
-
-  Electromagnetic forces hold atoms and molecules together.
-
-  The strong force holds atomic nuclei together.
-
-  The weak force holds neutrons together until radioactive decay creates a proton, electron and an anti-neutrino.
-
-  Photons are force carriers for electromagnetic forces.
-
-  Gluons are force carriers for the strong force.
-
-  Bosons carry the weak force.
-
-  Science may have found a 5th force by firing protons at the atom lithium-7.  This new boson is 34 times heavier than the electron.
-
-  Could such a particle explain Dark Matter?
-
-  Is there such a thing as a Dark photon?  This could be the force carrier for Dark Matter?
-
-  This experiment that is being repeated by  physicists all over the world firing  protons at a lithium-7 target creating beryllium-8 nuclei which decays into pairs of electrons and positrons.  The debris showed evidence of another particle with energies of 17  mega-electron volts.
-
-  This new force carrier could be a new fundamental force.  This could be a glimpse into the physics of the Dark Universe, that is:   Dark Matter and Dark Energy that make up 95% of the mass-energy in the total Universe.  This invisible Universe has been detected only by gravity.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about particle physics:
-
-  #  1868  -  What do Neutron lifetimes have to do with it?
-
-  #1848  -  Particle physics, a history lesson.  Also lists 7 other reviews on the subject.
-
-  #1799  -  Primer on particle physics.
-
-  #1136  -  The whole world is only six particles.
-
-  # 977  -   Fermions and bosons.
-
-  #973  -  Physics in a nutshell
-
-  #632 -   The force carriers
-
-  #1217  - How to find the Higgs Boson.
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Supernovae are like snowflakes. No two are alike.

-  1881  -  Supernovae are like snowflakes.  No two are alike.  Yet, we try to use a special type of supernovae explosion as a “standard candle“, a known brightness that can be used to calculate distance.  However, supernovae, in general, can be 100 times brighter and 100 times dimmer than the average supernovae explosion.
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------------  1881  -  Supernovae are like snowflakes.
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-  Astronomers use supernovae explosions as “ standard candles” and use the brightness to calculate the distance to the source.  This calculation works only if the brightness is really predictable and the space travel is clear of dust.  The brightness gets spread, gets dimmer, over the area of the expanding sphere.  Area of a sphere is 4*pi*r^2
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---------------------  The measured brightness  =  1.0 *10^-12 watts / meter^2
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---------------------  The assumed Luminosity   =  3.8 * 10^36 watts
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----------------------  Brightness =  Luminosity  /  4*pi*(distance)^2
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-----------------------  Distance^2  =  Luminosity  /  4*pi* ( brightness measured)
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---------------------  Distance ^2  =  3.8*10^36  /  4*pi* 10^-12  meters^2
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-----------------------  d^2  =  0.3*10^48  meters^2
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-----------------------  d   =  0.55*10^24 meters
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------------------------  one light year  =  9.5 *10^16 meters
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-----------------------  d  =  5.8 *10^6 lightyears
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-  The distance to the supernovae source is 5.8 million lightyears.
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-  There is another standard candle that is used in these distance calculations.  Called a “Cepheid Variable” star.  This is a young star that pulses at regular intervals.  The pulse rate can be used to estimate the brightness, or Luminosity.  However, these stars are too dim to be seen in far away galaxies.  But, they can be used to calculate distances to a near galaxy, and a supernova in that galaxy and be used to develop a light curve of a supernova explosion at a known distance.  And, that can be used for calculating distances to far away galaxies.
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-  Supernovae have enormous brightness and can be seen in the farthest galaxies.  A particular type of supernova , known a Type 1a, have a unique brightness curve (brightness amplitude versus time) and emit the same amount of light each time.
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-  Astronomers theorize that this uniform explosion occurs when a White-Dwarf star is feeding off a companion until it triggers a thermo-nuclear explosion at exactly 1.4 times Solar Mass.  ( See reviews listed at the end to get the explanation as to why this occurs, called the “ Chandrasekhar Limit”.)
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-  However, new data indicates that this type explosion may be also caused by the merger of two White Dwarf stars.  The luminosity may be greater under this other scenario.  The light we see from these explosions is the result of radioactive decay.  Certain isotopes like Nickel-56 decay into Coblalt-56 and then into the more stable iron isotope, Fe-56.
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-  Supernovae explosions reach a peak brightness in a few days then decay in brightness to a sharp reduction in 500 days.
-
-  Recently Supernova SN2012cg was discovered that did not follow this pattern.  It somehow continued to shine brighter.  One possible explanation is that astronomers are seeing a light echo.  Light is bouncing off a large dust cloud so we are seeing the brightness twice.
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-  A second explanation is that the explosion produces heavier isotope, Colbalt-57, which takes longer to decay to Cobalt-56.  This process could provide extra energy to the explosion.  Thus an un- standard candle needs to be used carefully in calculating distances.
-
-  Astronomers need answers to these theories if distance calculations are to be accurate.  They are intently studying the chemical composition of supernovae, especially those close to Earth that have known distance measurements.
-
-  Supernova SN2012cg is roughly 50 million lightyears away.  When the brightness abruptly decays after 500 days it is believed to occur at the half life of the Nickel isotope,
 Ni-56, when it transitions into the stable iron isotope, Fe-56.
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-  To get distance measurements we are studying a particular type of supernova.  However, in general, observing all other types of supernovae we begin to realize they are like snow flakes, no two are alike.  On average, there is one supernova explosion in the Observable Universe per day.
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-  The first supernova documented occurred A.D. 1006 by Chinese observers, we can call them naked eye astronomers.  Then, Tycho Brahe recorded a supernova in 1572.  Johannes Kepler recorded another in 1602.  Today astronomers are using robotic, high resolution digital cameras, then , computerized image processing and pattern recognition covering large swaths of the night sky.  Now, we are discovering thousands of supernovae every year.
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-  Supernovae can shine brighter than a billion suns.  Some are 100 times brighter and others 100 times dimmer than average.  Some shine in the infrared and others in the ultraviolet.  Some shine for years others only for a few days.  Understanding the physics going on with all of this variety is challenging.
-
-  The Big Bang created hydrogen and helium, everything else in the Periodic Table of Elements was created in supernovae explosions.  These dying stars created the elements that make up our world.  The theory is that different varieties of supernovae created different squares of elements found in the Periodic Table.
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-  The most common supernovae is a star that is 10 times the mass of the Sun and that have lifetimes of millions of years.  Our Sun of one Solar Mass has a lifetime of 10 billion years.  The 10 Solar Mass star fuses heavier elements until it reaches the element iron where fusion processes must stop.  Gravity collapses the star once fusion radiation pressure quits.  It looses 1 million fold in volume becoming a Neutron Star that is only 3 miles in diameter.  The energy released blows the rest of the star and the many elements into space.
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-  The total energy of the Sun that is burning for 10 billion years is released in a few seconds.  The Neutron star at the core reaches 5 billion degrees F.  The blast wave travels into space at 20 million miles per hour, 3% the speed of light.
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-  The above description is a theoretical “ average” of a wide variety of supernovae explosions.  Those that are 100 times brighter than average need a different explanation.  Here are some of the theories of how these enormous energies could be attained.
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----------------------  Stars that are unusually large 150 to 250 Solar Mass.  The cores under the enormous gravity get so hot to produce matter-anti-matter particle pairs.  The sudden energy release would collapse and explode the star “ completely”.
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----------------------  Stars 70 to 150 Solar Mass may collapse, rebound, halt the nuclear reaction for a time, then re-expand and go through several of these cycles expelling debris out in shells.  Later explosions could smash into these shells creating extremely bright supernovae.
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----------------------  Another theory does not require extremely massive stars.  Maybe 10 Solar Mass with a Neutron star rotating to extreme speeds, 1,000 rotations per second.  This could create an immense magnetic field.  The spin energy could cause the debris cloud to shine a million times brighter.  This event is called a “ Magnetar”.
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-  At the opposite end of the supernovae spectrum there are some theories of how these supernovae could be 100 times dimmer than average:
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----------------------  Stars that are 300 to 1,000 Solar mass.  You might expect these supernovae would  be the biggest and brightest , but, the opposite could happen. The gravity could be so immense that the collapse becomes a Blackhole and much of the explosion disappears from sight.  The supernova seen is from the halo of hydrogen gas that heats up and blows away.
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----------------------  Another creation of a Blackhole may come from the collision of two Neutron stars. The pair spiral into each other as their orbit decays due the emission of gravitational waves.  1% of the merger gets transmitted into space, 99% gets sucked into a Blackhole.  The 1% debris could contain the heaviest elements like gold, platinum, and mercury, radioactive uranium and thorium.  The glow of the debris field would be 100 times dimmer than the average supernova.
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-  The gold on your finger may have this history.  The supernovae debris cloud traveling 60 million  miles per hour over 1,000 lightyears eventually settling into the curst of the planet Earth.  It could happen.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-  #1699  -  Betelgeuse is 640 lightyears away.  It is a 20 Solar Mass Red Supergiant star that could go supernova tomorrow.
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-  #1698  -  For every 1 million miles of space galaxies are receding each other by 47,000 miles per hour.
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-  #1684  -  What does a supernova explosion sound like?
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-  #1566  -  Supernovae are what we are made of.  Gamma Ray bursts occur about once a day in the Observable Universe.
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-  #1411  -  The brightness also depends on the proportion m-of metals in the star.
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-  #1320  -   Supernova SN1006.
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-  #1308  -  Supernova Tycho Brahe of 1572
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-  #831  -  Supernova 1987A
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-  #579  -  Exploding stars create life, destroy life.
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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Could Blackholes explain Dark Matter?

-  1882  -  Could Blackholes explain Dark Matter?  More evidence that an expanding Universe is accelerating, but, also that super massive Blackholes are suppressing new star formation.  A new theory has galaxies embedded in a halo of Blackholes that could account for Dark Matter.
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------------  1882  -  Could Blackholes explain Dark Matter?
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-  We live in a expanding Universe.  All the galaxies are flying away from each other.  The question always is, “ What are they expanding in to?”  “ Is there an edge?”
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-  We do have an edge for the “ observable Universe”.  Light has been traveling for 13.77 billion years.  So, at 13.77 billion light years there is an edge that is as far as we can see.  Light beyond that has not have had enough time to reach us, yet.
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-  We think we are in the center because everything is moving away from us.  However, put yourself anywhere else in the Universe and you sense the same thing.  It is the fact that in between ALL the galaxies the space is expanding and those galaxies are moving apart.
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-  There are a few exceptions where the force of gravity is overpowering the local area pressure from Dark Energy.  But, that is just “ local”.  The force of gravity falls off as the square of distance.  Dark Energy pressure remains constant even growing with the greater volumes of space.  Dark Energy is winning over Gravity.
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-  So, what is the Universe expanding into?  Only time.  In the Universe space expands into time.  So, is there an edge to time?
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-  Also, the Universe is expanding at an accelerating rate, distance divided by time squared. ( a = d / t^2).  Is there an edge to the rate of acceleration?  Astronomers have created a 3-D map of 3,000 galaxies that are 13 billion light years away.  ( The Observable Universe is 13.77 billion light years away, in all directions).  The data is from the Fiber Multi-Object Spectrograph on Subaru Telescope studying galaxies billions of lightyears distant.
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-  In addition to confirming expanding acceleration this same survey has uncovered why star producing galaxies cease to create new stars.  Star systems go dormant because low energy, super massive Blackholes produce interstellar winds of heat and intensity that suppress star formation.  It is this galactic warming that turns active galaxies into  sleeping, quiescent star system.
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-  Stars form from gas, but, the gas has to cool down in order to condense into matter.  This galactic warming suppresses this process from happening.
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-  Blackholes are not only at the center of galaxies.  The entire galaxy itself may be embedded in a halo, a vast sphere of Blackholes each about 30 times the mass of the Sun.  27% of the mass of the Universe is “ Dark Matter”.  Astronomers do not know what this is?  The leading theory was that Dark Mater was composed of a new particle that does not interact with electromagnetic force but does interact with gravity force.
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-  But, these mysterious particles have yet to be detected.  A new theory is evolving.  Could Dark Matter be primordial Blackholes that formed in the first seconds of the Big Bang?  That would mean that our Milky Way Galaxy is surrounded by a sphere of Blackholes.
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-  Astronomers recently detected a background glow in the infrared that had the same “patchy” pattern in the X-Ray spectrum.  The only objects that are luminous across this wide of an energy range are Blackholes.
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-  LIGO, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory, recently detected gravity waves emitted by a pair of merging Blackholes , each about 30 Solar Mass.  If there are many of these then the 27% Dark Matter may be made up of these primordial Blackholes.  Every galaxy may exist within a halo of Blackholes all about this same size.
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-  Similar to the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation that has been studied over the past 50 years, the 2005 discovery has a 13 billion year old Cosmic Infrared background radiation with the same” patchy structure”.   Then in 2013 a similar matching, “patchy pattern” was discovered in a Cosmic X-ray background.  The patchiness would have originated in quantum fluctuations when the particles first formed in the Big Bang and then have expanded to this size.
-
-  The first stars after the Big Bang emitted optical and ultraviolet light.  Ultraviolet wavelengths traveling  through space are stretched in expanding space and would be in the infrared today.  X-Rays can only be explained if Blackholes were abundant among these earliest stars.
-
-  LIGO’s detection occurred September 14, 2015.  The merging Blackholes were 1.3 billion lightyears away.  The masses of the pair were 29 and 36 Solar Mass ( + or - 4 SM).  These could be primordial Blackholes.  Primordial means they would have been created within the first 500 million years of the Universe.  During that time the temperatures were too high for Normal Matter to coalesce.  However, Dark matter could have collapsed into mini-halos during that time.
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-  Matter falling into Blackholes heats up to produce X-Rays.  The first stars produced infrared.  The two together could explain this patchiness in the Cosmic Background having both these frequencies.
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-  Blackholes that get close enough together get gravitationally captured into a binary system.  Emitting gravitational waves of radiation causes their orbits to loose energy and spiral into each other.  Eventually merging into a single Blackhole.
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-  Many more observations are needed to give these theories credence.  Now that LIGO has made its first detections we are hoping for many more to follow.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Blackholes:
-
-  #1869  -  Blackhole mysteries, how big can they get.
-
-  # 1843  to  #453  there are 24 more reviews about Blackholes.  Request the index of Reviews for details.
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Jupiter gets another visitor.

-  1880  -  Jupiter gets another visitor.  By far our largest planet,  still holds many mysteries.  We will be visiting again with a spacecraft July , 2016.  Here is some of what we know and what we hope to discover with the Juno Space Mission.
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------------  1880  -  Jupiter gets another visitor.
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-  Everyone knows the planet Jupiter is the largest planet in our Solar System.  The most massive, the fastest rotating, the most magnetism, the most satellites at 67.  Jupiter is 318 times the mass of the Earth.  Its volume is 1,400 times that of Earth.
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-  Yet, beneath those swirling colorful clouds lies  many secrets.  A space probe in 1995 descending through the atmosphere into 23 times Earth’s atmospheric pressure.  It was expected to pass through 3 layers of atmosphere, Ammonia ( NH3), Ammonia Hydrosulfide ( NH4SH), and water ( H2O).  The biggest surprise was the lack of a water cloud layer in this particular descent.  Also, astronomers expected to find between  3% to 13% by mass of elements heavier than helium.  That is wide range demonstrating our lack of knowledge of Jupiter’s composition and weather.
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-  Textbooks today give Jupiter a small solid rock core, with ice, then a layer of molecular hydrogen.  It is this metallic hydrogen that creates the planet’s large magnetic field.  The massive planet spins one rotation every 10 hours.  Infrared wavelengths are not reflected sunlight but gas emissions form below the upper clouds.
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-  The strong magnetosphere around Jupiter has rapped electrons around the equator that are reaching a million electron volts (1 MeV).  This magnetosphere stretches all the way to the moon , Io.  Io orbits ever 42 hours.  The strong gravity variations  create volcanic activity releasing sulfur dioxide.  The magnetic forces separate these  neutral atoms in to ionized sulfur and oxygen atoms.  This huge “ doughnut “ of charged particles radiate 1 ½ terawatts of ultraviolet energy.
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-  There are intense aurora emissions in the upper atmosphere that span the spectrum from X-rays to radio wavelengths ( like the Northern Lights at Earth’s North Pole).  These aurora stretch all the way to Io.  This Jupiter-Io connection is the source of radio bursts that astronomers have been monitoring for decades.  These electric fields carry millions of amperes of electric current.
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-  The Juno spacecraft will arrive and attain a Jupiter orbit in July, 2016.  53 day orbits will slowly descend to 14 day orbits.  It will use Doppler Shifts of radio transmissions from Juno to map the planet’s uneven gravity field and internal mass distribution.  It will measurer the energy in these auroras, positive ions 5eV to 50 KeV and electron charges 100eV to 100 Kev.
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-  Juno will measure the upper layers of atmosphere detecting CH4, H2O, NH3, PH3 molecules.  It will map the magnetic field, measure the electromagnetic waves form 600 Mhz to 22 Ghz, and the H2O and NH3 concentrations in each layer of atmosphere.  Provide ultraviolet spectrometer images and a distribution of the radio and plasma waves.
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-  All, if all goes well.  Wish Juno luck.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Jupiter:
-
-   #1175  -    The 4 moons of Jupiter.  Ganymede would be a planet if it were circling the Sun instead of Jupiter.  Callisto is about the size of Mercury.
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-  # 927  -  Europa is 90% the size of our Moon.  It has an ocean of liquid water beneath its icy crust.
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-  #797  -  Jupiter has rings.  11 Earth diameters span Jupiter’s 88,846 mile diameter.
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-  #29  -  Our gaseous planets.  Four pages of statistics comparing the 4 planets.
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