Plank Telescope sees the beginning of light.

-  1653 -  Discoveries of Planck Telescope on Universe Evolution.  The data collected tells astronomers how old the Universe is and its composition today.  95% of this composition is “ dark” , unknown to science.  With these parameters they can still simulate the expansion of the Universe to what we see today.
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---------------------  -  -  1653 -  Discoveries of Planck Telescope on Universe Evolution-
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-  February 24, 2014, Sonoma State University lecture, Charles Lawrence, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, “The universe according to Planck”.
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-.  Planck is a  telescope that sees the Cosmic Microwave Background light that has traveled 13,800,000,000 lightyears to reach us.  We see the picture of the Universe 380,000 years after the Big Bang.
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-.  The Planck Telescope is orbiting the Sun along with the Earth at an altitude of 930,000 miles.  This spot is called L2, Lagrangian Point 2.  It is a point in space where the gravity of the Sun and the gravity  of the Earth just cancel.
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-.  Launched in May, 2009 it started to survey the sky in February, 2010.  After 3 1/2 years of data collection it was decommissioned October, 2013.
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-.  The telescope rotated one revolution per minute and scanned a beam 5 arc minutes wide across the entire sky, 360 degrees.  After six months of scanning it had captured the radiation of the entire sphere of the sky over the frequency range from 30 to 857 gigahertz.  Actually, 9 specific frequencies over that range.
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-.  The cosmic microwave background radiation covers a range from 60 to 600 gigahertz, this corresponds to wavelengths from 0.5 to 0.05 centimeter wavelengths.  The peak amplitude of the signal is at 270  gigahertz ,or, ¼  electron volts.
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-.  13.8 billion years ago the Big Bang occurred.  The Universe was a sea of hot plasma, charged particles, no light could escape this expanding ball of plasma,  until 370,000 years later it had cooled down from the 100,000,000 degrees Kelvin to 3,000 degrees Kelvin.
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-  3,000 degrees Kelvin is a low enough temperature for protons to start capturing electrons and become neutral atoms.  When this happened photons of light were no longer being bounced between charged particles and could escape into outer space.  That light is the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation, CMB , that we see today.
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-.  The CMB was measured at the Lagrangian 2, point in space because at 930,000 miles altitude it was a point where the Sun and the Earth's gravity canceled.   This meant that a very low amount of energy was needed to hold the telescope in place.  Secondly, L2 was in Earth's shadow blocking most of the Sun's radiation.
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-  The bolometric detectors used to measure this CMB radiation only work at the lowest possible temperatures, near absolute zero, -273 degrees C.  Even then all the noise in temperature variations caused by the Sun, by the galaxies , by dust, by the instruments themselves,,,………. had to be subtracted from the data in order to see the cosmic microwave background radiation.
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-  The Lagrangian points in space were first calculated by Joseph- Louis Lagrange, ( 1736 to 1813), the youngest of 11 children born in the a Italian Kingdom of Piedmont.  He read an essay by Halley and got infatuated with a calculus that studied paths of the comets.  He became a geometry teacher.  His math skills eventually led him to become the head of the Berlin Academy.  His book, ‘Analytical Mechanics“, was published in 1788.  Newton's laws for gravity worked for 2 bodies.  But what was the math needed to deal with 3 bodies i.e. the Sun, the Earth, the Moon, or Jupiter?  His calculations came up with the 5 Lagrangian points that satellites use today.  He worked with Laplace in 1795 to devise the Metric System of units we used today.
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-.  Lagrange’s  math identified 5 points where the gravitational forces of the Sun and the Earth came into balance.  Like currents in the ocean that cross, cancel each other out, and collective floating trash, the Lagrange point 1 is in between the Earth and the Sun where their gravity's cancel.  This is a good place to park a spacecraft because they can hold stable orbits with minimal outside forces, (rocket boosters).  The Solar Heliocentric Observatory spacecraft is parked there now, SOHO.
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-  Lagrange point 2 puts the Earth in the middle with L2 on the outside of a straight line connecting the Earth and the Sun.  The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, WMAP, is parked there.  So is the Planck telescope.
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-.  Max Carl Ernst Ludwig Planck, 1858 to 1947, studied in Munich with Hertz and Kirchhoff.  In 1880 Planck joined the faculty.  His research worked on the Blackbody Problem.  Why does a Blackbody absorb low frequencies but not high-frequency radiation?  His math gave a solution by quantifying absorption in “quanta” instead of in  continuous wave of energy.  The size of the quanta was proportional to the frequency of the radiation.  Violet light contains twice the energy as red light.  He solved the problem by showing that higher frequencies radiation requires more energy.  The small constant in the equation for the ratio of frequency to energy quanta became known as Planck's Constant of Action, E = h*f.
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--------------------  h  =  6.6*10^-34 (kilogram*meter^2) / seconds
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- In 1905 Einstein used this concept to describe the Photoelectric Effect.  In 1913 Bohr used it in the quantum theory of the atom.  Today the math is known as Quantum Mechanics.  In 1918 Planck received the Nobel Prize in Physics.
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-  The Planck telescope parked at L2 was cooled to -273.05 C, it was the coolest object in space at the time.  It had 48 bol0metric detectors which measured power of incident electromagnetic radiation by heating material which changes its electrical resistance as a function of temperature.
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-.  The CMB temperatures it has to measure are extremely small variations, between 2.735001 and 2.734999 degrees Kelvin.  Visible light has energies ranging from 1/2 to 1 electron volt.  This CMB radiation being measured is on the order of 0.00003 electron volts.
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-.  The CMB had a lot more energy 13,800,000,000 years ago, but, over that 13.8 billion years the Universe has expanded to 45 billion light-years radius.  When wavelengths are stretched energy is lost,   E = h*f  and  E = h*c/w.  The wavelengths have stretched out from 0.1 nanometers to 10,000,000 nanometers.  The temperature is equal to 0.0029 / wavelength.  The temperature has decreased from 3,000 degrees Kelvin to 2.73 degrees Kelvin.
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-.  The hot to cold variations, the spots, on the Cosmic Microwave Bare are the size of large galaxies  today.  They started out as quantum fluctuations present in the Big Bang plasma and have stretched out to 100,000 lightyears.
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-  The data in a full sphere  of the  sky contained 50,000,000 pixels.  After the noise was removed the CMB represented the output of the universe expansion from 10^-35 seconds to 13,800,000,000 years.
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-.  The amazing thing in science today is that this data can be simulating in a computer with only 6 variables.  The variables, or parameters, are played with until the entire Universe expansion scenario matches what we observe today after the13.8 billion years of expansion.
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-.  Planck’s contribution was making these measurements with higher resolution and with greater precision.
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--------------------------------.  In 1989 the COBE telescope had 7 arc degree resolution
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-.------------------------------  In 2001 the WMAP telescope had 15 arc minutes of resolution.  That's 45 % of an arc degree, the full moon is 50% of an arc degree.
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-.------------------------------  In 2009 the Planck telescope had 5 arc minutes of resolution which is 8% of a degree.
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-.  The 6 parameters simulated from this higher precision data were:
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------------------.  One age of the universe  =  18,817,000,000  + or - 48,000,000 years
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------------------.  The Hubble Constant  =  67.4 kilometers per second per megaparsec
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-.--------------------  Baryon density  =  0.022068
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---------------------.  Cold Dark Matter density  =  0.12029

-.-------------------  Dark Energy density  =  0.6825

-------------Time of reorganization  =  377,730  + or - 3,200 years.  A Redshift of 1090.
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---------------------  The results say that ordinary matter is only 4.9 % of universe.

-.-------------------  Dark matter is 26.8 % of the universe

--------------------.  Dark energy is 68.3 % of the universe.
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-   In other words the part we don't yet understand, the part that is “dark” is 95.1 % of universe.
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-.  What a great success the Planck telescope mission has been in understanding where we came from.  The data will continue to be studied for years.  Removing more noise, bringing more precision.  There is much still to learn and as Richard Feynman was fond of saying, “the greatest danger in science is fooling yourself“.  An announcement will be made shortly ,stay tuned.
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-.  See review #1108, “What Forces Control Everything
-.  Review #823, “ Sound Waves in the CMB
-.  Review #757, CMB
-.  Review #1586, “Measuring the CMB
-.  Review #1305,  “Cosmic Harmonics”
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Wednesday, February 26, 2014  ---
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The electrons are all around us?

-  1652 -  Electrons are all around us?  This review summarizes what we know about electrons.  A few hundred years of study and there are still mysteries to keep us challenged.
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---------------------  -  1652  -  Electrons are all around us.
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-  Everyone knows electrons.  They turn on the lights, run the dishwasher, heat your blanket, play your radio,……………….  Electrons are those negative particles that circle the positive nucleus of every atom to make the atom neutral.  Neutral atoms are good for your health.  Each of the 92 natural elements have a different set of electrons in orbit around their nucleus.  Hydrogen has 1, helium has 2,,,…… oxygen has 8,,,……. gold has 79,,, …….uranium has 92 electrons to match the 92 protons in the nucleus.
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-.  When electrons are alone, away from their protons with positive charge, their negative electric charge creates it own electric field.  Whenever an electric field is in motion it creates a magnetic field.  Or, vice versa, whenever a magnetic field is in motion it creates an electric field.  That is how electric generators and electric motors work.   It is also how light works.
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-.  When it electrons fall to lower  energy levels they create electromagnetic radiation called “light“, part of the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation that stretches from radio waves to Gamma Rays.  This review just says “ light” to represent the whole lot.  The different frequencies of light are the different “colors“.  Frequencies are another name for oscillations measured in cycles per second.
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-  When electrons jump or fall to lower energy levels they emit light.  Whenever they jump to higher energy levels they absorb light.  All the colors you see are a result of these two processes going on ,  emissions and absorptions.   All the elements described above have different energy levels for orbiting electrons and therefore emit or absorb different colors of light.  In the broader sense, different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum.  E = h*f.
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-  Spectroscopy is running light through a prism which spreads out the colors making emission lines and absorption lines visible as dark or bright lines in the spread out spectrum.
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-------------------------------.  Red light has a wavelength of 700 nanometers
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-.--------------------------  That is a frequency of 429,000,000,000,000 oscillations per second.
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-.---------------------------  It is it is an energy level of 0.356 electron volts.  E=h*f.
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-.--------------------------  Ultraviolet light has a wavelength of 100 nanometers.  Shorter wavelengths mean higher energy.  E=h*f. ………. Frequency is the inverse of wavelength,…………. c = w*f…………..  f  = c/w

-.---------------------------------  Ultraviolet has a frequency of 3,000,000,000,000,000 meters per second.
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-.-----------------------------------  Ultraviolet has energy of 2.49 electron volts, enough energy to burn your skin.
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-.----------------------------------  Energy   =  4.136*10^-15  * frequency
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-.----------------------------------  E  =  h*f
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-.  The constant, “h”, =  4.136 *10^-15 is Planck's Constant of Action measured in electron-volts.
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-  When an electron gets an energy level that is 207 times greater it changes into another fundamental particle.  It becomes a Muon.  A Muon has a mass of 105,600,000 electron volts.
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-.-------------------------------  105.6  MeV  / c^2
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-.  We say mass in electron volts from  E = mc^2, or,  m = E/c^2 , but,   the c^2 in the denominator, the speed of light squared, is assumed and not usually mention.
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-.  The Muons do not live very long, only 2.2 microseconds, before they decay back to electrons.  For electrons to gain enough energy it occurs in particle accelerators or by cosmic rays hitting the gas in the upper atmosphere.
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-  Muons were discovered in 1936 by Carl Anderson who was studying cosmic rays.  Cosmic Rays are high-energy particles from outer space, usually protons, traveling at near light speed, smashing into the gas atoms in the upper atmosphere.  They give the electrons “impact energy” to create the Muons.
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-  These Muons descend towards Earth near the speed of light,  670,000,000 miles per hour.  Because the Theory of Relativity laws require that we slow time down as velocities near the speed of light, the 2.2 microsecond lifetime for the Muon slows to several seconds, time enough for the Muon to travel the distance to the surface of the Earth.  This allowed Carl Anderson to study them in cloud chamber jars.   This is how they were discovered to be negatively charged high-energy electrons traveling at near light speed.
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-.  When Muons pass through the magnetic fields installed around the cloud chamber jars,   their paths curve like charged particles.  The paths curve one way for negative electrons and the opposite way for positive protons.  The amount of the curvature told scientists that the mass of the Muon was intermediate between electron energy and a proton.  Muons were 207 times the mass of electron, 511,000 electron volts.  Protons were 1,836 times electron mass.  939,000,000 electron volts
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-.  Stranger still, if you give a Muon even more energy it changes into a Tau Lepton that is 1,777,000,000 electron volts, but, it decays in only 3*10^-13 seconds.
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-  Electrons can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like behavior.  The electric fields that they create determine the chemical properties of all elements in the Periodic Table.
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-.  The anti-particle of the electron is called the “positron”.  It is the same except the anti-electron carries a positive charge not negative charge.
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-.-------------------  The negative charge of electron is -1.6 *10^-19 coulombs.
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-. ------------------  The mass is 9.11*10^ -31 kilograms, which is equivalent to 511,000 electron volts / c^2, which is 1/1836 the mass of the proton.
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-.  The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle defines electrons position as something that cannot be known simultaneously as its momentum.  The momentum can be simplified to velocity since we know the mass and momentum is equal to mass * velocity.  p = m*v
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-.  The electron has a spin of 1/2 which makes it a Fermion , by definition.  It is described as point like, with no spatial extensions.  In contradiction to being wave-like it has a classical diameter of 2.8179 *10^-15 meters.  This diameter is an outdated concept.
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-  The Exclusion Principle is a law in physics which states that no two electrons can occupy the same energy state in an atom.  When there are two electrons in the lowest energy level of atom in order to have different energy states one is spinning “up” and the other is “spin down“.  One is spinning clockwise in the other counterclockwise.
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-.  Somehow the two electrons always know each other's energy state.  If one switches from “spin up” to “spin down” the other instantaneously switches from “down spin” to “up spin“.  They are somehow “entangled“.

-.  Not so mysterious to be “entangled” inside a single atom.  But, the mystery continues if you separate the two entangled electrons.  No matter how far you separate them.  Put one on the Moon, switch it from spin up to spin down, the other here on Earth will instantaneously switch from spin down to spin up.  Somehow entangled particles communicate instantaneously.  It takes light 2 ½  seconds to travel from the Moon to Earth.  How can something travel faster than the speed of light?

-.  There a lot of electrons in the universe.  If you take time to count them there are 10^79 electrons.  This amounts to a density in the universe of one electron per cubic meter.
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-.--------------  In quantum mechanics the electron is described by the Dirac Equation.
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-.--------------  In quantum electrodynamics, QED, the electron lives in a sea of virtual particles that pop in and out of existence.
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-.  In String Theory the electron is still a mystery.  In QED predictions always work, so far.  In  String Theory not so much , so far.
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-.  When an electron and an anti-electron, a positron, meet  they annihilate each other creating 2 Gamma-Ray photons, each having 511,000 electron volts of energy.  Vice a versa, is occurring at the center of the Milky Way galaxy.  Gamma-Rays are creating electrons and positrons.  Astronomers have detected the positrons and they are having a hard time explaining the creation of this antimatter.  If you have some good ideas let us know.  The electron is so familiar and so mysterious at the same time.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Tuesday, February 25, 2014  ---
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Moons may be the best habitat for life

-  1651 -  -  Moons may be the best habitat for life?  How did the Moon get its magnetic field?  Could moons around giant gaseous planets be well suited for life?  Does our Moon contain water that could support a colony of life?
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---------------------  -  1651    -  Moons may be the best habitats for life
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-.  Most people are aware of the extinction of the dinosaurs caused by a giant asteroid impacting the Earth near the Yucatán 65,000,000 years ago.
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-.  But, are you aware that a similar event occurred 252,000,000 years ago.  Was it an asteroid impact that wiped out 96 % of life in the oceans and 70 % of all life on land.
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-.  The event is called the End- Permian extinction.  The extinction event lasted 60,000 years + or -48,000 years.
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-.  Science has uncovered evidence of a massive addition of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere 10,000 years before the End -Permian event.  This in turn caused acidification of the oceans and a10 C temperature rise that killed 96 % of all sea life.
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-.  Where did this spike in the carbon dioxide come from?  Was a caused by volcanic eruptions or by an asteroid impact?
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-  To answer this question science is studying prehistoric rock in volcanic ash beds.  The zircon crystals in the rock contain a mix of lead and uranium.  The ratio of the isotopes of lead and uranium are then used to calculate the age of the rock.  These isotopes have a predetermined half-life of radioactivity.  The ratio of radioactive decay to non-decay can be used to calculate the age.
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-.  If the End -Permian extinction lasted 60,000 years proceeded by a sharp increase in the carbon dioxide in the oceans than likely a massive volcanic eruptions triggered the extinctions.  If the event was much shorter duration than likely another massive asteroid impact triggered the extinctions.  More study is needed.
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-   Science has also discovered evidence of a magnetic field on the Moon.  This does not seem intuitive, but, astronomers are using precise observations of distant quasars to measure the strength of the Earth's magnetic field.
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-.  The answer they get is 25 Gauss.
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-.  Gauss is the centimeter- gram- second metric unit of magnetic induction.  It is equivalent in other units to 1 Maxwell per square centimeter , or, 0.0001 Webers per square meter.
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-.  The magnetic field on the Earth's surface is only 0.5 Gauss.  This magnetic strength is 50 times weaker than the core magnetic field some 1,800 miles below the surface.
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-.  By using the precise locations of Quasars in the sky astronomers could detect tiny variations in the Earth's axis of rotation caused by the tug of the Moon's gravity.  These variations depend on the strength of Earth's core magnetic field.
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-.  Quasars are the cores of the most distant galaxies.  And, they become instrumental in measuring the Earth's core just 1,800 miles below our feet.
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-.  The Moon does not have an iron core like the Earth.  And it's core would not be rotating like a giant dynamo generating a magnetic field.  Yet, the Moon does have a magnetic field.
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-.  This puzzles astronomers.  The size the moon is such that it's core should have totally cooled.  It should not have a molten core.  Yet, moon rocks have a magnetic field measured to be 0.001 milli-Tesla.  A refrigerator magnet is 5 milli-Tesla.
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-.  A Tesla is a unit of magnetic induction equal to one Weber per square meter.
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-.  A Weber is 100,000,000 Maxwells.  A Weber is a standard unit of magnetic flux that will produce one volt in a single turn of wire when the flux is removed in one second.  Yep, that is how a standard flux is created.
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-.  A Maxwell is unit of magnetic flux through 1 square centimeter in a field of 1 Gauss.
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-  Magnetic fields are complicated measurements as you can see in the standardization of the units that measure them.
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-.  Astronomers estimate that the Moon maintained its magnetic field for over 400,000,000 years.  But, how did it produce such a field.  The explanations include two theories:
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-.  (1)  The Earth's wobbly rotation caused a gravitational tidal tug on the Moon in turn causing a wobble in the moon's axis of rotation.  This oscillating wobble was enough turbulence and friction to give the Moon a molten core.  The interior fluid in the core sloshed around creating a magnetic field much like the Earth has done.
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-.  (2).  A second theory is that huge asteroid impacts messed up the Moon’s rotation and injected enough energy upon impact to create a liquid core.  The calculations show that a reasonably large impact can generate a magnetic field lasting 10,000 years.  Enough of these impacts could have done the trick.
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-.  The next step is to measure more lunar rocks.  Measuring young rocks and old rocks could plot out the evolution of the moon's magnetic field, tracing magnetic intensities over time.  The pattern should tell us what caused the moon to have a magnetic field.
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-.  Another discovery was to find water in the Moon.  Well we think so?  But not much,  200 parts per million, or, for every 10,000 molecules of lunar soil there is 1 molecule of water, H2O.
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-.  1998 it was not water directly that was detected.  It was the element hydrogen using a neutron spectrometer.  Cosmic rays hit the moon's surface and the amount the soil absorbs the neutrons tells the astronomers what the soil is made of.
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-.  In 2010 radar measurements found an abundance of water in frozen ice at the bottom of polar craters.
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-.  The data is still needed to determine exactly how much water exist on the Moon.  And, how much could be practically collected to support a colony living on the Moon.
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-.  Over 1,000 planets have been discovered orbiting other stars.  Since we tend to detect big planets first most so far are large gaseous planets, like Jupiter and Neptune. These giant planets are hostile to life.  However, the planets have moons and their moons may be an ideal environment to find life.
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-.  The planet being searched most today is Kepler-22b that is 600 light-years from Earth.  Kepler 22b resides in the star’s habitable zone, a region in orbit where liquid water could exist.
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-.  Some of the gaseous planets like Jupiter and Saturn are found closer to their star.  Some even occupy the habitable zone for liquid water.  Some of the moons around these warm giants might have atmospheres and oceans like the Earth.
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-.  If a moon was less than 10 % the mass of the Earth it's gravity would not be strong enough to sustain an atmosphere.  That would be a Moon smaller than the planet Mars.
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-.  How do we get large moons?
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-.  The Earth - Moon system was forged out of a cataclysmic collision early in the solar system history.  Our Moon was splashed into its orbit.
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-.  Another scenario for large moons is when a giant planet encounters a binary pair and in capturing one ejects the other in the space.  Action equals reaction.  Neptune's biggest moon, Triton, was likely captured in this very fashion.
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-.  Tidal heating caused by eccentric orbits about a giant planet would heat the moon comfortably enough for life.  A planet and a moon orbiting a common center of gravity would cause the planet to wobble back-and-forth.  By detecting the wobbles with transit orbits moons too could be detected.   Detecting these slight variations is difficult to analyze.  The variations could be caused by sunspots, or star spots, stellar fluctuations, or is instrument measurement errors.  To tease out the presence of a moon orbiting a transiting planet is a challenge.
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-.  The daily data from Kepler Space Telescope is available on the web.  You can hunt for an exomoon yourself.  www.cfa.harvard.edu/HEK.  HEK is acronym for “Hunt for Exomoons with Kepler.
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-.  Moons may be just as good as place for finding life elsewhere.  Thus multiplying our chances of not being alone many fold.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Thursday, February 20, 2014  ---
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The power of combinations, math and teamwork?

-  1650 -  The power of combinations?  Pass it on to anyone who wants to learn the power of combinations.  The power of teamwork, networking, and the world-wide-web are demonstrated in the math.
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---------------------  -  1649    -  The power of combinations?
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-  Statistics depends on the law of large numbers.  Given enough opportunities for specific events to happen, despite how unlikely to be for each opportunity, it will eventually happen.

-.  · Another way to put it: the number of combinations of interacting elements increases exponentially with the number of elements.

-.  A “combination” of “n” different taken “r” at a time with no attention to order increases exponentially.  The formula uses “!” which means “factorial”, which is 5!  =  5*4*3*2*1  =  120.  “Factorial” is multiplication in a descending sequence of numbers down to the number 1.
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--------------------------------  Combination  =  n!  /  r!  (n - r)!
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-.  To illustrate this formula  let’s use a third-grade class of 30 students.    If the teacher chooses to have them work individually than the number of combinations is 30.
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------------------------  Combination  =  30!  /  1!  (30 - 1)!  =  30*29  /  29  =  30
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-.  But if the teacher asked the class to work in pairs how many commendations are there?
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-------------------------  Combinations  =  30!  /  2!  (30 - 2)!  =  30*29  /  2  =  435
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-.  There are 435 different pairs that could work together.
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-.  How about if the teacher asked students to work in groups of 3 that would be 10 groups.  How many  different combinations are there?
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-------------------------  Combinations  =  30!  /  3!  (30 - 3)!  =  30*29* 28  /  6  =  4040

-..  There are 4060 combinations of these student groups.
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-  The number of combinations is growing exponentially from 30 ,to  435, to 4060,  to 27,405 to………………….
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-.  What would happen if the teacher said to the class okay you can work together in any combinations you want?
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-.  Number of possible groups of students working together in a class of 30 students is a set of “n” elements with (2^n - 1) possible subsets that can be formed
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-------------------  Combinations  =   1,073,74,823
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-----------------  Combinations  =  2^30 - 1  =  1,073,74,824  -1
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-.  Lastly let's put the class of students on the Internet.   Now the class is growing to 2,500,000,000,  the number of www.users.
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------------------------  3 * 10^18 pairs  =  10^750,000,000 possible pairs
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-.  Probability that any and all of these can interact with any of the others is 10 followed by 750,000,000 zeros .
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-.  Another example of how combinations can work  is the famous problem of  “how many people need to be in a room before there is a probability that two have the same back birthday“.
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-.  The answer is 23 people in a room and the probability is better  than 50 % that two have the same birthday.  But how do we get to that number?
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 -  A single birthday has 1 chance in 365 days of occurring that 0.27 %  So, any one person has one chance in  365 of having my same birthday.
-
-.  And, to take the reverse,  there 364 / 365, or 99.7 % probability that any particular person will have a different birthday.
-
-.  If “n” is the number of people in the room then   (n-1)   is probability of 364 /  365 of having a different birthday.
-
-  If you combine these probabilities of being different it becomes  364/365 *  364/365 * 364/365 * 364/365 …………………..  (364/365)^22   =   0.94
-
-.  When “n” is 23 there is 94 % probability that none of them will share the same birthday as you.
-
-.  The probability that at least one of them has the same birthday as you is  ( 1 - 0.94).   or 0.06.   A 6% probability that one of the 23 people shares your birthday.
-
-.  Six percent  is a very small number,  If there are 23 people in a room the likelihood is high that no one has the same birthday as me but they may have the same birthday matching someone else.
-
-.  Either someone has a same birthday as me or no one has me. These two likelihoods add up to one,   0.94 + .06  =  1
-
-.  Now if the question is different that any two people have the same birthday as each other.  Not only is (n -1) people sharing the same birthday but  (n-1)*2 / 2 pairs of people in a room share the same birthday.  When n  =  23:
-
--------------------------------  (n-1) * n  /2  =  23 * 22 / 2  =  253
-
------------------------------  23!  /  2! * ( 21!)  =  253
-
-.  That is more than 10 times larger than (n -1) which is 22

-.  There are 253 possible pairs of people but only 22 pairs include me.
-
-.  Will that get us the answer that the odds of two people having the same birthday begins to occur when 23 people are in the room.
-
-.  Let’s look at the contrary way what that none of the 23 people have the same birthday. We've already determined that for two people the answer is 364/365 which is by 99.7 %.
-
-.  Now at a third person in the room and the probability becomes a 99.4 %.
-
-.  At a fourth person and it is 94.1%.
-
-.  When you get to 23 people the probability is 49 % that don't have the same birthday and - - 0.49  =  51% probability that two people will have the same birthday
-
-  The law of combinations grows at an exponential rate.  The probability with 10 people is 12%.  The probability with 20 people is 40%.  The probability with 23 people is 50.7%.  the probability with 100 people is 99.99996 %
-
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1)  The probability that all the birthdays are
-
----------------------different  =  (366-n ) /  365^n
-
---------------------  same  =  1  -  365! /  365^n ( 365-n)!
-
-  Each person in the room has a 365 chance to match a birthday.  For 23  people the number of chances is 365^n  =  365^23.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Monday, February 17, 2014  ---
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What is science, anyway?

-  1649 -  What is Science? How do we separate the product from the process.  Science has shown that the majority opinion does not always work.  If we are all thinking the same thing, someone is not thinking.
-

---------------------  -  1649    -  What is science?
-
-  Is science the “truth” about the natural world in which we exist?
-
-  When do we accept the “facts” as being “truth“?
-
-  When do we dispute these “facts“?
-
-  When do we challenge the “assumptions“?
-
-  The way to look at science is not the “product” but the “process“.  We should always challenge the “is” and the “is not's” as we strive to learn more.  Science is not the mere quantity of opinion, but, the systematic scientific exploration of different opinions.
-
-.  Science is what we think of as “objective truth“.  It is a hypothesis,  or, theory, that has been verified with observation, or experiment, or mathematics.  Unlike political science,  pure science is supposed to be based on “truth“.  Political science appears to be based on lies for the most part as we see it today in government.
-
-.  Well that's the idea.
-
-.  The thing science does well is to overthrow truth as soon as new evidence contradicts the model that defines it.  Any  one hypothesis can be supported and taught for years, even decades, before it is overturned by new evidence and new theories.  Science evolves with new knowledge.
-
-.  Ever since Aristotle, Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton , the idea that the universe was eternal and unchanging was the accepted truth.  There was no evidence to the contrary.  When Einstein developed his equations balancing gravity with the curvature of space-time he needed to add the Cosmological Constant to make the equations agree with the static universe.  In that way he could match the assumptions of the times.
-
-.  When we finally got evidence to the contrary from Hubble's observations that the universe (galaxies) were expanding., the further a galaxy was away from us,  the faster it was  receding from us.  Today this velocity of expansion is known as the Hubble’s Constant.
-
---------------------------  Ho    =   47,000 miles per hour receding velocity for every million light-years distance.
-
---------------------------  Ho  =   74.2 kilometers per second per mega parsec

-.  Einstein then said the Cosmological Constant was “the biggest blunder of his life“.  Ironically, now that evidence has the universe not only expanding with a velocity but a velocity that is accelerating the new observations have put the Cosmological Constant back into the equations again.
-
-.  Eternity is dynamic and is not static.
-
-.  Our understanding of reality is constantly changing.
-
-.  Looking backwards our understanding is 20:20 vision.  Truths in physics can succumb to the future's change in vision.
-
-.  We do not get to scientific truths through consensus.  We “all” can be wrong.  And, future evidence will prove it so.  Science needs consensus to have theories accepted.  But, that consensus should be constantly challenged to see if it holds up.
-
-.  If a theory can make a prediction and observations, or experiment, can substantiate that in fact it was correct then that theory becomes science through a consensus of a community.  Then, confidence in theory grows with time and repeated observations.
-
-.  Every scientific theory becomes founded in a set of assumptions.  These assumptions also need to be continuously challenged.  For example much of what we believe is that the speed of light is a constant in the vacuum of space.
-
--------------------------    c     =      670,633 500 miles per hour
-
-.  What if conditions change in the distant universe and the speed of light traveling through those distances changes.  If the speed of light is variable many of our conclusions about the universe are incorrect today.
-
-   The Big Bang itself is theory derived from Einstein's Theory of Relativity and Hubble's evidence of an expanding universe. Science basically ran the equations backwards to arrive at a Big Bang.   The theory got a lot of supporting evidence with the discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.  The CMB is the expansion and cooling of the Big Bang over 13 billion years.
-
- .  You cannot find the truth without an adversary process.  Consensus only works over time if not everyone agrees with you.  If we are all thinking the same thing , someone is not thinking.
 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Saturday, February 15, 2014  ---
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How energy controls the Universe?

-  1648 -  Energy in Physics?   This review covers the many different forms of energy and how it interconnects the entire Universe.  Matter is really energy in its highest form until it becomes dense enough to become a Blackhole.
-
---------------------  -  1648 -  Energy in Physics?
-
-   Energy is a very broad an interesting topic.  Here are some of the earlier reviews  available to learn more about the subject.  No this is not solar, wind, or, nuclear power energy.  This is the energy in physics, E = mc^2.
-
---------------------  #1171  -  Light Energy  - higher energy light has shorter wavelengths
---------------------  #1054 -  Energy in mass and radiation.
---------------------  #956  -  There are at least 14 different forms of energy.  This review includes the equations to calculate them.
---------------------  #952  -  Energy from the Big Bang, WIMPS and MACHOS.
---------------------  #613  -  the history of energy, the origins of our existence.
---------------------  #19  -  E=mc^2  ,the history of the many authors that were involved with this equation.
----------------------  #35  -  Deriving E=mc^2  using simple calculations.
----------------------  #647  -  Conservation of energy, the various ways to produce it and their efficiencies.
---------------------  #682  -  Symmetry in the Universe.
---------------------  #527  -  Energy and evolution.
-
-.  This review is some more about energy.  Energy and mass are the same thing.
-
-----------------------  E  = c^2  * m
-
---------------------  Energy  =  90,000,000,000,000,000  *  mass
-
----------------------  Joules  =  meters^2  /  seconds^2  *  kilograms
-
-.  Energy was released in the Big Bang.   The law of the Conservation of Energy says, that was all there is.  There is no more or less energy.  Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.  Energy can transform itself from one form to another, but, the total remains the same.  The same as what we started with.
-
-.  It takes energy to power your car down the highway.  The energy comes from chemical energy in your gas tank.  If you don't fill up you will  run out of energy?  No.  The energy was still the same you just transformed it.  Your energy gets transferred to the friction of your tires against the road, the kinetic energy moving mass * velocity,  the heat that left your tailpipe, the hot engine that warmed the atmosphere, the electric energy that charged the battery, and lit the your headlights.  Add it all up and the total remains the same
-
-  Kinetic energy of motion is mass *  velocity^2
-
-----------------------KE  =  ½ m*v^2

-
-.  Heat energy is actually Kinetic energy.  It is the motion of the atoms that we measure as temperature.  The faster the atomic motion the hotter the material.
-
-.  The transformation of atomic energy, that is mass into  radiant energy that occurs in explosions, is enormous.  A single pencil eraser, weighing one gram, converted directly to radiation energy, would release more energy than the two atomic bombs that exploded in Japan in 1945.
-
-.  The Universe is a big place, but, it is all interconnected with energy.  The energy from cosmic rays originating from the farthest corners of our Universe are responsible for genetic mutations in our own DNA that are our biological evolution on Earth.
-
-.  There are vast separations but energy interconnects all of this.  If the stars of our Milky Way galaxy were the size of grains of sand they would be separated by distances measured in miles.

-.  If the Sun were the size of the period at the end of this sentence, the Earth would be so small as to be invisible and one inch away.  The nearest star would be 4.3 miles away with all that space in between.  With this scale our entire Milky Way galaxy would fit in half the distance to the Moon.  Scale of the Universe is enormous, but, it is all interconnected with energy.  The same Big Bang energy it all started with, by now, it has taken many different forms.
-
-  We have shown that matter and energy are different forms of the same thing.  When we squeeze matter into a smaller and smaller volume it eventually becomes a Blackhole.  What is a Blackhole?  Is it everything reduced to a single point of pure energy?  We don't know.  But, it would be an exceedingly heavy period.  Don’t try this at home.
-
-.  A sugar cube is a size of 1 cubic centimeter.
-
-  If it were water it would weigh 1 gram.
-
-  If it were iron it would weigh 7.87 grams.
-
-  If it were gold it would weigh 19.28 grams.
-
-   The Earth, Mercury, Venus, and Mars have densities of 5.2 to 5.5 grams per cubic centimeter.  That is five times the weight of water.  We call them the “rocky planets“.
-
-.  In contrast the Sun and the outer planets have densities between 0.7 and 1.7 grams per cubic centimeter.  We call the 4 outer planets the “gaseous planets“.
-
-.  Most stars have the same density as water, more or less.
-
-.  Some stars are so large in the beginning that when they run out of fuel they collapse to the size of the Earth.  They become White Dwarf stars that have densities of 1,000,000 grams per cubic centimeter.  The sugar cube of this material would weigh a ton, 2,000 pounds.
-
-.  A White Dwarf star is composed of carbon and oxygen still having its atomic structure with electrons holding it up. ( called electron degeneracy pressure).   If the star is still larger, having even greater mass, and stronger compressing gravity, it will collapse even further into a Neutron Star only 12 miles in diameter.  8,000 miles diameter collapses to 12 miles diameter.  Its spin rate changes from 1 revolution per day to 30 revolutions per second.  Some Neutron Stars are even spinning 716 revolutions per second.
-
-.  Neutron Stars have a density of 100,000,000,000,000 grams per cubic centimeter.  A sugar cube from a Neutron Star would weigh 100,000,000 tons.
-
-.  That certainly seems out of this world.  However ,the protons in your body have the very same density.  And you have 30 Octillion of them.  There are 30,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  protons in the average body.  Count them.  Which you are still made mostly of water and empty space.  No offense intended.
-
-.  I have run out of energy.  In announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned
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-.  (1)This time I  started the review with the footnotes.
-
-.  (2)  Sonoluminescence is turning “sound into light“.  SBSL is a “star in a jar“.  Take a small jar of water.  Bombard it with 20,000 cycles per second sound waves.  The shockwave that results will create gas bubbles and these bubbles will create flashes of blue light, mostly ultraviolet light.  Each flash has a duration is only 50 picoseconds.  The temperature is 30,000 Kelvin.  The surface of the Sun is only 6,000 Kelvin.  See Lawrence Livermore lab homepage regarding ICF, Inertia Confinement Fusion.
 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Wednesday, February 12, 2014  ---
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Vesta, Ceres, and Phoebe asteroids and moons?

-  1647 -  Vesta, Ceres, and Phoebe.  This review is to learn about 2 of the largest asteroids and one of the strangest moons that is orbiting Saturn.
-

---------------------  -  1647   -  Vesta, Ceres, and Phoebe.  
-
-   What are these?   In history ,  Vesta is the Roman goddess of health.  Ceres is the Roman goddess of agriculture.  And Phoebe is a great Titan t,he daughter of Uranus.  In astronomy,  Vesta is the third largest asteroid.  Ceres is the largest asteroid. now called a dwarf planet.  Phoebe is a one of the 30 moons that orbit the planet Saturn.
-
-.  Vesta and Ceres are the two of the largest asteroids in the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter. Phoebe is one of the 30 variety of moons orbiting the planet Saturn.  Titan is the most famous moon of Saturn and is the third largest moon in the Solar System.  Titan is 3,200 miles in diameter.  Phoebe is much smaller with 132 mile diameter
-
-.  Phoebe is strange for an moon this size to be perfectly round.  It should not have enough gravity to pull itself together.  Phobe’s density is higher than the other icy moons orbiting Saturn.  Phoebe is little but most almost planet-like in its structure.\.  For Phoebe to be spherical it must at one time have been molten.
-
-.  What could have made Phoebe get hot?  One possibility is that it contained radioactive elements, like aluminum-26, which has a half-life of 720,000 years.  A decaying isotope, like aluminum- 26, can produce a lot of heat.
-
-.  Another oddity is that the many craters on Phoebe don't look like “impact craters“.  These craters appear to result from internal forces ,such as escaping gases.  All of these craters are “cone shaped“.
-
-  There is such a variety of moons orbiting Saturn that the likely did not all come from the same place.   Rather than being formed with the planets accretion disk these moons are likely captured satellites.
-
-.  A big hint that a capture is what happened to Phoebe is that it has an retrograde orbit.  It is orbiting in the opposite directions of Saturn's rotation.  It's orbit is more eccentric than circular covering 16,000,000 miles in diameter.
-
-.  A spectrograph of Phoebe’s surface detects complex hydrocarbons that are normally found outside of the orbit of Neptune, inside the Kuiper belt of comets.
-
-.  For Saturn to capture Phoebe coming in from the Kuiper belt a 3rd  object is necessary.  If a 3rd object were ejected the lost energy may have slowed Phoebe enough to allow it to be captured by Saturn as it went by.
-
-  Phoebe has a story to tell and we are still learning what it is.
-
-  All that is the Solar System today evolved from a collapsing disk of gas and dust spinning around the Sun.  Collisions and gravity formed the planets.  The left over debris includes the asteroids and the comets.  They extend out to the Oort Cloud that is more than one light year from the Sun.
-
--.  The Solar System is full of these large objects that are not quite planets.
-
-.  NASA with the Dawn space spacecraft  has visited one of the objects, Vesta, and will soon visit the second object, Ceres.
-
-.  Vesta is 326 miles wide but has mountains that are 14 miles high and craters deeper than any that are on Earth.  Vesta is a dry wasteland with many impacts and long ago gone oceans of magma.  Vesta is water poor.  It is one of the brightest asteroids with the magnitude of +5.4.  It can easily be seen with binoculars.  It is potato shaped orbiting the Sun in 3.63 years at 2.3 astronomical units radius.
-
-  Despite being dry Vesta has compounds found in water molecules on its surface and it has underground ice.  Vesta has deep craters are the result of massive collisions.  Meteorites that have rained down on earth had the same composition that likely came from Vesta.
-
-.  Ceres is 590 miles diameter which is 33% the diameter the Moon.  It was recently named as a Dwarf Planet.   Ceres is an icy primitive sphere.  The two could not be more different.  Ceres is water rich.  It was the 5th  planet in our Solar System for 49 years.  First discovered in 1801.  Ceres’ orbit takes 4.6 years and is 2.77 astronomical units from the Sun.  The icy mantle is 37 to 75 miles thick and contains more freshwater than all of that on Earth.  Its average temperature is -38C.  Its mass is 4% that of the Sun.  By diameter Vesta is 55% as large a Ceres and Ceres is 0.13% the mass of Mars.
-
-.  These two objects make up make up 33% of all the mass of the millions of asteroids that are in the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter.
-
-.  The Dawn spacecraft launched in 2007 visited Vesta to in 2011 for 14 months and is now on its way to visit Ceres.
-
-.  The Dawn spacecraft is scheduled to arrive at Ceres in March 2015.  It will orbit for 11 months starting at 3,700 miles altitude orbiting every 68 hours.  And then descending to 23 miles altitude.  The two will be 260,000,000miles from the Sun.  The Earth is 93,000,000 miles from the Sun.
-
-.  Analysis to date suggests a Ceres’ surface is water ice.  It is hoped to discover liquid water beneath its icy surface.    An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
 See  Reviews  # 1618 the Dawn spacecraft visits Vesta.,  and, # 847  Ceres the 5th  planet in our solar system.
 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Sunday, February 9, 2014  ---
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The evolution of Blackholes?

-  1646 -  Blackholes  -  An Evolution Still in Process? This review covers the history of Blackhole discoveries and what astronomers are currently studying.  Most all galaxies have an enormous Blackhole at their center.  There are 35 more Blackholes being studied in our own Milky Way Galaxy.
-

---------------------  -  1646    -  Blackholes  -  An Evolution Still in Process?
-
-  In the year 1676 the speed of light was first estimated to be 300,000 kilometers per second, 186,000 miles per second, or 670,600,000 miles per hour.

-.  In 1784 John Mitchell used Newton's theory of gravity and calculated the escape velocity for light.   Escape velocity depends on the mass and on the radius of what you are trying to escape from.  At some escape speed we would exceed the escape velocity for light.  That by definition becomes known as a “Blackhole“.  But, first they were called “Black Stars“.

-.  Later calculations were made that an object as massive as our Sun, one Solar Mass, would have a radius of 6 kilometers, 3.7 miles.

-.  Karl Schwarzschild child later to find an Event Horizon for a blackhole, a radius within which all light was bent back on itself and “nothing” escapes.

-.  The Schwarzschild  radius  =  3  *  M

-.  Where M is a Solar Mass and the radius is in kilometers.  The Sun is one Solar Mass and would have a Blackhole radius of 3 kilometers, 0.6 miles.  The radius for the Earth would be 9 millimeters.

-.  The more general formula is:

-.-----------------  The Schwarzschild  radius  =  2  *  G  *  M  /  c^2
-
------------------   “G”  is the Gravitational Constant  =  6.67*10^-11  m^3 / (kg*sed^2)
-
-----------------  “c” is the speed of light    =   2 * 10^8 m / sec.
-
--------------------  “M” is the mass of the Earth  =  6*10^24 kilograms.
-
-------.  The Schwarzschild  radius  =  2  *  6.67*10^-11  *  6*10^24 /  ( 3*10^8)^2
-
--------------------  The Schwarzschild  radius  =  0.009 meters

-.  If the Earth was a Blackhole it would have a radius of only 9 millimeters, about 1/3rd  of an inch.  Pretty small, it would fit in the palm your hand.  However, it would weigh the same ,so,  don't try it.

-.  Most scientists during that time did not believe that Blackholes were real.  It was merely a mathematical curiosity.
-
-.  Astronomers had to understand stars first before they could understand Blackholes.
-
-  A star exist because it is in a delicate balance between the constant crush of gravity inward and in the fusion radiation pressure outward.   When the star burns all of its fuel and fusion stops the pressure stops and gravity wins.  The star collapses.

-.  Our Sun is a medium-size star.  With its mass, when it burns all of its fuel, it will collapse, but, the collapse will be halted, not by radiation pressure, but, by the pressure of the electrons refusing to collapse into the nucleus of the atoms.  This quantum mechanical electromagnetic force is called “electron Degeneracy Pressure“.  An object like our Sun becomes a  dead, collapsed star called a “White Dwarf“.
-
-.  In 1930 the calculation was taken further.  A calculation was made as to what size mass would collapse electrons into the nucleus creating neutrons.  This calculation came out to be 1.4 Solar Mass,  140% the mass of our Sun.  Called a Neutron Star it would be held up from collapsing further  by “Neutron Degeneracy Pressure“.

-.  The next step showed that an even greater mass would crush the Neutron Star into a single point, a Singularity.  In 1967 this point of enormous mass, from which not even the speed of light had enough's escape velocity, was first termed a Blackhole.  The name stuck.
-
-  Today over 18 Blackholes have been discovered in our Milky Way galaxy.  Astronomers detect the X-ray emissions from the spinning accretion disk orbiting the Event Horizon.  In fact, for one accretion disk orbiting a Blackhole astronomers have tracked an iron emission line in the x-ray spectrum.  The Blackhole is 10,000,000 Solar Mass and the accretion disk is spinning at 98.7% the speed of light, some 660,000,000 miles per hour.

-.  This Blackhole is a little over twice as big as the Blackhole of at the center of the Milky Way galaxy which is 4,000,000 solar mass.

-.  The blackhole of the center of the Andromeda galaxy is 35 times bigger at 140,000,000 Solar Mass, discovered in November 21, 2005.   Hubble Space telescope  revealed the blue light from hundreds of fast burning stars orbiting a small dark region in space at the center of the Andromeda galaxy.  The orbiting velocities were such that the center must be a monster blackhole.  400 blue stars had Doppler shifts used to calculate the rate of rotation.  The rate of rotation was then used to calculate the mass at the center of the orbit.

-.  The Andromeda, Milky Way, and M106 galaxy centers have confirmed massive black holes at their centers.  There are 35 other galaxies being studied that likely also have Black holes at their centers.
-
-  A smaller blackhole just 37,000 light-years away has a mass of 10,000 Solar Mass and a diameter just 4.7 times the diameter of Earth.

-.  Our might Milky Way galaxy Blackhole Event Horizon has a radius of 12,000,000 kilometers,  7,000,000 mile radius.  To fit this Blackhole between the Sun and the Earth it would cover only 15% of the distance.

- M87  galaxy has a Solar Mass of 7,000,000,000 Solar Mass
-
-  Quasars are giant Blackholes in the center of distant galaxies.  Quasars are so big that there accretion disks outshine the entire galaxies in which they reside.  Quasars are found 13,000,000,000 light-years away.  That was 13,000,000,000 years ago.  I wonder what they look like today?

-.  The whole concept of Blackhole has to do with the escape velocity needed is to escape gravity.  The bigger the mass the faster an object needs to be traveling in order to escape. Also, the smaller the radius the faster the object needs to be traveling in order to escape.

-.  To escape the Earth you need to throw the baseball straight up at 25,000 miles per hour.

-.  To escape the Sun you would have to throw it 1,375,760 miles per hour.

-.  To escape a Blackhole that is greater than 1.4 Solar Mass it would have to be traveling faster than the speed of light, 670,633,005  miles per hour.  That cannot happen.  Therefore, not even light can escape the Blackhole.

-   All the quantum mechanical information for every particle is saved and never lost in the Blackhole.  How this all happens depends on how the physicists construct their space-time equations. Is the evolution history of Blackholes now solved?  Hardly!  The mind bending properties of Blackholes is still bending minds.  Who knows what the next theory, or, the next observation will bring.

-.  In 1974 Stephen Hawking used quantum mechanical math to dispute the idea that nothing could ever escape the Blackhole.  His math showed that there was a way Blackholes could emit radiation.  It had to do with the particles and anti-particles existing right at the edge of the Event Horizon.  If one particle got sucked inside the Event Horizon the other would be flung out into space.   Action equals reaction, the conservation of momentum.  Given enough time Blackholes would evaporate in this way.
-
-.  It problem exists with another law in quantum mechanics.  Information cannot be destroyed.  The particle that slipped into the Blackhole ,what happened to its information?  In 2004 this math convinced Hawking that information too was leaking from the Blackhole.
-
-.  This issue got further complicating with the idea of particle “Entanglement“.  The properties of the two particles are forever linked.  If one switches from clockwise to counter-clockwise spin, the other particle instantaneously switches from counter-clockwise spin to clockwise spin.  To somehow break this Entanglement would release an enormous amount of energy.
-
-.  Recently Hawking has tried to solve the controversy by redefining the Event Horizon, calling it an “Apparent Horizon“, where light does not actually escape, it simply gets stuck in a holding pattern.  In that way all the information gets stored in the Apparent Horizon until it finds its way out through evaporation.
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-  In the meantime astronomers are discovering many new Blackholes to study.   April 17, 2006,  two billion Solar Mass Blackholes were found to be on a collision course.  Called Abell 400 there were X-ray jets of superheated material streaming from the polls of two spinning Blackholes.  The intertwining contrails of the jets were colliding with interstellar gas creating radio waves.
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-  The super massive Blackholes were still far enough apart to fit the Milky Way galaxy in between them.  But, each time a star got slingshot out of the galaxy system the conservation of momentum brought the two galaxies closer together.  They are hundred thousands light-years apart now, when they get within a single light-year separation, their lost energy will begin sending out gravity waves.   The laser interferometer space antenna is designed to measure these gravity waves someday in the future.
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-.  October 5, 2005,   Gamma Ray bursts lasting only tens of milliseconds followed by a long-lasting afterglow of X-rays and visible light are likely to be twin Neutrons Stars spinning around each other faster and closer until they reach the speed of light.  When they collide the beams of energy released are equivalent to 1 million -billion suns before collapsing into a Blackhole.

-.  November 12, 2005 the most distant, oldest, identified object in the visible universe was 12.7 billion light-years away.   It was an imploding star forming a Blackhole.  The Universe was only 7% of its current age. The red shift of the light was 6.29,  a 629% shift,  corresponding to 900,000,000 years after the Big Bang.  That light traveled through 90 percent of the history of the Universe.  These light waves accumulated dings and scratches along the way which will help astronomers learn how the Universe evolved.  An announcement will be made shortly,  stay tune
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Other reviews about Blackholes available upon request:  #1628, 1365, 1587, 1508, 1441, 1350, 1177, 1046, 1140,  903,  848, 846, 819, 774, 592, 578, 453.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Friday, February 7, 2014  ---
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tHE TRUTH ABOUT GLOBAL WARMING?

-  1645  -  Climate Science is the newest name for Global Warming ,or Climate Change, or what’s next,  that is trying to remain scientific and above the political pollution that comes with these words.  This review is of a lecture from a climate scientists given 2-3-14 at Sonoma State University.
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---------------------  -  1645  -  Climate Science to better understand Mother Earth.
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-  A Sonoma State University lecture given February 3, 2014 by Warren Wiscombe, NASA Gotthard scientists, retired.  The subject was Climate Science.

-.  He began his lecture with the statement that there were many untruths about climate science.  Today it is too dominated with politics and missing the good science that is really being done.

-.  Climate Science came from two disciplines:
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--------------------   Radiation energy imbalance, ERI
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--------------------   Atmosphere and ocean dynamics, essentially weather forecasting.
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-.  The Sun sees 1/4th of the Earth's surface at any one time.
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---------------- The total solar energy * ¼     =     340 watts per square meter
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-.  Earth reflects 30% of this energy.   It absorbs 70% and re- radiates into space this energy this amount of energy at longer wavelengths, infrared.
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---------------------------   Total radiation = 340 watts per square meter.
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---------------------------    340 watts in and 340 watts out means the imbalance is zero.
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-.  If radiation is in perfect balance the environment on Earth is stable, no changes.
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-.  If the radiation and re-radiation is imbalanced by 1/2 watt per square meter the Earth would be heating up.
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-  Called the ERI, the Earth radiation imbalance,  it is positive, but, just how much positive, what are the long-term trends, what counter-balances are likely to reverse things, just what is in store for Mother Earth, and what can we be doing about it?
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-  The oceans are the greatest absorbers of our the excess energy, contrary to present beliefs, it is NOT the atmosphere.  90% of the heat goes into the oceans and it can sink below the surface and not necessarily even make contact with the atmosphere.
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-.  The radiation measured covers the wavelength from 50 to 2,000 nanometers.  Visible light is 400 to 700 nanometers, blue light to red light.

-.  Even if we got an ERI , imbalance, of 0 watts per square meter things would still warm-up because the heat would eventually come out of the oceans.  70% of the Earth’s  surface is oceans.
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-.  If the ERI increased by 2.0 watts per square meter we would have a serious global warming problem.  2 watts is less than ½% increase.  That is a very small change.
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-.  But, we are not able to measure the ERI accurately enough today.  We don't know if they ERI is actually 0.5 or 2.0.  In fact, current measurements range from ERI = 0.60 to an ERI = 6.5, with measurement uncertainties that overlap each other.  We do not have faith in these numbers, but, they are both positive, indicating the Earth is warming up, but how much?
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-.  The biggest uncertainty in all the climate models is the “clouds“.  Other factors less consequential are vegetation, aerosols, ozone, and photo-chemicals.
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-  NASA would like to put 66 satellites with radiometer's into orbit to get good measurements of the ERI.  But, budgets won't allow these program at this time, (See RAVAN for more details).
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-.  These satellites would monitor 250 kilometers per pixel with 100,000 samples taken at the equator and  10,000,000 samples at the poles.  These measurements would be accurate enough to give science an ERI with acceptable measurement uncertainties.  We would know precisely how much the Earth was global warming.
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-.  Climate measurements have a “badly butchered history“.  Too many climatologist use the data to make themselves important.  (a.k.a. Al Gore)
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-.  In 1989 Jim Hansen, a well known climatologist,  testified before Congress and from that point on politics has dominated the climate field.
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-.  In 1990 the politics got a little complicated because there were top-secret reports that the Russians were going to put black soot on the Arctic ice to open shipping lanes.  What was this going to do to climate change?
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-.  Another fear arose when reports surfaced that a 2% decrease in solar content would take Arctic ice to the equator and return us to “Snowball Earth“.  2% is a very slight change for such a consequential outcome.
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-.  Another discovery was that the water vapor in the atmosphere doubles the impact of CO2 in the atmosphere.  Clouds that contain this water vapor are the greatest variable in modeling the climate.
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-  Today the models concentrate on water, CO2, ozone, and clouds as the four variables.  CO2 has risen from 150 parts per million to 600 parts per million due to the industrial age and the fossil fuel burning.
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-.  The albedo,  reflectivity of the Earth, is 30%, but, that can vary with cloud cover.  We used to think it was 40%  until satellites gave us a better measurement.
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-.  Now we have  NASA “Earth System Science“.  Check it out on the Internet.  Here is a few cliff notes from the 80 page report.
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-  What is global warming?
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-.  Since 1900 temperature in the US has increased  by 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit, or, 0.8 degrees centigrade.  July 2012 was a hottest month ever recorded.  2012 was the warmest year overall in this record.  60%of the country experienced drought,   there has been an increase in air and water temperature, a decrease in water availability, an increase in storms, floods, and sea level rise.
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-.  Thermoelectric power generation is at risk of needing more water for cooling, then is available.
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-.  Hydraulic fracturing is at risk for the availability of large amounts of water.
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-.  Increased temperatures means increase in electricity demand.
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-.  (None of the eight consequences of global warming use numbers they need to be qualified and prioritized.  Without measurements and quantification numbers only decisions with high uncertainly can be made.)
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-.  We cannot improve something we cannot measure, unless we just happen to get lucky.
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-.  The temperature increase of 0.8 centigrade on average for the U.S.  has caused more frequent heat waves, more wildfires, fires lasting  from 7.5 days to 37 days, permafrost thawing in Alaska, farmers growing season that has increased by 2 weeks.
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-.  Projections are for the U.S. temperature to increase from 1.4 centigrade to 4.4 centigrade by 2030, depending on the assumptions used in the climate models.
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-.  Shale gas production has increased from 0 in the year 2000 to  34% of the U.S. natural gas production in year 2012.  It will be 50% by the year 2030.
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-.  The difference maker in energy production has been in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing.  Fracturing injects high-pressure water and sand into the well to create small fractures in the rock shell releasing the natural gas.  Fracturing uses from 2  to 5 million gallons of water for each well.  It has significantly increased production output for natural gas making it a cheap energy alternative in today’s market.
-  ……………  The full report is available at NASA , Energy System Science.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Wednesday, February 5, 2014  ---
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Decline in moral management?

- 1468    -  The decline in  moral management.  Here are 3 reviews written over the past decade.  The trend is disturbing:
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-----------------  “Management” “Morals“:  -------------  written in 2000  --------------------
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-   “Management” in the broadest sense, anyone responsible for people or money.  “Morals” in the narrowest sense.  Do good to others as you would do for yourself.
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-  In my 40 years observing and being part of management I have witnessed a decay in moral management.  You can substitute politics for management but I did not pay much attention to politics in my early years.  I did see the cultural decay in business first hand.
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-  To make my point I will polarize my statements, call yesterday my first 20 years and call today my last 20 years.
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-  Yesterday trust and integrity were thought to be essential for business success.
-   Today trust and integrity are hard to find in Big Business, or politics.
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- Yesterday managers said what they would do and did what they said.
-  Today managers say one thing and do another.  They say what ever you want to hear.  They are careful to say what is politically correct, regardless of true intentions.
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- Yesterday managers always had 2 decisions, what to do, then how to do it.  Both what and how were equally important.
- Today managers think the end justifies the means.
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-  Yesterday managers were so conservative with money they chose accounting rules that were almost worst case.
- Today managers choose anything within the stretch of rules to make things look good (often breaking the rules).  It is better to look good than to do good.
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-  Yesterday managers were in it for the long term, generations.
-  Today managers are in it for their next pay check, the next quarter, the next bonus.
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-  Yesterday managers viewed employees, stockholders, and customers as their most important business assets.
-  Today managers view them and the voters as simpletons that are more easily manipulated than educated.
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-  Of course, things are not this black and white like I have written, but they are gray and American culture has decayed in moral management.  Leaders like yourself, directors, teachers, and all managers need to police themselves and their fellow managers.  Ultimately, people deserve the government they get.  Policy makers, governors, need to regain trust and integrity.  We must do better for a better America.  Culture is hard to change but show me you are on the right road for change.
-------------------------- -  Witten in 2008  ------------------------------------
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-  The loss of moral leadership.
-  We always have 2 decisions to make: What to do and How to do it.
-  Obamacare has a nation’s support as to what to do.  What needs to be done for the betterment of all its citizens.
-  Obamacare has not made good decisions on “how” to do it..
-  One is effectiveness - do the right things.  The other is efficiency - do things right.
-  We would not have smart phones today if the government had broken up the phone company and replaced it with a government run bureaucracy.
-  A politician eventually swears to uphold the Constitution.  I think we should amend the Constitution to include the 10 Commandments.  Then, maybe, politicians would learn what swearing means.
- Lying, cheating, and stealing is a loss of moral leadership.
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-----------------------------  written in 2012   -----------------------------------------
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-  Here is an update surveying the political scene,  retired and out of the business scene:
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-  Today politicians view lying as necessary to achieve their intentions.  Leaders today would prefer to have no rules at all.  Truth can be abandoned to preserve the ultimate goals.  Or, the end justifies the means:  Examples:
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-  Wendy Davis of Texas fabricated her auto-biography to make herself look better in front of voters.  When she was challenged on her fabrications on the campaign trail she never apologized for lying, simply admitting her “ language should have been tighter”.  Voters prefer tighter fabrications.  Wendy apparently believes her progressive agenda is the “truth” and it is ok to tell the lies to neutralize her critics.
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-  Senator Elizabeth Warren claimed she was a Native American in order to promote her career.  She was ok with lying as long as it served the greater good of social change.
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-  Obamacare was full of lies, but for the Democrats that supported the lies claiming the good intentions of universal health care are the only “ truth” that matters.  Politicians can offer competing narratives that have no relationship to objective truth.  Facts are irrelevant.  The best lies win.
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-  When Senator Hillary Clinton heard the facts about the Iraq surge from General Petraues she reacted with a “ suspension of disbelief”.  Just fighting the war was the lie.  Any facts that supported it were irrelevant.
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-  She never changed her mind as Secretary of State concerning the murders of her employees in Benghazi she proclaimed, “ What difference does it make?”
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-  Susan Rice never apologized for her claims that Benghazi was a spontaneous demonstration about a video produced in the U.S.  Lying was acceptable if it helped a progressive president be re-elected.
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-  James Clapper claimed N.S.A. does not snoop on American citizens.  That lie had good intentions to silence Obama’s critics.
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-  Even President Obama claimed his autobiography was not containing untruths just “composites”, whatever that means?
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-  Outside of math and science there are no “truths” anymore.  Today” whatever” is “ it depends”.  It becomes truthful if it serves the cause. It is all relative.
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-  I wish we could give the next Attorney General the power to wash every politician’s mouth out with soap if a indisputably caught in a lie.  My mother taught me that the most valuable part of my education was “trust”.  Without trust you will get nowhere!  Maybe she was talking about heaven?  Americans deserve the government they get.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews is available. -
-- Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -------
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com
 ------ www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Wednesday, February 5, 2014
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California's Green Energy is a Gold Mine?

-  1644  -  California’s Green Energy and the next gold Rush.   Rare Earth metals are running our knowledge economy.  But, we have little knowledge about them.  This review will help.
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---------------------  -  1644  -  California’s Green Energy
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-  Would it not be clever if California invented the  “Green Energy” program to mine all that rare earth metals out of  China.  Have it shipped to California on huge tankers paid for my California taxpayers.  Taxpayers then pay the subsidies to keep it going as well as the manufacturing and installment cost of the solar panels.   It is all obsolete in 10 years. Because new technologies will replace silicon which is essentially beach sand. Then, invent the “Green Recycle” program to mine all those California roofs of the rare earth metals they are holding.  It is a cheap recovery and used to get to the next generation technology.   Who’s the wiser?  Who says money doesn't grow on “Green” trees.

-.  We live in the “knowledge age“, not that we have it,  but, that we need it.  It is the era of computers and the worldwide Internet, Facebook and Twitter.  We got where we are on silicon which is essentially refined beach sand.  The next nano-technology will be materials built atom by atom.  ( See Review #1641 to learn about new materials).

-.  Solar and wind energy is pushing us into the “Green” economy.  However, the Green knowledge era is dependent on elements you probably have never heard of:
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------------------------------  Yttrium  ----------------  39 electrons
------------------------------  Neodymium  -----------  60 electrons
------------------------------  Europium  --------------  63 electrons
------------------------------  Terbium  ---------------  65 electrons
------------------------------  Dysprosium  -----------  66 electrons
------------------------------  Gallium  ----------------  31 electrons
------------------------------  Indium  -----------------  49 electrons
------------------------------  Tellurium  --------------  52 electrons
------------------------------  Lithium -------------------  3 electrons
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-.  These elements are essentially very essential for LED’s, permanent magnets, solar panels, integrated circuits, ………………………………

-.  All these are “critical elements” to keep this new economy moving.   But, they are in short supply and classified in the U.S. as “critical materials“.
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-  China is a source of most of these critical materials.  In fact, China holds 90% of the world supply.

-.  California is heavily subsidizing the solar panel industry selling the electric electorate on a “green economy“.   For  a $15,000 installation the State rebates $4,000, a 27% discount.   Solar panels are far from “Green” and cause much more pollution than natural gas, nuclear ,  and hydro-  from which most of our electric power is produced.
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-   Maybe this is a clever way to mine precious metals out of China.  Manufacturing the pollution and toxins in China.   Put the panels on board huge tankers and burn crude oil all away across the Pacific.  The pollution on Pacific tanker traffic is much more than all the cars in California.  Trade winds bring it to our shores anyway.  Taxpayers pay to have them installed on our house roofs.  Then after all the panels are paid for and obsolete in 10 years a recycle program is used to recover all that precious metal.  Clever idea?
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-  Actually rare earth's, as these precious metals are called, are much more abundant than gold, or platinum.  They are found everywhere.  However, to recover them from the earth economically you need cheap labor and lax environmental regulations.  China now produces 90 percent of the world supply, and a whole lot of pollution in the process.

-.  Japan is searching for the alternative to do the same mining for these rare earths found under the sea.

-.  Lithium is a different story.  It is the lightest metal and concentrated in one place in Bolivia.  Half the world's known reserves are located in the Uyun’ salt flats in the Andes Mountains on the border with Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile.  Lithium can becomes the new oil for economic growth.  Bolivia the new Saudi Arabia.

-.  In sub-Saharan Africa 5 out of 6 of the people have no electricity.  They burn kerosene lamps.  Kerosene pollutes the air and is much more expensive.   The children's health in these polluted homes is an international problem.  A solar panel to replace the lamps would cost $50.  Most of these families cannot afford that even though the electricity would be free.

-.  Getting rid of the kerosene health hazard becomes a financial challenge.  These are the poorest people in the world.  Cheap energy could really help them.  They have plenty of sunlight but no electricity.  Here is where we can put those rare earths to good use.
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-  Lithium has 3 electrons.  It was discovered in 1817 and is the lightest metal , half the density of water.  It is used to treat bipolar disorders in manic-depression, and used in rechargeable electric batteries.
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-.  Tellurium with 52 electrons was discovered in 1782.  It is a brittle, silver- like metal.  A semi-conductor used in alloys.
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-.  Gallium has 31 electrons.  It is a liquid metal discovered in 1875.  Arsenide- gallium converts electric current directly into the light.  It is used in neutrino telescopes.  It melts at 30 degrees centigrade.
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-.  Yttrium has 39 electrons.  It is a silvery metallic-like transition metal.  Discovered in 1787.  Used of the making of phosphors,  LED’s ,lasers, electrodes  …….
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-.  Neodymium has 80 electrons and is using in permanent magnets, needed for wind mills.
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.  Europium has 63 electrons.  It is a hard, silvery metal that readily oxidizes in air and in water.  Used in phosphorescence.  Used lasers, fluorescent lamps, , TVs.  Hardness is similar to that of lead.  It is a nuclear fission product.
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.  Terbium has 65 electrons.  It is a metal that is malleable, ductile, and very hard.  Used in solid-state devices, fuel cells, sensors, fluorescent lamps ……..
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-Dysprosium has 66 electrons.  It was discovered in 1886.   Used in control rods of nuclear reactors.  Used  in magnetic data storage,  hard disks, ……..
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-Indium has 49 electron.  It is a very soft metal, similar to gallium, discovered in 1863. Used in crystal displays and touch screens  in smart phone.  Used as a radio tracer in medicine.
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-  What will be needed for the next technology?  Government subsidies keep the economy on the old technology rather than let the free market apply its destructive innovation faster than taxation can keep up.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Monday, February 3, 2014  ---
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