How the elements were created?

-  1757  - How do stars create energy and elements?  Elements were created in the Big Bang and in supernovae explosions.  Elements are created in Particle Accelerators.
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-----------------  1757  - How do stars create energy and elements?
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-  How do the stars shine?  How does the Sun produce energy and how long will it last?
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-The stars get their energy from the fusion of four hydrogen atoms to make a single helium atom.
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-  Hydrogen is the simplest element consisting of one proton and one electron.  The star starts out as a gas ball with gravity squeezing it into a denser and denser, a hotter and hotter, a smaller and smaller sphere until it becomes dense enough and hot enough at its center to causes a fusion reaction, a nuclear reaction.
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-  The reaction creates a radiation pressure outward to balance the gravitational push inward.  The radiation pressure at the center must be just right to hold up the weight of all the layers of plasma up to the surface of the star.
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-  The amount of energy produced by our Sun is 3.85 * 10^26 watts per second.  The fusion process is the conversion of mass to energy according to E = mc^2.
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-----------------------  Energy  =  mass *  ( speed of light )^2
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----------------------  Energy  =  mass * 90,000,000,000,000,000  joules
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-  When two hydrogen atoms fuse to form one helium atom the mass of the helium atom is slightly less than the mass of the two hydrogen atoms.  The small difference in mass is what is converted directly into energy.
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-  The density and temperature at the core of the Sun needed to make fusion happen is density 150 times that of the density of water, the temperature is 15,000,000 Kelvin.  This area where fusion occurs is only 0.1% of the Sun’s volume.
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-  The fusion process begins with 2 hydrogen nuclei ( 2 protons )  , one proton turns into a neutron  which releases an electron , a positron ( anti-electron) , a neutrino, and Gamma Rays.  The proton + neutron is called Deuterium.  Next, a hydrogen nuclei fuses with the
Deuterium to create helium-3 ( 2 protons and a neutron ), plus more Gamma Rays.  The last step 2 helium-3 nuclei fuse together to form helium-4 ( 2 protons and 2 neutrons) plus 2 hydrogen atoms to continue the chain reaction for additional fusion to continue.
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-  The electron and positron collide and annihilate each other into pure energy, Gamma Rays.  The neutrinos is a neutral particle with very little mass.  It escapes  the surface of the Sun near instantaneously without interacting with any other particles.
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-  In summary 4 hydrogen nuclei have fused to form one helium nuclei and Gamma Ray radiation.  This radiation is what makes stars shine.
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-  Gamma Ray photons do not immediately exit the surface of the Sun.  In fact, the photons bounce between other charged particles to such an extent it takes up to 100,000 years for a photon to travel from the core to escape the surface.
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-  Near the surface the convection occurs causing hot gases to bubble to the surface and radiate at 6,000 Kelvin, which is the surface temperature of the Sun.
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-  We already mentioned that the Sun is radiating 3.85*10^26 watts of energy each second.  How long can this go on before the Sun runs out of hydrogen fuel?
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-  Converting 4 hydrogen to 1 helium results in a loss of mass to radiation.  The hydrogen nuclei is 1.6726*10^-27 kilograms.  Four hydrogen nuclei are 6.6904 * 10^-27 kilograms   A helium nuclei is 6.6465*10^-27 kilograms.  The difference is 0.0438*10^-27 kilograms.  From E=mc^2 this small mass converts to Gamma Ray energy.
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--------------  E  =  4.39*10^-29 kilograms  * (3*10^8 m/sec^2)  =  3.95*10^-12 joules
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-  The number of hydrogen nuclei in a gram converted to helium releases 6*10^11 joules of energy.  In truth the Sun converts 600 billion kilograms of hydrogen into helium every second transforming 4 billion tons of matter into Gamma Ray radiation every second.
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-  Only about 10% of the Sun’s mass at the core will remain hot enough and dense enough to sustain fusion reactions.
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------------  The mass of the Sun is 2 *10^30 kilograms
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-------------  10% is 2 * 10^29 kilograms
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-------------  600 kilograms / second  /  3.16 * 10^7  seconds per year  =
------------  1.9 *10^19 kilograms per year
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--------------  2*10^29 kilograms /  1.9*10^19 kilograms per year  =
-----------    10 8*10^9 years.
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-  The Sun will sustain fusion for 10 billion years.  It has already done so for 4.6 billion years so it has another 5.4 billion years to go.  The Sun has not quite consumed 1/2 of its hydrogen fuel to date.
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-  Here is a chart of the mass of the star and its expected lifetime.  1.0 Solar Mass is our Sun.
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----------------------  Solar Mass  ------------  Solar Luminosity  ------  Lifetime
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-------------------------  40  ----------------------500,000  -------------  800,000 years.
-------------------------  6.5  ----------------------800  ---------------  81,000,000 years
-------------------------  2.1  ----------------------20  --------------  1,050,000,000 years
-------------------------  1.3  ----------------------2.5  ----------------  5.2 billion years
-------------------------  1.0  ------- SUN -------1.0  ---- SUN ----  10 billion years
-------------------------  0.93  ------------------- 0.79  ---------------  12 billion years
-------------------------  0.69  --------------------0.16  ---------------  43 billion years
-------------------------  0.21  --------------------0.0079  ------------  270 billion years
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-  All the elements in the Periodic Table of Elements except hydrogen, helium, and deuterium were made in the fusion process of stars and in the supernovae explosions at the end of the star’s life.  The three  or four lightest elements were created in the Big Bang.  All the heavier elements in the core of stars and the explosions of stars.
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-  We have to wait for a long time for stars to explode but when this happens the results are amazing.  Everything we see, everything we are, is made of about 100 elements.  Each element built up from the element hydrogen ( one proton and one electron)  with one additional proton in the nucleus and one additional electron in orbit around the nucleus.  This worked up to 92 natural elements and 26 synthetic elements.
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-  The Periodic Table has 118 elements but 24 of them do not normally occur in nature.  Physicists have created the heavier elements by smashing protons into nuclei until they stick.  These heavy elements are short lived and quickly decay into lighter elements.
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-  Isotopes of elements occur when the nuclei add neutrons, neutral particles, to the protons in the nucleus.
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-  Medical imaging sues the artificially synthesized isotope “technetium”
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-  Smoke detectors use the isotope “ americium”
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-  Each different element has different chemical properties.  Learning how an exploding star, or,  a particle accelerator is used to create a new element:  “ Berkelium” has 97 protons in the nucleus.  A calcium nucleus with 20 protons is smashed into it and a new atom of a new element is created with 117 protons.
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-  The new element 117 lasted only a few seconds before decaying back into lighter elements.  One of the breakdown products was also new.  It had 103 protons “lawrencium”  with 163 neutrons.  Lawrencium-266,  this new isotope of “ lawrencium” lived for 11 hours before it decayed.
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-  More powerful particle accelerators are under development.  They are needed.  Today’s accelerators are having limited success.  Example:  Element 113 was being bombarded for 553 days over a nine year period.  This is a lot of energy used to make a single atom.
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-  Neutrons and isotopes are essential to the mix because neutrons help the strong nuclear force hold protons together.  Protons are positive charges that repel each other unless the Strong Nuclear Force can overpowers the repulsive electromagnetic force.
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-  New accelerators are capable of accelerating Uranium-238 to half the speed of light , to 93,000 miles per second.
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-  Somehow supernovae explosions have produced iron, gold , and silver.  To date , science has not been  able to figure out how this process works  More knowledge is needed.  Not only for particle physics and astronomy but also for medical cancer treatments, and for safe nuclear power plants.
-
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-----------------  RSVP, Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----------------
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Thursday, March 26, 2015  -----
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Math is food for the brain?

-  1661  - Math is food for the brain  .  This Review teaches you how to calculate gambling odds.  How to multiple squares and 2 numbers with short cuts. Delaney’s birthday is April 7, how old is she?
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---------------------  -  1661  - Math is food for the brain  
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-   Math is food for the brain.  It helps you think precisely, decisively, and creatively.  And, it helps you look at the world from multiple perspectives.
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-  A teacher wants to take a break so she asks the class to add up all the numbers to 100.  Before she can get to her desk a student says 5,050.
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-  How did you know that answer?”   The other students had barely reached a sum of 14.
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-  Well numbers 1 to 100 come in pairs, 1 + 100  =  101,  2 + 99 =  101, 3 + 98  =  101, …..  50 + 51  =  101.  Do that 50 times and you get 50* 101  =  5,050.
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- …………..   ( actually the general formula is n( n+1) / 2  =  100 ( 101)  / 2  =  5,050)
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-  A little frustrated the teacher comes up with a new lesson plan.  Show me how the sum of cubes of a series of numbers is always equal to the square of the sum of those numbers:
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-------------------  Any series, but, let’s use 1,2,3
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-----------------  1^3  + 2^3  +  3^3  =  1  +  8  +  27  =  36
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----------------   ( 1+2+3)^2  =  6^2  =   36
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-  How does this always work for every series of positive numbers?
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-  Silence!
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-  Let’s say you walk into a casino with $60 and you say you will leave with $100 or go bust.  What are your odds with 50-50 fair play?  Well, the math is at the end of this review, but, it is easy with 50% odds, it’s 60 / 100 or 60%.
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-  Casinos do not make money with 50% odds.
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-  At the craps table the odds are 49.3% .  Your chance of winning $100 is 28%.
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-  At the roulette table with odds of 47.3% your chance of winning $100 is 1.3%.
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-  If you are an expert at Blackjack and know when to hold them and when to fold them your odds could reach 51%.  In that case your chances of walking out with $100 are 93%.  If you must gamble learn to play Blackjack.
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-  If you must gamble learn to do the math.  The formula is at the end of this review:
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-  If you square a number that ends in 5 you can do it in your head.  The answer ends in 25, always.  The first digits of the answer are the first digit of the original number times the next higher digit.
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--------------------  35^2  =  3*4 = 12 ,     Answer =  1225
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--------------------- 55^2  =  5*6  = 30   Answer  =  3025
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------------------  65^2   =  6*7  =  42    Answer  =  4225    Remember this one we will use it later.
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-  Now let’s do the math for draw poker.  The rule is the number of ways to pick “k” objects from “n” objects when the order is not important :  Here is the formula:
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-------------------  n!  /  k! ( n - k )!
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----------------- “factorial” ,  “!”  is the series of multiplications  5!  =  5*4*3*2*1  = 120
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-  How many 5 card poker hands are possible in a 52 card deck?
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------------------  n!  /  k! ( n - k )!  =  52!  /  5!  ( 47!)  =  52*51*50*49*48  /  120
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-  The 47! cancel out  and the answer is 311,875,200  /  120   =  2,598,960
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-  There are over 2 ½ million poker hand combinations you can draw from a 52 card deck, where order is not important.
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-  What are your chances of drawing a” flush”?
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-  There are  4 suits of 13 cards in 52 cards.  So, there are 4 chances of getting 5, “ k”,  same suits out of 13 , “n”, cards.
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---------   4  *   n!  /  k! ( n - k )!  =  4 * 13! / 5! * 8!  =  4 * 13*12*11*10*9 / 5 *4*3*2*1!   =    617,760 / 120  =  5,148
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-  So, there are 5,148 chances for a flush out of 2,598,960 possible hands.  That is  0.2 % chance of getting a flush:
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---------  5,128  / 2,598,960  =  0.00198   That is 0.2 %
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-  What are the chances of drawing an ace?  Since there are 4 aces.  You could draw 1 ace, 2 aces, 3 aces, or 4 aces in 5 cards.  To make this problem easier, do the opposite.  What is the possibility of not drawing an ace, there are 48 of those chances.
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-------------------  n!  /  k! ( n-k )!  =  48!  / 5! * 43!  =  1,712,304
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-------------------- 2,598,960  -  1,712,304  =  886,656  which is 34%
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-   You have a 34% chance of drawing an ace in a poker hand when it comes out of 52 cards.
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-  Think of any number, double it, add 10, then divide by 2.  Now subtract your any original number.  What is the answer?  ………………………  5.
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-----------------  It is always 5.  why?
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----------------  2*n + 10  / 2  =  n + 5
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----------------  n + 5 - n  =  5
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-  On April 7, 2014 Delaney will be twice as old as James.  Two years ago Delaney was 3 times as old as James.  How old will Delaney be on her birthday?
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---------------------  Delaney  =  2 * James
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--------------------  Delaney - 2  =  3 ( James - 2 )
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--------------------  2 * James -2  =  3 James - 6
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---------------------  James  =  4
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-----------------  Delaney  = 2* James  = 8
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- Delaney will be 8 years old on April 7, 2014.
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-  Remember when we squared a number ending in 5:
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----------------  65^2  =  6*7  +  25  =  4, 225
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--------------  Where does this come from?
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---------------  (x + y) * (x - y)  =  x^2 - y^2
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-  This is a special case since the products “+ xy” and “- xy” cancel.   Normally, expanding this multiplication gives you x^2 +xy - xy + y^2.   And, 5 is half way between 0 and 10, so the y^2 is always 25.  See explanation at the end of this Review.
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-  What is the square of 13?
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-  Well think of it as ( 13 + 3 ) * (13- 3)  + 3^2   =  160  + 9  = 169
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----------------  This one works because x^2  =  x^2 - y^2  +  y^2
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---------------  But we have already shown that x^2 - y^2  =  (x + y) * (x - y)
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----------------  x^2  =  (x + y) * (x - y)  +  y^2
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---------------  13^2  =  (13 + 3) * (13 - 3)  +  3^2  =  16 * 10 + 9  =  169
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-  What is the square of 99?
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---------------  99^2  =  (  99 +1) * ( 99 - 1 ) + 1^2  =  100 * 98 + 1  =  9,801
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-  It is not always easy to have a “+y”  and a “-y” in your equation to arrive at easy numbers you can multiply in your head.  So, you can make it more general with the formula:  Try this several times, you need practice to do magic for your friends.:
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----------------  ( z + a ) * ( z + b )  =  z^2  +  za  +  zb  +  ab  =  z ( z + a + b )  +  ab
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-  To see how this works multiply 106 * 109:
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-----------------  ( z + a ) * ( z + b )  =  z ( z + a + b )  +  ab
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----------------  ( 100 + 6 ) * ( 100 + 9 )  =  100 ( 115 )  +  54  = 11,500  +  54  =  11,544

----------------------------  multiply 107 * 111:
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----------------  ( 100 + 7 ) * ( 100 + 11 )  =  100 ( 118 )  +  77  = 11,800  +  77  =  11,877
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----------------------------  multiply 97 * 106:
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----------------  ( 100 -3 ) * ( 100 + 6 )  =  100 ( 103 )  - 18  = 10,300  -18  =  10,282
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----------------------------  multiply 14 * 17:
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----------------  ( 10 + 4 ) * ( 10 + 7 )  =  10 ( 21 )  + 28  = 210  +  28  =  238
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----------------------------  multiply 62 * 68:
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----------------  ( 60 + 2 ) * ( 60 + 8 )  =  60 ( 70 )  + 16  = 4200  +  16  =  4,216
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----------------------------Remember  65^2  =  65 * 65:
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----------------  ( 60 + 5 ) * ( 60 + 5 )  =  60 ( 70 )  + 25  =   4,225
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-  Here is the probability for the gambling:
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--------------------------  “p”  =  probability with each bet that you win
-------------------------- “ (1-p)”  =    probability with each bet that you loose.
-------------------------  “d”  =  dollars that you start with, $60.
-------------------------  “n”  =  goal you reach to quit, $100
-----------------------  Your probability of reaching your goal:
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----------------------    1  -  (( 1-p) / p) ^d       /     1  -  (( 1-p) / p) ^n    
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----------------------    1  -  (( 0.49) / 0.51) ^60      /     1  -  (( 0.49) / 0.51) ^100
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----------------------    1  -  (0.961) ^60      /     1  -  (0.961) ^100
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----------------------    1  -  0.091      /     1  -  0.187
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----------------------      0.909    /     0.981      =  93%    
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-  If you can play expert Blackjack with 51% chance of winning you have a 93% chance of using $60 to make $100.  Good Luck!
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-  Pick any  4-digit number.  Scramble those numbers into a different number. Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.  Add up the digits of that number, if necessary add the next set of digits, eventually you will end up with the number 9.  Trust me.
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-  Other Reviews available upon request:
-  1650  Power of combinations
-  1638  Rent or buy
-  1565  Speed of satellites
-  1521  Calculating interest
-  1467  Calculating growth and decay
-  1329  Exponential curve
-  1459  Modular math
-  1344  Rocket launch
-  1284  String theory
-  1281  Many more math examples.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Thursday, March 26, 2015  ---
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March Star Constellations

-  1752-  March Star Constellations.  How they got their names and the ancient stories that go along with them.
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-----------------  1752-  March Star Constellations
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-  I got started in astronomy a dozen years ago when I began trying to learn the star constellations in the night sky.  March is the best  month to observe the Constellations Leo the Lion and Gemini the Twins with bright stars Regulus and Procyon.
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-  Then 10 years ago I began attending a once weekly course on Physics and Astronomy at Sonoma State University.  I found the history of astronomy interesting and the other end in space exploration amazing.  We live in interesting times with new discoveries almost weekly in physics and astronomy
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-  This is the 100 year anniversary for the Theory of Relativity.  Quantum Mechanics Theory becomes essential in physics to understand how the Cosmos works.  But, the math for both theories are not compatible.  They approach the problems from different directions and do not come together or overlap.  (  See Reviews 1751 and 1753 for more on this subject.)
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-  This review gets back to star gazing in the month of March.  The evening starts with the birds singing and the spring flowers blooming.  As night falls the Spring Constellations begin to appear.  Leo, Cancer, Gemini are directly overhead.  Orion is in the West.  The dark Moon is the last 2 weeks of March.
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-  The New Moon ( darkest moon) is March 20 and the first day of Spring is March 21.  This day is marked by that point in the sky when the ecliptic orbit path of the planets around the Sun as viewed from Earth in our one year journey, AND, the path of the celestial equator cross due to the tilt of the Earth’s axis.  The Sun begins rising higher in the sky each day as summer approaches and the days become longer.  On March 21 the day and the night are both equal to 12 hours.
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-  Spring is when the star Regulus in the Constellation Leo the Lion and the bright star Procyon in the Constellation Canis Minor are high in the sky.  Halfway in between these two bright stars is the “head of the snake”, the Constellation Hydra the Snake.  The snakes tail of stars stretches from the head all the way to the southern horizon.
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-  Have you ever wondered how the Constellations came up with these names, there are 88 constellations in total.  The path of the Sun across the sky is called the ecliptic.  And, the ecliptic crosses 12 Constellations that are the Zodiac.  Star gazing is an ancient past time.  Most of the constellations have a story created by ancient historians.  The bright star below the head of Hydra is “Alphard“, which means the “heart” of the snake.  Near the snakes tail is the Star “ Spica” in the Constellation Virgo.  On the back of the snake is “ Crater the Cup” and Corvus the Crow”.
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-  These are both small 4- star constellations in the shape of a square.  Crater and Corvus constellations appear even brighter in April and May.
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-  Now to the ancient story.  Apollo sent his pet crow down to Earth to fetch a cup of fresh water.  The crow lingered at the spring to fetch the water waiting for the figs to ripen on the nearby tree.  When the figs finally were ripe enough the crow had a nice feast.  To cover for the fact the crow took so long to fetch the water he plucked a water snake out of the water and brought it home to Apollo along with the cup of water.  The crow’s plan was to blame the snake for the long delay.  Apollo was not fooled and he flung the crow, the cup, and the snake back into the sky.  Where they remain to this day.
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-  Many Constellation names have one of these wonderful stories.  It is too bad these stories are not taught in schools so kids could begin learning the sky overhead and the Universe that lies beyond their imagination.  Stay tuned, and let me know if you would like to learn more of the ancient stories.  I have a collection.
-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------  RSVP, Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----------------
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Wednesday, March 25, 2015  -----
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Cosmic String Theory

-  1755  -  Cosmic String Theory.  What’s the difference between “ Dark Energy” expanding the Universe ,and, “ Cosmic Inflation Theory” expanding the Universe?  And, what does the Universe expansion have to do with “ String Theory”?
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-----------------  1755  -  Cosmic String Theory.

-  What’s the difference between “ Dark Energy” expanding the Universe and “ Cosmic Inflation Theory” expanding the Universe?  And, what does the Universe expansion have to do with “ String Theory”?
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-The Big Bang Theory was first proposed in 1927.  Running the expanding Universe backwards in time puts everything together at a single point 13,700,000,000 years ago.
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-  The Cosmic Microwave Background discovered in 1964 is consistent with the Big Bang Theory.  So is Nucleosynthesis creation of the first neutral atoms, Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium, the 3 lightest elements created during the Big Bang.
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-  However, another theory was needed to explain how the Universe was perfectly uniform at distances separated by more than 13.7 billion lightyears.  Those two regions had to have been together in order to be the same and they and to separate faster than the speed of light.
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-  Secondly, the expansion of the Universe is nearly “ geometrically flat”  It is at a balancing point for gravity to pull it backwards and a Dark Energy for expanding it forever.
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-  To explain these coincidences Alan Guth in 1981 proposed the Cosmic Inflation Theory.  His team at MIT proposed that space did expand faster than the speed of light for a short period immediately after the Big Bang.  The expansion only lasted for 10^-34 seconds.  But, during that short time space expanded by a factor of 10^50.  Obviously, there must have been a high energy field that near instantaneously created this rapid expansion.
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-  Called a “ false vacuum” that decayed to a real vacuum releasing energy in the form of an antigravity force.
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-  Cosmic Inflation remains a theory but experiments and measurements so far don’t dispute it.  The theory does explain how the geometry of the Universe could appear “flat”.  Similar to how the Earth appears flat because the sphere is so large.  The ratio  of Earth’s surface to size is small compared to the ratio in Cosmic Inflation.  Expanding the sphere of our curved surface by 3, then be 3, then by 3 again and you appear to be standing on a “ flat” surface looking at the horizon.  To relate this to Cosmic Inflation you would need to expand the sphere 87 more times.
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-  However, if theoretically you can think of this inflation happening you can answer the questions of why the Universe appears to be flat and smooth and uniform is all directions.  But, what causes Cosmic Inflation to happen in the first place?
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-  Tiny, string-like loops of energy could be the Universes’ basic form of matter-energy and some strings could reach cosmic size.  These Cosmic Strings could have triggered the formation  of galaxies shortly after the Big Bang.
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-  These strings come from cracks in the Universes’ phase transitioning from Cosmic Inflation to and current expanding Universe.  The cracks created thin, super dense strings of matter-energy that are exceedingly thin yet carry enormous strength.
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-  If the strings are exceedingly dense they could act as gravitational lenses.  Calculations and simulations put these Cosmic Strings spaced 325 million lightyears apart throughout the Cosmos.  About the distances of galaxy clusters today.  The nearest could be 10,000 lightyears away.
-
-  These are Cosmic Strings.  Most people understand “ String Theory” to be the smallest possible structures for matter and energy.  This search all started when it was discovered that matter was made up of atoms.  Atoms were small indestructible particles that make up all mater.  Each element of matter having a different atom.
-
-  Later, science discovered atoms are made up of smaller particles, and mostly nothing but empty space.  There was a nucleus at the center and electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets orbiting the Sun.  The hydrogen atom was mostly space with the nucleus 1,297 times heavier than the single electron in orbit. (1)
-
-  Still later, science found the nucleus to be made up of protons and neutrons and most recently protons and neutrons to be made up of Quarks.
-
-  The study of particle physics uses the math of Quantum Mechanics.  The fundamental electrons  are held by the Electromagnetic Force.  The force particles being photons.  The Quarks are held in protons by the Strong Nuclear Force.  The force particle being Gluons.  The neutrons held from decay by the Weak Nuclear Force and all three of these forces acting at short distances compared to the force of Gravity that is the weakest but acting on  large masses over great distances.
-
-  The quest is to unify all 4 of these fundamental forces of nature.
-
-  String Theory is one of the unifying proposals.
-
-  Basically one - dimensional strings of pure energy comprise all the fundamental particles and they are held together in 3 spatial dimensions, the Time dimension, and 6 more extra dimensions.
-
-  The string’s vibrations create the fabric of space.   And, different  vibrations create all the particles and forces.
-
-  If Supersymmetry Theory is correct every elementary particle has a massive super partner particle.  Superstring Theory tries to tie these principles of Supersymmetry , the 10 superstring dimensions, and Gravity all together into one single theory.
-
-  Supersymmetry Theory allows the force carrying particles to transform into one another.  Example: Photons transforms into Gluons and vise versa.  It also has a force carrying particle for Gravity, called the Graviton.
-
-  So far, none of these theoretical particles have been observed to exist.
-
-  Supersymmetry partners have names like this:
-
----------------------  electrons  -----------------  selectrons
----------------------  photons  ------------------  photinos
----------------------  quarks  --------------------  squarks
-
-  The extra dimension beyond the 3 spatial ones we operate in appear as 6 additional coordinates attached to each point everywhere in space.
-
-  Is String Theory simply creating obscure objects out of pure mathematics?
-
-  Today’s Standard Model of Particle Physics combines Electroweak Theory ( combining Electromagnetic Force with the Weak Nuclear Force)  with the Strong Nuclear force in math called “ Quantum Chromodynamics”  ( QCD ).
-
-  The Standard Model and these existing Theories have no place for 95% of the Universe believed to be made of Dark Matter and Dark Energy.  And, that still leaves out the “vacuum of space”.
-
-  So, all our experiments work with 5% of the Universe that we can observe.  These Cosmic Strings and particle strings are theories trying to understand the other 95% of the “Observable” Universe.  God only knows what is beyond the Observable Universe.  If it expanded faster than light we don’t get to ever observe it.  If it is so small as 10^-35 centimeters we don’t get to observe that either.  When you are working in the Dark you have only your brain’s imagination to figure things out.  That is where these theories are coming from.  Stay tuned, there is a lot more to learn.
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-  (1)  The weight of a proton  =  1.167282 * 10^-27 kilograms.  The weight of an electron  =  9 * 10^-31 kilograms.    Ratio =  1,297.
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--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Wednesday, March 25, 2015  -----
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Blackholes are not black?

-  1753  -  Blackholes are not black.  Theories are coming out challenging Einstein’s description of a blackhole having just 3 characteristics, mass, spin, and charge.  These new theories are a totally different picture of something we can’t see.
----------------------

-----------------  1753  -  Blackholes are not black
-
-  Stephen Hawking proposed a theory that blackholes were not totally black.  His math showed that Quantum Mechanics allowed atoms to leak out over the Event Horizon due to the Heisenberg Uncertainly Principle and due to matter-antimatter particles separating.
-
-  This leak became known as Hawking Radiation and meant that blackholes have a finite lifetime.  A blackhole could theoretically evaporate completely over enough time.  Quantum Information entered the blackhole.  The proposed evaporation is random noise.  Is the Quantum Information consequently lost?  Is this contrary to the law of Conservation of Quantum Information?
-
-  A new proposal has the Event Horizon being a “firewall“, an inferno that destroys all Quantum Information before it ever gets inside the blackhole.
-
-  Prior to this idea Einstein’s idea was that the Event Horizon was thought to be an invisible line that was nearly undetectable when crossed.  However, once crossed nothing , not even light, could escape.
-
-  The laws of physics must look the same from all frames of reference.  All perspectives arrive at the same answer.
-
-  In 2014 Stephen Hawking tried to settle this conflict.  His new proposal is that the Event Horizon is not a defined boundary but a “ zone of chaos” where space and time are completely scrambled.   Therefore, any Quantum Information entering the zone is completely scrambled.  Event Horizons are fuzzy edges that garble information that enters.
-
-  In 2015 a new proposal comes forward claiming that the laws of physics prevent the blackhole from even forming.  This analysis of resulting energy and pressure concludes that rather than imploding the actions at the Event Horizon reverse everything ,flinging everything back into space.  The theory says that imploding stars always self-destruct before a blackhole can form.
-
-  The theory survives observation because it also concludes that at the Horizon time stops.  A rebound explosion would look like a single, motionless moment from our perspective on the outside.  Blackholes will never exist from our perspective because we could never see them form.  All we can see is a frozen frame when the star is infinitesimally close to the Event Horizon.
-
-  To reconcile these theories we need a new theory that merges Quantum Mechanics theories and General Relativity theories.
-
-  To get in to this dilemma deeper we have to address the Entropy Problem and the Information Paradox.
-
-  Hawking Radiation has particles and anti-particles separating, and, one of the pair evaporating past the Event Horizon escaping the blackhole.  This implies that the blackhole has disorder, it has Entropy, it has a temperature.  However, Einstein’s Relativity requires blackholes to be completely smooth without structure and therefore no entropy.  They both can’t be right?
-
-  Quantum Mechanics requires the Conservation of Quantum Information.  Hawking Radiation requires the destruction of information.  When particles escape information is lost.  They both can’t be right?
-
-  So, is the blackhole a benign Event in which things enter and never leave.  Like, the “Hotel California” where a person checks in and he never checks out.  Or, is the Event a firewall of high energy particles that marks the end of space?  Space evaporates, Time stops.
-
-  If blackholes have a temperature , therefore radiation, therefore they have a large amount of Entropy, disorder in their microscopic structure.
-
-  If blackholes destroy the Quantum Wave Function of the particles that enter then Quantum Information would be destroyed.  Quantum Mechanics Theory requires the Conservation of this information.  So, this idea conflicts with current theory.
-
-  Quantum Entanglement may be involved.  This is where two “ entangled “ particles switch characteristics ( example: spin up and spin down ) instantaneously regardless of their separation in space.  Communication over great distances between entangled particles would have to be faster than the speed of light.  If entanglement is broken there is a loss of energy.  This becomes a wall of energy, it becomes a “ firewall” destroying anything that passes, even space might end at the Horizon.
-
-  General Relativity allows gravity to collapse matter and energy into a density so great that it creates a blackhole where the gravity is so strong nothing, not even light photons can escape.    This theory requires blackholes to obviously have mass that curves space-time creating the pull of gravity.  But, what else characterizes the blackhole?  Relativity allows only two more characteristics:  spin and electric charge.
-
-  A spinning blackhole has other consequences.  At the Event Horizon the spin would drag along space-time. Space-time would be distorted like a spoon spinning in honey.
-
-  If there is a star orbiting a blackhole its mass can be calculated using Newton’s simple equations for an orbiting body.  If the blackhole has an accretion disk orbiting it the temperatures in the disk can be millions of degrees Kelvin.  This hot plasma creates X-rays.  By measuring the X-rays astronomers can measure how close the detected hot plasma is to the horizon and can calculate the spin rate of the disk.
-
-  This X-ray technique was done on one object and its spin rate measured to be 950 times per second.
-
-  Another technique uses the light spectrum of hot iron.  As the iron elements get nearer the Event Horizon the intense gravity Redshifts the element’s spectrum.  An object measured in this way had a spin rate of 98.7% the speed of light.  These are Relativistic speeds for sure.
-
-  The jets of material exiting the poles of these rotating objects are traveling 92% the speed of light.
-
-  Gamma-Ray Bursts may be the result of massive stars collapsing into spinning blackholes.
-
-  Blackholes themselves can never be seen directly.  They make themselves known indirectly through the effects of their immense gravity ( mass) and their rapid rotation. Blackholes have scientist scratching their heads.  Some laws of physics must be broken and new ones discovered.  A blackhole really is black.  Stay tuned, there is much more to learn.
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-  Other Reviews available upon request to learn more about blackholes:  1677, 1658, 1587, 1551, 1508, 1441, 1365, 1350, 1244, 1105, 1177, 1096, 1140, 903, 848, 846, 819, 774, 592, 578, 453
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--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Tuesday, March 24, 2015  -----
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The tides of gravity?

-  1754-  The Tides of Gravity.  How gravity affects the Earth and the Moon, the galaxies and Blackholes.
-
---------------------------

-
-----------------  1754-  The Tides of Gravity
-
-  Gravity is the weakest force in nature, but, it puts 180 pounds of force on my feet.  I can not lift a 180 pound weight off the floor, so,  my feet are holding up a lot of mass.  Of course it is not my mass that is the contributor it is the mass of the entire Earth.
-
----------------------------  F  =  G  *  M * m  /  r^2
-
----------------------------  Force of gravity  =  Gravitational Constant  * Mass of the Earth  *  mass of my body  /  ( radius to center of Earth )^2
-
-  A small refrigerator magnet uses magnetic force to pick up a paper clip with the gravitational force of the entire Earth trying to pull it to the ground.  The other three forces in nature are much, much stronger than the force of gravity, 10^38 times stronger.
-
-  The 180 pounds (m) feels like a powerful force because the other mass(M) in the equation is the Earth at 6,600,000,000,000,000,000 tons.
-
-  Fortunately the other 3 forces are holding your body together.  Molecular forces: Electromagnetic, Strong, and Weak Nuclear forces.
-
-  However, for many objects in the Universe it is primarily the force of gravity holding them together, solar systems, galaxies, and galaxy clusters.
-
-  The force of gravity extends forever in all directions, but, the further the separation of two masses the weaker the gravity force of attraction between then  ( 1/r^2).
-
-  The Moon and the Earth always face each other.  The near faces are closer and experience stronger gravity attraction than the far sides.  The Earth is rotating so its near face is always changing.  The tidal force of the gravity between them creates a bulge in both the Earth and the Moon.
-
-  The ocean tides perpetually align with the Moon ever 27.3 days while the Earth is rotating every 24 hours.  The tidal currents are a friction on the Earth’s surface.  Rotational Energy is lost in this friction and the Earth’s rotation is slowing down, 2.3 milliseconds per day per century.  That is not much but does cause a leap second added to the leap years every once in a while to keep our clocks on schedule.
-
-  We can see the effect of the tides on the seashore.  But, you may hardly notice the ground beneath your feet rising one foot as the  Moon passes overhead.  It happens twice a month.  It may be  enough to trigger an earthquake.
-
-  Our Moon is 1/4th the size of the Earth but only contains 1% of its mass.  The distances of separation “ (r )” is 239,000 miles.
-
-  Jupiter’s moon ,  Io, is 20% more massive that our Moon.  But, the planet Jupiter is 318 times more massive that the Earth.  and, the distance of separation is only 23,000 miles.  The tidal forces that result significantly distort the entire shape of Io.  There are 3 other Jupiter moons that also play a part in distorting Io,  Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto are 0.66, 2.03, and 1.45 the mass of the Moon.
-
-  When the ground rises on Io it rises hundreds of feet.  The friction creates heat and volcanic eruptions that spew plumes of gas and debris 100 miles above the surface.
-
-  Europa feels enough tidal effect to have 62 mile liquid ocean beneath its icy crust surface.
-
-  The tidal forces of planets and even the Sun are miniscule compared to the tidal forces of galaxies.  The Milky Way Galaxy is devouring smaller dwarf galaxies streaming them into a tidal tail of stars that orbits our galaxy.  The Sagittarius dwarf galaxy has a tidal stream that completely encircles the Milky way.
-
-  Astronomers are studying these tidal streams to locate the center of gravity within our Galaxy.  And, to locate the Sun’s precise distance from the galactic center.
-
-  Other examples of these tidal streams in colliding galaxies can be found in “ The Mice”, NGC 4676, 300 million lightyears away in the Constellation coma Berenices.
-
-  Sun grazing comes have streaming tails created by tidal forces as well as by solar winds.  Gravity is not so weak after all.  It all depends on your frame of reference.  If you take your frame of reference to be galaxy clusters, Neutron Stars, Blackholes gravity is so strong it curves height, width, and depth of space and the dimension of time to such a great extent to create gravitational waves.
-
-  The gravitational interaction of massive bodies create waves that we should be able to detect.  Large interferometers using perpendicular laser beams are being used today to detect these gravity waves.  LIGO, LISA, GEO 600, TAMA300 are four such projects.  If these experiments succeed we will have a whole new science in Gravity.  Stay tuned , there is more to learn.
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- Other Reviews available upon request:
-  #1456  Tidal forces on our Moon and Jupiter’s are compared.
-  #43  Using laser interferometer to detect gravity waves.
-  #1534, #581  Gravity lensing to see distant galaxies.
-  #1470  Loop Quantum Gravity
-  #588  Gravity Prove B to test the Theory of Relativity.
-  #1723  Gravity waves to measure the size of the Universe.
-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------  RSVP, Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----------------
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Sunday, March 22, 2015  -----
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Einstein's theory of gravity.?

-  1751  -  Einstein’s Theory of Gravity.  100 years of challenges have not been able to dispute or change his thought experiment of what gravity was and how it works.  His math has held up with every observation, so far.
-
-----------------------------

-
-
-----------------  1751  -  Einstein’s Theory of Gravity
-
-  Today is March 14, 2015.  It is Pi Day, 3.14.15.  Pi is 3.1415, or, the ratio of the circumference of any circle divided by its diameter.  Pi s an Irrational Number, meaning that the decimal digits go on to infinity.  It is also Albert Einstein’s 100 year anniversary for his Theory of Relativity.  Newton’s equations didn’t us Pi, but, Einstein’s equations did.
-
-  Relativity tells about the speed of light being a constant, 186,282 miles per second, everywhere in the Universe, regardless of relative motion or time.  Relativity also tells us that Gravity is not just a force attracting mass, but, it is a curvature of space and time.  Space and Time are not constant, but , the speed of light is constant.
-
-  Einstein’s revelations were done on pencil and paper.  Many observations and experiments over the past 100 years have tried to find exceptions to the Theory, but, so far, only confirmations have come out of the attempts.
-
-  The Theory has tremendous consequences in the entire Universe.  Nothing with mass can travel faster than the speed of light.  Anything that is massless instantly explodes traveling at the light speed, regardless of its relative motion, or direction, or frame of reference in the Universe.
-
-  Another consequence of this Theory is that a mass traveling at speeds approaching light speed increases, space shrinks, and time slows.  Carrying this Relativity math to its extreme at the speed of light the mass in infinite, the space is nothing, and time stops.  Therefore no mass can possible reach the velocity of a massless light beam.  Photons and Gluons are the only massless particles known that can travel that fast.
-
-  We  learn in school and astronauts apply Newton’s Gravitational Force equation which is perfectly accurate for our worldly applications:
-
-------------------------   Force of Gravity  =  G  *  M  *  m  /  r^2
-
-  The force of gravity between two objects is equal to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
-
-  Newton’s math works except for extremely massive objects, or, for objects moving extremely fast.  Experiments at these extremes begin to show that Newton’s Math for a force is not complete and Einstein’s math for a curvature of space and time becomes more accurate.
-
-  Astronomers are trying new experiments to test the math in Relativity.  One involves a pair of Pulsars orbiting each other.  Pulsars are super dense, collapsed stars that rotate rapidly and shoot a beam of radiation out their poles.  The precessing beam acts as a pulse, or a light house beam , sweeping by our line of sight.  The timing of the pulse is as accurate as our atomic clocks.
-
-  Relativity predicts that these massive rotating Pulsars are generating Gravitational Waves radiating outward and depleting the binary system’s total energy.  This in turn causes the stars to spiral towards each other over time.  Since 1974 the separation distances have exactly matched the math calculations in Relativity.  The Pulsars are getting closer together as they spin around each other because gravity waves are carrying away energy.
-
-  Gravity curves space and time and nowhere greater than in the grasp of a Blackhole.  26,000 lightyears away at the center of our Galaxy is Sagittarius A,  Blackhole 4,400,000 Solar Mass.  A proposed observation is to see the shadow of the Blackhole cast on the radio-wave background.  This is as close as science can get to directly seeing a blackhole.
-
-  Two different blackhole theories are under study.  Einstein’s theory that a blackhole has only 3 properties:  mass, spin, and electric charge.  Everything else is lost on the inside beyond the Event Horizon.  If there is other than a perfectly circular shadow than maybe there are other properties involved.  This would set a in motion a second set of theories that blackholes “have hair“,  that is they are more complicated than 3 parameters.
-
-  The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, ( LIGO) experiment is designed to detect the gravitational waves passing through the Earth.  These cosmic ripples are being created by colliding galaxies million of lightyears away.  The waves reaching Earth are very small.  LIGO requires the detection of  push and pull oscillations that are 1/1,000th  of the width of a proton.  A proton diameter is 0.000,000,000,000,008,418,4  meters.
-
-  The detection of the effects of Relativity are very difficult.  In our everyday world Isaac Newton’s theories work perfectly well.  To see how small the error is consider the first observations made in 1859 that the planet Mercury was arriving at its closest orbital position to the Sun one-half second later with each 88 day rotation, (Mercury year).
-
-  Newton’s math came within 1/1,000,000th percent of being accurate.  In 1915 Relativity’s math accounted for the space-time warping created by the mass of the Sun and precisely accounted for the yearly offset.
-
-  Relativity math also predicted that light beams would bend as they passed by a mass horizon.  In 1919 Arthur Eddington measured the offset of Hyades background stars during a solar eclipse.  Today this is called “ Gravitational Lensing”, and astronomers are using the bending light to magnify background galaxies deep into the beginning of the Universe.
-
-  Another experiment tried to prove the light beams moving away from a massive object become stretched, loose energy, become Redshifted.  In 1959 this phenomenon was verified by Gamma Rays traveling up a 74 foot tower and loosing a couple trillionths of their energy due to widening wavelengths.  This same effect was verified with the Global Positioning System.  The orbiting satellites had to be adjusted 38 millionths of a second per day in order to remain accurate with the Earth’s surface, matching Einstein’s math exactly.  ( See Review on Global Positioning System).
-
-  Light travels the same speed, but, it may take a longer path passing by a massive object.  Sure enough a radar pulse bounced off Mercury is 200 millionths of a second slower if Mercury is closest to the Sun.  This experiment has been repeated  bouncing signals off spacecraft.  Einstein’s math remains spot-on accurate.
-
-  All bodies accelerate in a gravitational field the same regardless of the mass or composition.  Sure enough a feather in a vacuum and a canon ball fall at the same rate.  In 1971 Apollo Astronauts verified this on the Moon with a feather and a hammer.  The Earth and the Moon are effectively falling around the Sun.  Laser reflectors left on the Moon have proven gravity’s acceleration to be equivalent for both bodies.
-
-  A spinning massive body pulls space-time along with it like a spoon stirring honey.  Gravity Probe B is a satellite that in 2011 proved Earth’s spin drags space-time exactly as the math predicts.
-
-  Einstein’s “ Equivalence Principle” that all bodies under the influence of the same gravitational field experience the same acceleration regardless of mass or  composition  has withstood 100 years of challenge.  He created it as a thought experiment.  Repeated challenges and observations have not been able to improve on it.  A test of time.
-
-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Wednesday, March 18, 2015  -----
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Math for fun

-
-

-
----------------- 1750  -  Math for fun:

--  Science and Math are special to me.  Science is the study of reality.  It helps me try to understand what the world is really like.  Math is the study of patterns.  What is amazing to me is how well math is used to describe nature.  Was math discovered in nature, or, was it invented to describe nature.  Regardless, it is amazing that it works so perfectly.
-
-  If you multiply two of the same numbers together you will always get the maximum product for their sum.
-
---------------  5 * 5 = 25  their sum is 10.  If you take 4 * 6 you get 24, one less than the maximum.  If you take 3 * 7 you get 21 which is 4 less than the maximum, or 2^2 less than the maximum.  Try this by squaring any number:
-
--------------  10 * 10 = 100
-
--------------  9 * 11 = 99   ---------------  one less than max ----- sum is 20
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--------------  8 * 12 = 96   ---------------  two^2 less than max ----- sum is 20
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--------------  7 * 13 = 81   ---------------  three^2 less than max ----- sum is 20
-
-  So, the square of any number becomes easier to calculate.  Here’s how:
-
--------------  13 * 13 = 169
-
--------------  12 * 14 = 168   ---------------  one less than max ----- sum is 26
-
--------------  11 * 15 = 165  ---------------  two^2 less than max ----- sum is 26
-
--------------  10* 16 = 160   ---------------  three^2 less than max ----- sum is 26
-
-  So, to square 13, multiple 10*16 = 160 , a much easier calculation to do in your head, and, add 3^2, or 9 to get 169.
-
--------------  13 * 13 = 169
-
-  To square 15, 10*20 = 200 + 5^2 = 225
-
-  To square 21, 22 * 20 = 440 + 1^2  =  441
-
-  This works for the square of any number.
-
-  Carl Freidrich Gauss was a math genius at 10 years old.  When he was in the 4th grade the teacher tried to keep the class busy by asking them to add up all the numbers between 1 and 100.  Gauss immediately blurted out the correct answer 5,050.
-
-  Gauss did it in his head by taking the long string of numbers 1,2,3, …… 99,100 and folding them back on themselves to create pairs of numbers 1+100, 2+99, 3+98, ….. 50+51.  It was easy for him to see that the pair always added up to 101 and this happened just 50 times.  So, 101 * 50 can be done in your head, it’s 5,050.
-
-  The sum of any sequence of patterned numbers is n*(n+1) / 2.  Where “n” is the last number in the sequence.  Summing the numbers up to 100 is:
-
--------------------  100 (101) / 2 =  10,100 / 2  =  5,050
-
-  If you did the same problem adding up all the numbers from 1 to 500.  Now “n” is 500:
-
--------------------  500 (501) / 2 =  250,500 / 2  =  125,250
-
-  The formula changes a little if you add up the pattern of all the even numbers to the number “n“, 2+4+6+8+10+……… 100.  Where n = 100.
-
-------------------- n(n+1)
-
-----------  100 ( 101 )  =  10,100  , which is the sum of all the even numbers up to 100.
-
-  The formula changes to n^2, if you add up  the pattern of all odd numbers to the number “n”.  Adding up all the odd numbers from 1 to 100 = 100^2 = 10,000.
-
-  An interesting pattern exists between the squares of numbers and the cubes of numbers.  It turns out that the sum of all the cubes of numbers up to “n” is the square of the sum of the numbers up to “n”.
-
-------------  For example:  The sum of all the cubes up to 5 is:
-------------  1^3  + 2^3  + 3^3  + 4^3  + 5^3  =
-------------  1 + 8 + 27 + 65 + 125  =  225
-------------  And, (the sum of all numbers up to 5) squared is:
-------------  ( 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 )^2  =  15^2  =  225
-
-------------  This holds for all numbers up to any number.
-
-  Another interesting  pattern in squaring numbers is that if number ends in 5 the square always ends in 25.
-
-----------------  (35)^2   =  1225
-
-----------------  You can do this calculation in your head because what is also true is that the answer is always preceded by the first number multiplied by one higher than that number.  The first number of the number 35 which is  being squared is 3.  The one higher is 4.       3 * 4 = 12.  and, the answer always ends in 25 so the answer is 1225.  This works for the square of all numbers ending in 5:
-
-----------------  (35)^2  =  3*4 + 25 = 1,225
-
-----------------  (55)^2  =  5*6 + 25 = 3,025
-
-----------------  (75)^2  =  7*8 + 25 = 5,620
-
-----------------  (105)^2  =  10*11+ 25 = 11,025
-
-  If your 4th grade teacher asks you how to add up all the numbers in the multiplication table up to 100 here is how you do it:  You start with a 10 by 10 matrix of row and columns that contain the multiplication table.  The first row is 1 through 10 and you already know that sum to be n(n+1)/2, remember.
-
------------  For the first row the sum is 10*11/2  =  55
-
------------  For the second row the sum is 55 * 2  =  110
-
------------  For the third row the sum is 55*3  =  165
-……………………
-
------------  For the tenth row the sum is 55 * 10  =  550
-
So, you can see that the sum is going to be 55*1 + 55*2 + 55*3 + ……..
And you can factor out the 55 and write it as 55*(1 +2 +3 +4 ……..)
And you already know what the sum of the second factor is, it’s 55.
Therefore the sum of all the numbers in the multiplication table up to 100 is 55*55.
55^2 is another thing you already know.  How to square any number ending in 5.
55^2  =  5*6 ….. 25  =  3,025.
-
If you sum up all the numbers in the multiplication table up to 100 you get 3,025.
-
-  You learned that squaring any number ending in 5 is always 25 preceded by the first digit times one greater and putting it in front of the 25:
-
------------------------  35^2  =  3 * 4  in front of 25  =  12 …. 25 =  1,225
-
------------------------  55^2  =  5 * 6 ………. 25  = 3,025
-
- You can do these multiplications in your head.
Actually, the rule being applied here works for squaring any number and, in fact, for multiplying any 2 numbers.  To use fancy words for a moment, in algebra it is multiplying polynomials together to get polynomials of the second degree.  Algebra uses the quadratic equation to solve polynomial equations of the second degree.  None of this algebra do you need to learn in order to perform these tricks in multiplication.
-
-----------------  55^2   =   (50 + 5)(50+5)  =  50( 50+5+5) + 5^2  =  50 * 60 + 25 = 3,025.
-
-  The algebraic way to say this is (a+b)(a+b)  =  a^2 +ab +ab + b^2  =  a(a+b+b) + b^2.
Now that looks complicated but you will be surprised how easy this algebra is to use after some practice.
-
---------------  95^2 = (90 + 5) (90 + 5) = 90 (100) +25 = 9,025
-
-  This process does not just work with squaring numbers.  It works multiplying any two numbers.  The idea is to change the multiplication so it contains easy numbers to multiply in your head.
-
------------------  23 * 28 = (20 + 3)( 20 + 8) = 20 * (20+3+8) + 8*3  =  20 * 31 + 24 = 620 + 24 = 644.
-
-  The general algebraic formula is (a+b)(c+d)  =  ac +ad + bc + bd.  When you make the first number term the same it becomes (a+b)(a+c) = a^2 + ac + ab + bc = a ( a+b+c) + bc.
Remember these letters in algebra are just substitutes to stand for any number.  They call them variables.  But, once you choose what a letter stands for than the math is fixed for that result.  a,b,c in this case are 100, 7,and 11:
-
------------------  107 * 111 =  (100 + 7)( 100 + 11)  =  100 ( 100 + 7 + 11) + 7*11 =
100 ( 118) + 77  =  11800 + 77  =  11,877
-
-------------------94 * 91  =  (100 -6 )(100 - 9) = 100 * (100 - 15) + (-6)(-9)  =  100 * 85 + 54  =  8500 + 54  =  8,554.
-
It takes some practice, but when you get the hang of it many complicated multiplications can be made simpler using this algebra trick.
-
-----------------  62 * 68 =  (60 + 2)( 70 - 2)  =  4200 + 140 - 120  - 4  = 4200 +20 - 4 = 4216, or even easier:
-
-----------------  62 * 68 =  (60 + 2)( 60 + 8)  =  60 ( 60+2+8 ) + 16  =  60 ( 70)  + 16  = 4200 + 16 = 4,216
-
-  You can quickly multiply a 2-digit number together by adding them and sticking the sum between the two numbers.
-
---------------  23 * 11  =  253
-
If the sum is greater than 9 remember to carry the one:
-
--------------  96 * 11  =  1,056
-
You can do it with numbers having more than 2 - digits by adding the numbers 2 at a time and sticking their sums between the first and last numbers:
-
----------------  423 * 11  =  4, 653
-
-  There are many tricks you can play with algebra.  Here is another one for you teachers:
You ask your students to pick any 4-digit number .
-
---------------------------   1,618
-
Ok, now scramble the number to make a different number.
-
---------------------------  8,611
-
Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.
-
---------------------------  6,993
-
Now add up the digits in that number.
-
---------------------------  27
-
If you have a one digit number you are done.  If you have a 2 digit number add those up.
-
--------------------------  9
-
The answer you get is 9.  Right?  The answer you get will always be 9.  Trust me.
-
------------------    4362
------------------    6234
------------------    1872
------------------    18
------------------    9

------------------    9721
------------------    2791
------------------    7002
------------------    9

Practice these tricks and they will become easy.  And, you will have confidence in the results.  Let me know if you have any questions.  There is always more to learn.  The  best way to learn is through your fingers.
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--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    -----------------   Tuesday, March 17, 2015  -----
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Dark Energy expanding the Universe?

-  1749  -  Dark Energy Expanding the Universe.  What is it that is causing the Universe to expand at an ever increasing rate?  What force is overcoming the force of gravity?
-
------------------

-
-----------------  1749  -  Dark Energy Expanding the Universe
-
-  A hundred years ago astronomers discovered the Universe was expanding.  Two decades ago astronomers discovered that the expansion was accelerating faster and faster.  The expansion will eventually be faster than the speed of light.
-
-  In 2006 studies of the Cosmic Microwave Background produced more evidence that the Universe experienced an early phase of hyper-expansion, called, “ Cosmic Inflation”.
-
-  All of the distant galaxies are moving away from us at an accelerating rate.  Doesn’t that put us at the center of the expansion?  No, there is no center.  No matter where you go in the Universe your field of reference has everything expanding away from you.
-
-  Light traveling through expanding space gets stretched out to wider wavelengths.  As wavelengths increase light energy decreases.  Gamma Rays released 380,000 years after the Big Bang have been stretched out to Microwave wavelengths today.  All individual photons get redder ( longer wavelengths) and loose energy in an expanding space.
-
-  Expanding space implies another principle.  There is not a preferred frame of reference for “physical interactions”.  The Universe is self-contained.  It is expanding without expanding into anything.
-
-  General Relativity principle tells us that matter and energy in a gravitational field move the way curved space-time dictates.  Gravity bends light by curving space-time.
-
-  When the visible Universe was half its current size the density of matter was 8 times higher and the radiation was twice as hot.  The earlier the Universe the denser and hotter it was.  Back to the beginning it was the creating of matter out of energy and time itself created.
-
-  What was there before matter, energy and time were created?  God only knows.
-
-  How long will the Universe last?  In to infinity?  God only knows.
-
-  Hyper-expansion in the theory of Cosmic Inflation requires the actual Universe to be bigger than our Observable Universe.  What we call the Observable Universe appears to be 13,700,000,000 years old.  What we see as 13.7 billion years ago has expanded to 46.5 billion lightyears distance today because the expansion was occurring during the whole time that light was traveling to reach us.
-
-  So the diameter of the Universe must be 93 billion light years across, not counting that part  that expanded faster that the speed of light during Cosmic Inflation.  God only knows how big it is today?
-
-  The Observable Universe has a horizon bounded by the finite speed of light, 186,000 miles per second.  But, if space is expanding faster than the speed of light than the Universe is moving beyond what is even Observable today.
-
-  70% of the Universe is made of something we don’t understand.  We call it Dark Energy.  Energy is simply diluted mass , since mass is concentrated energy, according to E=mc^2.

--------------  Energy  =  mass * (  90,000,000,000,000,000 )
-
-  Dark Energy is the energy that is expanding the Universe at an ever accelerating rate.  Right now the rate is:
-
-------------------  49,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears of space.
-
-  Dark Energy is “vacuum energy“, a property of space itself.
-
-  Dark Energy will eventually turn the entire Universe into a “ vacuum” if it keeps accelerating and diluting everything into space.
-
-  Dark Energy is the biggest mystery in astronomy today.
-
-  Dark Energy might even be space itself.  We don’t know?
-
-  Dark Energy is an anti-gravity force causing all the galaxies to be moving away from each other.  Except those local galaxies that are closely coupled by the gravitational force.
-
-  Astronomers long thought that gravity would eventually stop the expansion of the Universe.  But, these discoveries since 1998 are telling them the opposite is true.  The Universe keeps getting older, colder, and diluted to become a vacuum, a very expansive vacuum.
-
-  What do astronomers think this energy could be?
-
-  It could be an intrinsic, uniform property of space itself.  It could be an undiscovered energy field that fills all of space like a fog.  It could be the same energy field responsible for Cosmic Inflation.  Somehow it just slowed down.
-
-  It could be that our observations to date are an illusion?  Maybe our physics is wrong?  Maybe gravity is not a constant?  Maybe gravity simply weakens over distances greater than distance squared.
-
-  Astronomers reached the expanding conclusion by measure supernovae luminosity (brightness) and Redshift ( Doppler shift, or wavelength stretching due to receding velocities , or expanding space)  These calculations depended on a “standard candle” of brightness.  A certain type of supernovae that explodes at exactly 1.4 Solar Mass.  This is a situation where a star is accreting mass from some other star and it reaches “critical mass” of 40% greater that the Sun’s mass, and, it explodes in a supernova.
-
-  Because the mass is known accurately the luminosity of the explosion can be calculated accurately.  Using the brightness to calculate distance:
-
------------------  Apparent Brightness  =  Luminosity  / 4*pi*(distance)^2
-
-  And, using Redshift to calculate distances:
-
-----------------  Receding Velocity  =  Speed of light  *  Redshift
-
---------------  Receding Velocity  =  Hubble’s Constant  *  Distance
-
-  Hubble’s Constant is the expansion rate of the Universe at 22 kilometers per second per million lightyears distance.
-
------------  Ho  =  49,000 miles per hour per million lightyears of space.
-
-  The conclusion from these calculations is that the further galaxies are away the faster they are receding away.  And, this faster rate is accelerating with time.
-
-  Besides Brightness and Redshift calculations astronomers are using another approach.  There may exist acoustic waves ( oscillations) in the expansion that spaces all the galaxies in a distinct physical scale ( called Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations).  These acoustic waves measured in lightyears distances may constitute a “ standard ruler” that can be used to measure Universe expansion.
-
-  Astronomers need more data and more precision .  The goal is to gather data on 300,000,000 galaxies and merge all the measurement techniques together.  It is a big puzzle for astronomy.  Stay tuned, there is much more to learn.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-  Other reviews available upon request:
-
-  #1290  =  The Universe mass is 4.1 *10^105 galaxies.
-
-  #1047, #1083, #1084  -  Redshifts can not distinguish from an expansion in space or a variation of time
-
-  #822, etc.  and nine other reviews on the mysteries of Dark Energy
-
-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------  RSVP, Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----------------
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Saturday, March 14, 2015  -----
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The Higgs Boson in empty space?

-  1748  -  The Science of Empty Space.  The vacuum of space is filled with a Higgs Field that creates mass for all particles.  Supersymmetry requires heavier particles to pair up with the 12 fundamental particles of ordinary matter.  CERN particle accelerator may discover these heavier particles in a few months from now.
-
---------------------------------

-
-----------------  1748  -  The Science of Empty Space.
-
-  If you create a perfect vacuum there is nothing left but free space.  But, free space itself is not “ nothing”.  Space is not empty.  It is filled with the Higgs Field.  This field of energy creates mass for all the mass in the Universe.  The mass starts with the most fundamental particles, like electrons and Quarks.  If a particle is massless it travels at the speed of light, like photons and Gluons.
-
-  If a particle has mass it is interacting with the Higgs Field.  Inertia is the degree of interaction and is a property of mass.  Inertia means it takes energy to change its motion or direction.  Mass and velocity have inertia and it takes added energy to accelerate it.
-
-  The Higgs Boson is a “ ripple” in the Higgs Field.  When you move your hand through space you detect the Higgs Field with the mass of your hand and arm in motion.  The interaction is there you can feel it.  You can not see or detect the Field in any other way.  It is like gravity, you can not see the gravitational field but you can certainly feel it.
-
-  Radio waves travel through your body and you can not see or feel them..  They are “ripples” in this Electromagnetic Field that you can nonetheless detect with a radio.  The ripples are Amplitude Modulations, ripples, of the electromagnetic waves that can be detected and transformed in to sound waves.
-
-  The “ripples” in the Higgs Field are called Higgs Bosons.  Science is trying to detect these ripples in powerful particle accelerators, like the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in CERN, Switzerland.  This particle accelerator smashes particles together at high velocities to bust them apart into the smaller, more fundamental particles.  It can also create energies high enough to create massive particles according to E=mc^2.
-
-  If you smash ice you can break it down to the water molecules.  If you smash water molecules you can break them down to Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms, H2O.  There are 92 of these fundamental atoms ranging from Hydrogen to Uranium in the Periodic Table of Elements.  You can smash atoms and break them down to protons, neutrons, and electrons.  If you smash protons you can break them down into Up and Down Quarks.  The CERN particle accelerator is smashing protons together hoping to detect even more fundamental particles that may come out of the debris.  The Higgs Boson was detected this way in 2012.
-
-  The Standard Model of Particles contains 12 fundamental matter particles and 4 fundamental force particles.  The 12 particles are 3 generations, or three energy levels, of the 4 fundamental particles.  Each generation is a higher energy level or each of the 4 particles.  Higher energies can create these particles but they quickly decay back to the ground level energies of these four particles:
-
-------------------------  UP  Quark
-------------------------  DOWN  Quark
-------------------------  Electron
-------------------------  Neutrino
-
-  The 4 fundamental force particles are :
-
------------------  Photon  -          Electromagnetic Force
------------------  W-Z Bosons  -  Weak Nuclear Force
------------------  Gluon  -            Strong Nuclear Force
------------------  Graviton  -        Gravitational Force ( particle remains undiscovered)
-
-  The total are the 16 fundamental particles.  The Photon and Gluon are the only two that are massless, do not interact with the Higgs Field and travel at the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second.  The rest have mass and interact with the Higgs Field in various degrees.  The heavier the particle the greater the interaction.
-
-  Magnetic Fields, Gravity Fields, Electromagnetic Fields can be turned off , or reduced.  The Higgs Field can not be turned off, it is Vacuum Field, a Space Field,  that exist the same everywhere in space.  If a particle lost the Higgs Field interaction it would have no mass and it would explode at light speed.  If the Higgs Field changed at all the chemistry of atoms would change.  The constant Higgs Field is what builds particles into atoms.  No chemistry or biology would occur without mass and the constant Higgs Field.
-
-  A Higgs Boson is a ripple in the Higgs Field.  It requires a great amount of energy to create a ripple, a Boson.  And, once created the Boson quickly decays into a lower energy Quark.
-
-  The Higgs Field creates mass and mass interacts with the Gravitational Field which is a curvature of Space-Time’s four dimensions.  There is an opposing energy field called Dark Energy that is an anti-gravity field that is counter- acting gravity’s pull bringing things together and accelerating an expansion pushing things apart in the expanding Universe.
-
-  Astronomers have measured the distance of supernovae explosions over a span of the Universe’s life time.  Right now the Universe is expanding at 47,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears of space.  But, this velocity is not constant; it is accelerating, expanding every faster in to the future.
-
-  Today astronomers measure the density of mass in space to measure the pull of gravity to be 10^-29 grams per cubic centimeter.  This equates to the mass of 1 proton per cubic foot of space.  There is 10 times move space than mass.  And, space is growing.  There is more space with more time.  The mass is being separated and the pull of gravity is getting weaker and weaker with separation.
-
-  There is no theory that explains this phenomena of expanding space.  There are several theories in development:  Superstring Theory, Quantum Gravity Theory, Gauge Theory, Unified Field Theory, but, no experimental evidence proves any one theory so far.  Superstring Theory seems to do the best job to date.  String Theory proposes the most fundamental particles to be a string that is 2 dimensional and 10^-33 centimeters long.  The string can be open at both ends or closed into a loop.  That is it.  The only fundamental particle upon all others are created.  The different particles are created by different vibrations of strings in different ways.
-
-  This Superstring Theory requires there to be 16 heavier fundamental particles to pair up with the 16 particles in the Standard Model of Particles.  None of these have been discovered because of the high energies required to create them.  Remember energies create mass, E = mc^2.
-
-  It also requires there to be 6 additional dimensions of space.  The 3 dimensions we are familiar with plus 6 very tiny dimensions folded up in space, too small to see.  Tiny, means like the string dimensions that are 10^-33 centimeters.
-
-  Empty space is filled with these curled up extra dimensions.  It is the properties of the vacuum of space.  The vacuum appears the same to every observer in the Universe, regardless of relative motion.  The vacuum energy converts to Higgs Boson particles at 123 GeV, billion electron volts.
-
-  This Higgs Boson particle was discovered at the CERN Particle Accelerator in 2012.  The accelerator is today under upgrade modifications and will be turned back on in May, 2015.  The hope is that the Higgs Boson can be created again and studied in more detail before it decays into  Quark.
-
-  The Large Hadron Collider is being modified to have greater magnetic control of an even higher energy proton beam.  The energies expected are up to 13,000 billion electron volts.    The hope is that at these higher levels more of the Super Symmetry particles will be created and the extra dimensions may even show up.
-
- The upgrades increase the magnetic rings from 5,9 tesla to 7.7 tesla.  This 30% increase in the magnetic force is meant to contain the stream of protons traveling at near light speed.  Higher energies means we can produce heavier particles.  These heavier particles may in turn explain Dark Matter that comprises 85% of all the matter in the Universe.
-
-  Another theory to be explored is why matter dominates the Universe over anti-matter.  the only theory for the Big Bang requires that there were created equal amounts of matter and anti-matter.  The LHC is about to take us into physics that we have never seen before.  Stay tuned,  there are more dimensions to be had.
-
-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Thursday, March 12, 2015  -----
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