Cosmology tells us the composition of the Universe

-1602 -  Cosmology tells us Composition.  The light traveling with the expansion of the Universe looses energy.  The temperature drops.  Sound waves  in the expansion vary densities that we see today.  How the density waves travel tells us the composition of the Universe.
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-----------------------  # 1602  -  Cosmology tells us Composition of the Universe
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-  In Review #1601 we earned about the expansion and cooling of the Universe created two separate phase transitions.  When the expansion and cooling reached 3,000 Kelvin in the second transition neutral hydrogen atoms were formed and the photons were allowed to escape the charged plasma, exiting at light speed into the Cosmos.
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-  These photons started their journey in the infrared wavelengths at 3,000 Kelvin temperatures.  After traveling 81,100,000,000,000,000,000,000 miles across an expanding space the wavelengths of the photons was stretched out to microwave wavelengths.
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-  The energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelengths.  The longer the wavelengths the lower the energy.  The higher the frequencies ,”f”,  the higher the energy, “E“.
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-----------------------------------------  E  =  h  *  f
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----------------------------------------  h  =  Planck’s constant ( see footnote 1 )
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----------------------------------------   E  =  h * c  /  w
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----------------------------------------  c  =  the speed of light which is frequency times wavelength.
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----------------------------------------  c  =  f   *  w
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-  Due to the widening wavelengths there was a consequential loss of energy and the temperature dropped from 3,000 Kelvin to less than 3 Kelvin.  The temperature lowered by a factor of 1,000 as the Universe expanded by a factor of 1,000.
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-  When the microwave background radiation that reached us is analyzed it at first looks perfectly uniform.  But, at higher and higher resolutions we can see variations.  When the resolution reaches 1 part in 100,000 the lumpiness in this background radiation becomes visible. Different sized spots ( densities , also temperatures ) appear across the images.  Scanning across the sky astronomers can identify 2 degree, 1 degree, and ½ degree wide clumps of denser and slightly hotter clumps.  The temperature variation is small, varying from - 2.723 to -2.727 Kelvin.
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-  When astronomers plot these temperature variations as a function of their angular size they create an angular power spectrum.
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-------------------------- ^
-------------------------- l  -----  1 degree maximum
-------------------------- l
--- Temperature  -----  l
--------------------------  l
--------------------------  l
--------------------------  +--------------------> angular size
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- The peak power occurs when the angular size is 1 degree wide.
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-  When  the Cosmic Microwave Background  ( CMB) was first released from the plasma of charged particles the density of particles was very small.  Only a few million particles per cubic meter.  The atoms were only the lightest, simplest elements, hydrogen, helium, deuterium, tritium and lithium.  That’s it.
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-  Astronomers can use the equations in physics for electromagnetic interactions ( light ), the interactions with gravity ( mass ) and Dark Matter’s interaction with gravity and the Weak Nuclear Force.   Then , by treating the plot of the varying density as a function of angular scale as a dampening sound wave ( density wave ) having a fundamental frequency and dampening harmonic frequencies, and , running computer simulations with different proportions starting with the CMB and ending with the structure of galaxies and voids we observe today:  Here is what works out as the closest fit:
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-------------------  the time duration is 13,820,000,000 years
------------------- the ordinary matter that interacts with the electromagnetic force is 4.9% of the total mass-energy available.
------------------  the Dark Matter that interacts with gravity but not the electromagnetic force is 26.8%.
-----------------  the Dark Energy that is anti-gravity expanding space and carrying galaxies farther and farther apart is 68.3%
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---------------------------------------   4.9%  atoms and photons
---------------------------------------  26.8 %  Dark Matter
---------------------------------------  68,3%  Dark Energy
--------------------------------------  100%  Total mass-energy in the Universe.
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-  Most of the 4.9% ordinary matter is not the stars and planets, but, the hot interstellar gas held between the galaxies in the galaxy clusters.
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-  The CMB will surely reveal some additional secrets.  New instruments will study the CMB polarization of photons.  Polarized light is different if it reflects off electrons then if it is interacting with gravitational waves.  New instruments will study “ gravitational lensing”.  As light travels through the Cosmos its path is bent by mass that warps space-time.  Astronomers can use these distorted images to map the intervening matter in the Cosmos.
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-  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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- (1)   Max Planck was born April 23, 1858.  He graduated with a doctorate in physics, University of Munich in 1879.  In 1888 to 1927 he was on the faculty of the University of Berlin.  He died in 1947.  In 1900 he presented his research concluding that light comes in energy of distinct quanta, depending on its frequency.
-------------------------------------  Energy  =  h  *  frequency
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-----------------------------------  h  =  a constant value  =  6.62606957 * 10^-34 joule*seconds.
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-  (2)  The temperature average of the CMB is 2,725  +  or -  0.002 Kelvin.  The Planck Spacecraft instruments can measure temperature variation of 2 millionths Kelvin and resolve angles as small as 5 arc seconds.  ( 1/12 degree ).
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review:   #1- learned something new.    #2 - Didn’t read it.  #3-  very interesting.  #4-  Send another review #___ from the index.  #5-   Keep em coming.    #6-  I forwarded copies to some friends.    #7-  Don‘t send me these anymore!  #8-  I am forwarding you some questions?   Index is available with email upon request.  Some reviews are at       http://jdetrick.blogspot.com           Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to:    jamesdetrick@comcast.net. ----  “Jim Detrick” -- www.facebook.com, -- www.twitter.com, --   707-536-3272                                   Thursday, October 31, 2013

Cosmology for Dummies.

-1601 -  Cosmology is about the birth of the Universe.  How did it all get started?  Where is the expansion of the Universe leading us?  The thoughts lead to a number of dumb questions.
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-----------------------  # 1601  -  Cosmology for Dummies
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-  Just ask a lot of dumb questions.  Like how far has light traveled since first light, since the beginning of the Universe.  The answer is :
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-------------------------81,100,000,000,000,000,000,000  miles.(1)
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-  So looking back to the start of the Universe you would see what things looked like 13,820,000,000 years ago.  It is a very old image.  A lot has happened in the meantime.  What we see is in the direction of one light beam traveling over expanding space towards us.  There is another beam flying off in the opposite direction.  In fact, light is traveling in expanding space in all directions at the same speed.  If we could see the image what would look like today.  It would be 634.8*10^21 miles away because space has been expanding during the time it took the light to reach us.
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-  Today the Observable Universe is 92 billion lightyears across expanding in all directions at an ever faster rate.  Today we measure the rateof expansion to be 74.2 kilometers per second for every mega parsec length of space.  To put this in more familiar units:
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-  The rate of the expanding Universe is 47,000 miles per hour per every million lightyears.
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----------------------------  Distance  =   rate * time
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---------------------------  Time  =  Distance / rate
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-------------------------   hours  =  miles /  miles per hour
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-  The Hubble Constant rate of expansion is the reciprocal of time:
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---------------------------  Ho  =  1 / time
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-------------------------   Time  =  1 /  Ho
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--------------------------  Time  =  million lightyears  /  47,000 miles per hour
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-------------------------  Time  =  5.88 *10^18 miles  /  4.7 *10^4 miles per hour
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---------------------------  Time  =  1.25 * 10^15 hours
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--------------------------  Time  =  52,000 * 10^9  days
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--------------------------  Time  =  14 billion years.
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-  The inverse of the Hubble Constant tells us how long the Universe has been expanding, about 14 billion years.  But,  it has not always been “constant”.  When the Universe was young the mass was more concentrated and gravity was dominate in deceleration the expansion of the Universe.  This was true for the first 5 billion years.  By then the density of the Universe grew much less,  masses were spread farther apart, gravity falls off as the square of the separation, so the energy that was expanding the Universe became more dominate over the last 5 billion years.  The Hubble Constant is certainly constant over our brief history, but, in the future it is accelerating faster and faster.  It just happens to be a good “ average velocity” for today’s calculations.
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-  The edges of the Universe that light has reached is 27.74 billion lightyears apart.  With space expanding during the time light was traveling at 670,633,500 miles per hour the edges of space must be 92 billion lightyears apart today.  What is on the other side of these edges of space?
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-  In the beginning time and space were created.  What has space time been expanding in to?  Is the Universe all there is, or, is there more outside the Universe?
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-  The other side of the boundary is a place where time has not gotten there yet.  Wait a bit longer and time will reach it.
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-  If we look to the edge of time is that where the edge of light has reached?  Or, does time reach out farther than light?  Is time and space traveling any faster than 670,633,500 miles per hour?
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-  When we get to the edges of the Universe is the boundary curved, or, does it remain flat.  We know the Universe is geometrically flat were we live because any triangle we can create over the expanding Universe that we can observe has 3 angles that add to exactly 180 degrees.  The Universe appears flat.  But, the Universe is much bigger that we can see.  So, maybe beyond what we can measure the geometry of the Universe is curved.
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-  Standing on the sea shore we look across the horizon and the Earth certainly appears flat.  Any triangle we create on the surface using our survey equipment will get a triangle with 3 angles that add to 180 degrees.  But,  if we draw much larger triangles we begin to get angles that add up to greater than 180 degrees.  If we make a triangle from the north pole to the equator we can get a triangle with three 90 degree angles, adding to a total 270 degrees.  This tells us that  the geometry of the Earth is spherical.
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-  If we could do the same thing with the Universe, using ever bigger triangles we would begin to measure triangles that had angles totaling less than 180 degrees.  This would tell us that the geometry of the Universe was an hyperbole, saddle shaped.  The boundaries diverge and go off to infinity.  Is the expansion of the Universe is expanding into infinity?
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-  The galaxies are moving apart at an accelerating rate, but, how does the cosmic real estate keep getting created between the galaxies? Is this some type of perpetual motion on the grandest of scales?
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-  How did this perpetual motion all start?  Running time and expansion backwards in our thinking we arrive at a densely compressed space filled with radiation ( energy ) and subatomic particles ( mass ).
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-  The Universe started very, very hot and cooled as it expanded.  In order to get a flat Universe, the same every where ( homogeneous ) and the same in every direction
 ( isotropic ), Cosmic Inflation occurred expanding the Universe by 10^30 times in
 10^-36 seconds.  This expansion in space was much faster than the speed of light.  After 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001 seconds the expansion slowed down to the Hubble Constant rate we see today.
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-  As the expansion occurred gravity froze out of the expansion to begin holding mass together.  Later the Strong Nuclear Force froze out and Quarks and Gluons began to from particles like protons.  The Weak Nuclear Force froze out and we began to form particles like neutrons.  When the Electromagnetic Force froze out electrons with charges and protons with opposite charges began forming atoms.
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-  Once the Universe had expanded and cooled to 3,000 Kelvin the electrons and protons had combined to form neutral hydrogen atoms.  Once the charged particles got together to form neutral atoms the photons were no longer being scattered bouncing off the charged particles.  Photons escaped the plasma and began there 13.82 billion lightyear journey.  This occurred when the Universe had expanded for 370,000 years.
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-  I used the expression of freezing out when the expansion cooled the Universe.  3,000 Kelvin is not exactly freezing.  The better expression should be a “ phase transition”.  Much like water goes through a phase transition from steam to liquid water and then again from liquid water to solid ice.  The Early Universe went through these phase transitions.  Maybe there will be another phase transition that will occur as the Universe continues its expansion.  Lord only knows?
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-  See Review # 1602 to learn how we determined that these transitions in the expansion needed 26.8 % Dark Matter that did not interact with the electromagnetic force and 68.3%  Dark Energy that counteracted gravity to expand the Universe at its ever expanding rate.
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- (1)   13.82 billion lightyears * 5.88 * 10^12 miles per lightyear  =  81.1 * 10^21 miles.
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review:   #1- learned something new.    #2 - Didn’t read it.  #3-  very interesting.  #4-  Send another review #___ from the index.  #5-   Keep em coming.    #6-  I forwarded copies to some friends.    #7-  Don‘t send me these anymore!  #8-  I am forwarding you some questions?   Index is available with email upon request.  Some reviews are at       http://jdetrick.blogspot.com           Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to:    jamesdetrick@comcast.net. ----  “Jim Detrick” -- www.facebook.com, -- www.twitter.com, --   707-536-3272                                   Wednesday, October 30, 2013

Comet ISON coming here November 2013, learn about it.

-1600 -  Comet ISON coming towards us. See it pass by the Star Spica in the southwestern sky, in the Constellation Virgo, at dawn on November 18, one hour before sunrise.
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-----------------------  # 1600  -  Comet ISON coming towards us.
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-Comet ISON is on its way here!  Well, not here, here, but, near hear.  On November 8 it will only miss us by 40,000,000 miles.  It just missed the planet Mars on October 13 by only 10,000,000 miles.  On November 18 the comet will miss Mercury by 22,000,000 miles.  It will loop around the Sun on November 28 passing within 683,500 miles of the surface.  (The Moon is 235,000 from Earth’s surface.)  Hopefully on December 8, 2013 we will see ISON after it looped around the Sun and started traveling back out into space, if it can survive the loop.
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- The comet started as a chunk of ice, dust, and frozen gases at the outer edges of the Solar System.  Part of the Oort Cloud, a cloud of a trillion small icy bodies orbiting the Sun nearly a lightyear away.  This is 1,000 times more distant than the dwarf planet Pluto.
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-  Somehow this comet got nudged out of its peaceful stable orbit.  It is now speeding towards the Sun at 46,800 miles per hour.  Its closest approach to the Sun occurs at 10:41 AM on November 28.  The close encounter will raise the surface temperature to 2,000 C.  It is frozen ice but its outer layers will boil off the frozen surface.  It may not totally melt.  Like a baked Alaska the frozen ice cream center may survive.  Astronomers are anxious to learn if the nucleus does survive, regardless, the tail of debris will still be returning.
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-  As the sunlight warms the comet, a dirty snowball, the ultraviolet radiation ionizes molecules on its surface.  The magnetic field of the Solar Wind drags these charged particles away from the Sun to create a streamer tail on the comet.
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-  Nothing in the Universe disappears. It may change form.   It may disintegrate.  Going from a dusty snowball to a trail of particles the size of wood smoke. The Earth will pass through this tail of gas and dust on January 12, 2014
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-  The comet ISON was first discovered on September 21, 2012 as part of a routine sky survey designed to track space debris.  It was first discovered by amateur astronomers, members of the International Scientific Optical Network, ISON.  The comet blew off frozen carbon dioxide when it was 460,000,000 miles from the Sun.  As the comet approaches the Sun the ice and dust boil off to form a coma ( head ) and a tail that has the potential to be as bright as the full moon.  However, there is much speculation as to how bright it may get and if it will even be visible to the naked eye.
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-  This does not bother astronomers.  There will be 16 NASA spacecraft as well as the International Space Station instruments focusing on this comet.  It appears that this is the first visit of this comet to the inner Solar System.  It was formed 4,560,000,000 years ago.  Spectrograph images of the light radiation will tell astronomers what elements the comet is made of.  In what proportions.  Analyzing these elements will tell the story about the comet’s formation and the composition of the early Solar System.  Each piece of the comet represents solar nebula composition formed by temperatures and distances from the Sun.  The formation of the early Solar System can be recreated with this data.
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-  Already the Hubble Space Telescope has captured an image of a 2,500 mile high geyser shooting out from the comet’s surface.  Analyzing the images astronomers estimate the comet nucleus to be 2.5 miles diameter.  If we assume the comet is a perfect sphere with a diameter of 6 kilometers, with an average density of water, 1 gram / cm^3, or, 1,000 kilograms / meter ^3, then the mass of the comet would be 11,000,000,000,000,000  kilograms. (1.1 * 10^16 kg).
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-   A fully loaded oil tanker weighs 10^8 kilograms ( 20,000 tons ).   So this comet has the weight of 100,000,000 oil tankers.  I am so happy it is not going to hit us.
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-------------------  Volume of Sphere  =  4/3 * pi * r^3
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------------------  Volume  =  4.19 * (3000 m)^3
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-------------------  Volume  =  1.1 * 10^11 meters^3
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--------------------  Mass  =  density * volume
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--------------------  Mass  =  1,000 * 1.1 * 10^13
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-------------------  Mass  =  1.1 * 10^16 kilograms.
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-  The comet nucleus is 2.5 miles across, but , the Coma head is 3,000 miles across.  The tail will keep getting longer but at 367 million miles distance ( April, 2013) it is already 57,000 miles long.
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-  At this same point the comet was 460,000,000 miles from the Sun and boiling of material at 51,000 kilograms per minute.   51,000 kilograms of dust and 60 kilograms of water evaporate from its surface every minute.  During its travel to passing Earth its temperature increases from 40 Kelvin to 150 Kelvin.  As it passes Earth 93,000,000 miles from the Sun it will have lost 0.0004% of its mass.  This is assuming the same evaporation rate.
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-------------------------  Distance comet traveled  =  367,000,000 miles
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-------------------------  Speed of travel, 46,800 miles per hour  =  13 miles per second.
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------------------------- Rate of evaporation  =  51,000 kilograms / minute
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------------------------  Mass  =  51,000 *  470,000  =  2.4*10^10 kilograms.
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-----------------------  Percent that has evaporated  =  2.4*10^10  /  1.1 * 10^16  = 0.0004% of the total mass.
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-  If the comet ISON survives its loop around the Sun on its outward path back to the Oort Cloud it will again pass by Mars within 68,000 miles on October 19, 2014.  It is estimated that the comet will have lost 10% of its mass by then.  That is a guess.  Astronomers are anxious to find out.  The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter will be watching.  Lord knows what we might learn.  Stay tuned,  an announcement will be made shortly.
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(1)  My brother asked me if the comet would make it around the Sun?  
-  Her are the calculations. The data for the comet’s trajectory came from 2 spacecraft that are currently orbiting Mars.  We turn the spacecraft around to observe the position of the Comet ISON from November 26 to November 30.
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-  The answer is the comet will whip around the Sun missing the surface by 652,000 miles.
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-  To get this answer we first establish the position of the Sun in x-y coordinates.
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---------------------------  Sun  x1  =  -.04        y1  =  14.7
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-  Next we record the position of the comet in millions of kilometers as it passes by the planet:
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-----------------------    x  ---------------------  y  ------------------Distance to Sun
-----------------------    -10.5  -----------------  0.7  ------------------ 17.3
------------------------   -8.8  ------------------  5.6 -----------------    12.4
-------------------------  -7.7  ------------------  8.7 ------------------    9.4
------------------------   -6.3 ----------------    10.9 ------------------    7.0
------------------------   -4.6 -----------------  13.7 ------------------     4.3
------------------------- +3.2 -----------------  14.5  ------------------    3.6
------------------------- +6.6  -----------------  9.0  ------------------     9.1
-----------------------   +8.0 ------------------  5.6  ------------------    12.4
------------------------  +9.3  -----------------  1.7 ------------------     16.3
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-  Using the Pythagorean Theorem we calculate the distance to the Sun’s center from each point.
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------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( x2  -  x1)^2   +   (y2 - y1)^2
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-  Using the first coordinates x2  =  -10.5  and  y2  =  0.7
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------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( -10.5  + 0.4)^2   +   (+0.7  - 14.7)^2
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( -10.1 )^2   +   ( 14)^2
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( 102.01)   +   ( 196)
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   298

------------------------   distance  =  17.26 million kilometers (   10,725,000 miles )
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-  Using the last coordinates x2  =  9.3  and  y2  =  1.7
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------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( -10.5  + 0.4)^2   +   (+0.7  - 14.7)^2
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( 9.7 )^2   +   ( 13)^2
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( 94)   +   ( 169)
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   263

------------------------   distance  =  16.22 million kilometers (   10,078,620 miles )
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-  Next graph these coordinate points and conned with a smooth parabolic curve.  The best fit to this curve is the quadratic equation:
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-------------------------  -0.155 x^2   -  0.132x  + 16.51
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-  To find the maximum peak on the parabola take the first derivative which is the slope of the curve.  Then set the equation equal to zero, because the slope goes from increasing to decreasing at the peak and goes through zero slope.
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-----------------------   a dx^2  =  2 * a * x * dx
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------------------------  - 0.31x  -  0.132  =  0
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------------------------   x  =  -0.4258
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-----------------------  y =  -0.155 x^2  - 0.132x  +  16.51
-----------------------  y =  -0.155 (0.181) - 0.056  +  16.51
-----------------------  y =  16.43
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-  Now calculate the distance to the Sun with these peak coordinates:
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------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( 0.4258 + 0.4)^2   +   (16.43  - 14.7)^2
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( 0.0258 )^2   +   ( 1.726)^2
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   ( 94)   +   ( 169)
------------------------   (distance )^2   =   2.989

------------------------   distance  =  1.726 million kilometers (   1,072,486 miles )
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-  Radius of the Sun 0.676 million kilometers
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-  Distance to the surface of the Sun  =  1,050,000 kilometers
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-  Distance to the surface of the Sun  =  652,440 miles
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(2) Other reviews available upon request:
-  #1338  Did comets bring the water to Earth
-  #1316  The 5 comets we have visited
-  #1292   Using calculus to measure the mass of a comet.
-  #629  Star dust  -  catching a comet’s tail.
-  #577  Deep Impact Comet  -  how we smashed into Comet Temple in 2005 to see what it is made of.
-  #549  Comets pummel Earth  -  Earth strikes back.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions and corrections. An index of all reviews is available.    Some reviews are at:  --------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com  
,or: email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net
or: ----  “Jim Detrick” ------- www.facebook.com, --------- www.twitter.com
or cell:  707-536-3272    --------------------------   Thursday, November 28, 2013
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Why is 96% of the Universe " Dark"? Part I

-1594 - Several methods are used to calculate the structure of the Universe and each reaches the same conclusion. 73% is Dark Energy that we do not understand and another 23% is Dark Matter that we can figure out what it is made of. This Review uses simple methods that you can understand to reach these conclusions.

----------------------- # 1594 - Why is 96% of the Universe “ Dark“? ( Part I of VI )

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- Why is 96% of the Universe “ Dark”? Because we think we know the total amount of mass-energy in the Universe and ordinary atoms that we understand account for only 4% of this total. 96% is unknown in today’s science. We call what we do not know “Dark Energy” and “Dark Matter“.

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- Why do we think that only 4% of the Universe is ordinary atoms? We have known the Universe is expanding since we had the equations in 1915 and the observed evidence since 1930. Gravity is an attractive force that should be slowing the expansion down. The expansion should eventually stop, reverse, and begin compressing the Universe into a Big Crunch. In fact, that is where the concept of the Big Bang came from. Run time backwards with the same 13.7 billion years that had expansion and you get the Big Crunch.

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- When the laws of physics are applied to a Big Crunch we know that atoms heat up. Eventually atoms break down into their fundamental particles. If compression continues the fundamental particles break down our equations. The equations disappear with their infinities. Space and time go into a Blackhole that remains a mystery. But, let’s reverse it again and start some time after the Big Bang when atomic nuclei first begin to form out of the fundamental Quarks and Gluons. Quarks and Gluons are the most fundamental particles we know that make up the nucleus of atoms.

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- The expanding Universe is cooling. When it cools to 10,000,000,000 Kelvin the atomic nuclei begin to form out of the Quarks and Gluons. The positively charged nuclei and the negatively charged free electrons form a plasma of charge particles. When the expansion cools to 1000 Kelvin the atomic nuclei collect the free electrons and form neutral hydrogen atoms. When neutral atoms form the photons can escape because they are no longer scattered by the charged plasma of nuclei and electrons. This neutral charge phase in the Universe’s expansion occurred at 380,000 years after the Big Bang.

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- When light left the surface it traveled freely through space for 13.7 billion years. Traveling through expanding space meant that the wavelengths were stretched from light waves into microwaves. The light lost energy as the wavelengths got wider. The temperature dropped from 3,000 Kelvin to below 3 Kelvin as the Universe expanded by a factor of 1,000.

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- Today we can see this microwave energy in all directions at a uniform 2.718 Kelvin. It is called the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. This uniform temperature of space is just a few degrees above Absolute Zero Kelvin, - 273.5 C.

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- To understand the phase transition of light escaping the charged plasma of the early Universe consider the plasma in our own Sun. At the center of the Sun the charged nuclei of hydrogen and helium, with free electrons, scatter the photons. Due to this scattering it takes a photon, on average, 3,000,000 years to reach the surface of the Sun. Once past the surface the photon reaches the Earth in 8 minutes. A neutral neutrino that is not affected by the Sun’s charged plasma can reach the surface of the Sun in 3 seconds.

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- Particle Physics can define the process of the Big Bang expanding and cooling quite well. Pressures and temperatures can determine when Quarks and Gluons form nuclei and when nuclei can capture electrons to become neutral atoms. The process to form the nuclei took only 3 minutes. The process to form neutral atoms took 380,000 years.

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- The temperatures and pressures and densities all fit into these calculations. Statistics can calculate the rate of collisions and the formations of new particles. Starting with the protons that are the nuclei of hydrogen atoms. The protons combined to form deuterium and the deuterium nuclei combined to form helium nuclei. Very small amounts of lithium and beryllium formed. But, that is where it stopped. Only these lightest of elements had time to form in the Big Bang expansion. The expansion and cooling occurred too quickly for any of the heavier elements to have formed. All the heavier elements in the Periodic Table were formed in the stars and supernovae millions of years later.

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- Today the average density of the Universe is 10^-29 grams per cubic centimeter. Once the density was reached where particles were too far apart to combine, the combinations stopped at H, He-4, He-3, Li-7 with proportions that can be accurately calculated. These calculations define the total number of atoms in the Universe. That number is only 4% of the mass- energy in the Universe. 96% of the matter-energy are not atoms.

-

- Ok, 4% and 96%, but, where did the 73% Dark Energy and 23% Dark Matter come from? See #1595 Review Part II for how an expanding Universe tells more of the story.

-

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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email upon request. Some reviews are at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net. ---- “Jim Detrick” -- www.facebook.com, -- www.twitter.com, -- 707-536-3272 Wednesday, October 23, 2013

Why is 96% of the UNiverse " Dark"? Part II

-1595 - 73% is Dark Energy that is expanding the Universe at a rate of 47,000 miles per hour per million lightyears distance.

-

----------------------- # 1595 - Why is 96% of the Universe “ Dark“? ( Part II of VI )

-

- The 73% and 23% proportions come from several different calculations using different methods of observation. All get the same answer. One of the methods uses the Redshift of light from stars and galaxies to calculate how fast they are receding away from us. That is how fast the Universe is expanding today.

-

- The 73% Dark Energy is used to explain why the Universe is still expanding against the attractive pull of gravity.

-

- One method to measure this expansion is to use the Redshift of light from stars that are in distant galaxies to calculate how fast they are receding from us. The Redshift is the expanding wavelength of light caused by the expanding space in between the galaxies over that distance.

-

- Another method is to use the Brightness of supernova explosions in distant galaxies to calculate the distance. The dimmer the light source the farther away it must be.

-

- Together these two calculations are used to determine the Universe is expanding. The farther distant the galaxy the faster it is receding. The recession velocities are not slowing down, not constant, but accelerating at an every increasing rate. Up until 1997 astronomers were convinced the expansion rate was a constant, the Hubble Constant. Galaxy recession velocities from earlier Redshift calculations showed a constant rate of expansion, a rate of increasing recession velocities of 47,000 miles per hour for every million light years of space what was traveled by the light.

-

- Then in 1997 the Brightness calculations were used on distant supernovae. The supernovae we actually measured to be dimmer than the distance calculations would get using Hubble’s Constant rate of expansion. The conclusion, the rate of expansion must be accelerating because the galaxies were farther away than a linear expansion would take them.

-

- When a supernova explodes in a distant galaxy that single exploding star can outshine the light from the entire galaxy. A single supernova can outshine 5,000,000,000,000 Suns. ( 5* 10^12). This is how they can be seen for such great distances.

-

- Certain supernovae explosions have a known amount of energy released because they have a certain amount of mass. Their Brightness can be accurately calculated. Knowing that light intensity decreases with the square of the distance, the distance can then be calculated. The galaxy distance calculated by linear expansion of Hubble’s law got a shorter distance than the Brightness calculation. The constant speed of expansion got the wrong answer. The actual speed of expansion must be accelerating, getting faster and faster with distance.

-

- In 1915 Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity required that space and time be variable. As speed approaches the speed of light, time slows down. Spacetime would bend under the influence of gravity. Or, put another way gravity would be created with the curvature of spacetime. It was mass-energy that bends the fabric of spacetime. Mass-energy in total is constant and space time is variable. At the time Einstein’s equations needed radiation energy and material mass to be in balance in order for the Universe to remain a constant sphere, as it appeared to bes. However, his equations were unstable in being made to balance. Like a pencil balanced on its point it would fall with the slightest perturbation.

-

- His equations stated that the Universe could not remain static. The slightest disturbance would either cause gravity to collapse the Universe, or, cause a runaway expansion. At the time Einstein “invented” the “ cosmological constant” to add to the equation in order to keep it in balance.

-

- It was in 1930 when Edwin Hubble first observed the galaxies were receding, the more distant the galaxy the faster it was receding. The cosmological constant was not keeping the Universe in balance. The equations were wrong trying to show the Universe was static.

-

- The recession rate was calculated to be 74.2 kilometers per second per mega parsec

-

- A mega parsec is a distance measurement of 3.26 million lightyears. Translating the recession rate to more familiar terms the Hubble Constant recession velocity is:

-

------------- 47,000 miles per hour per million light years distance

-

-See Review # 1596 to learn how a Redshift calculation was used to make this calculation.

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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email upon request. Some reviews are at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net. ---- “Jim Detrick” -- www.facebook.com, -- www.twitter.com, -- 707-536-3272 Wednesday, October 23, 2013

Why is 96% of the Universe " Dark"? Part III

-1596 - Using Redshift calculation to learn how fast the Universe is expanding. This is one step in understanding that 73% of the mass-energy of the Universe is some sort of anti-gravity causing the galaxies to recede away from each other.

----------------------- # 1596 - Why is 96% of the Universe “ Dark“? ( Part III of VI )

-

- This Review illustrates the first of two equations that lead to the discovery of an expanding Universe. The Redshift of light occurs because the space between the galaxies is expanding stretching the wavelength of the light as it travels over that distance. Longer wavelengths are stretched towards the red end of the light spectrum. Blue light is a shorter wavelength of 400 nanometers. Red light has a longer wavelength of 700 nanometers.

-

- The Brightness method to measure galaxy distance follows in the next Review # 1597. To illustrate measuring recession velocity we will do the calculation on a familiar star in our Milky Way Galaxy. The star Vega in the Constellation Lyra The Harp is directly above us this time of year.

-

- We can measure the absorption line of hydrogen gas in the laboratory on Earth to be 656.285 nanometers wavelength. When an astronomer identifies a hydrogen gas absorption line come in a from the light from Vega we find it at 656.255 nanometers wavelength. The wavelength is shorter by 0.03 nanometers. The velocity of the star Vega is coming towards us. It is Blueshifted to a shorter wavelength.

-

- To calculate the velocity of Vega coming towards us we use the relationship that the ratio of the velocity to the speed of light is equal to the amount of wavelength shift to the original wavelength.

-

--------------------------- Velocity / Speed of Light = w1 - w0 / w0

-

---------------------- w1 - w0 / w0 -------------- is the amount of Blueshift

-

---------- Blue shift = 656.285 - 656.255 / 656.285 = 0.03 / 656.285

-

--------- Blue shift = 0.00004572

-

- Light from the star Vega is being compressed, or shortened, by 0.00457 %. It is Blueshifted by that percent because the velocity of the star is coming towards.

-

------------------------ Velocity / Speed of Light = 4.582*10^-5

-

------------------------ Speed of Light = 3*10^5 kilometers per second.

-

------------------------ Velocity = 13.7 kilometers per second.

-

------------------------ 1 kilometer per second = 2,237 miles per hour

-

---------------------- Velocity = 30,647 miles per hour.

-

- The star Vega is coming towards us at 30,647 miles per hour. However, it is 580 lightyears away from us, so, it will take a long time to get here. Stars in the Milky Way Galaxy are all gravitationally connected. The are rotating in a disk shape around a common center. Some stars are coming towards us and some are moving away from us. It is dance of stars that are all connected inside the Milky Way.

-

- There is a different story when we measure velocities of galaxies relative to each other. The space between galaxies is so vast that gravity’s connection is no longer dominate. The energy in space itself is more dominate and causing galaxies to recede from each other. We say space is expanding. We call the energy that creates this expansion Dark Energy. “ Dark” because we do not know what it is.

-

- Galaxies in our Local Group of galaxies are also gravitationally connected. The Andromeda Galaxy is also coming towards us at high velocity. It will reach us in another 5 billion years. However, galaxies farther out in space are all being Redshifted, are all moving away from us. See Review #1083 where this same calculation is performed on a distant galaxy with a Redshift of 6. It has a receding velocity of 6,696,000 miles per hour. That velocity is 1% the Speed of Light. Its distance is 136,000,000 lightyears.

-

- The next review #1597 (Part IV of VI ) Shows how the Brightness Method is used to calculate these distances.

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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email upon request. Some reviews are at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net. ---- “Jim Detrick” -- www.facebook.com, -- www.twitter.com, -- 707-536-3272 Wednesday, October 23, 2013

Why is 96% of the Universe " Dark"? Part IV

-1597 - Using the Brightness Method to calculate the distance to galaxies. To illustrate we will again use the familiar star Vega

----------------------- # 1597 - Why is 96% of the Universe “ Dark“? ( Part IV of VI )

-

- A star’s radiation, or a supernova explosion radiation, expands as a sphere and the surface area of a sphere increases as the square of the radius of expansion. The light is being spread over an ever wider surface area as the radius grows. The light is being diluted and dimming as this the expansion occurs. The dimming is at the square of the radius. Or, the Brightness as at the inverse square of the radius. When the radius is twice as big the surface is 4 times as large and the Apparent Brightness is 1/4^th as bright.

-

- A star’s radiation power is called its Luminosity and it is measured in watts.

-

- The Apparent Brightness of a star is measured in power per unit area, measured in watts per square meter.

-

- Using the Inverse Square Law to calculate Apparent Brightness:

-

-------------- Apparent Brightness = Luminosity / 4 * pi * ( radius ) ^2

-

------------- 4 * pi * ( radius ) ^2 is the formula for the surface area of a sphere.

-

- We can estimate the Luminosity of the star Vega by its size, the color of its light, and its light spectrum compared to our own Sun. We estimate the Luminosity to be 3.8*10^26 watts.

-

- We measure the star’s Apparent Brightness as we see it from Earth to be 1.0*10^-12 watts / meter^2.

-

- From the inverse square law we calculate the distance , or radius:

-

------------------- (Distance)^2 = Luminosity / 4 * pi * Brightness.

-

------------------ (Distance)^2 = 3.8 *10^26 / 4 * pi * 10^-12

-

------------------ Distance = 5.5 * 10^18 meters

-

----------------- 1 lightyear = 9.5*10^16 meters

-

----------------- Distance = 580 lightyears.

-

- To learn these same calculations for Brightness measurements of distant supernovae see Review #1084 and #1085 on “ Dark Energy”.

-

- Since Hubble’s time astronomers have learned that certain stars, White Dwarf Stars, can have a specific known Luminosity when they explode as supernovae. These White Dwarf Stars have a known mass of 1.38 Solar Mass when they explode. Astronomers can identify these White Dwarf supernovae from their light spectrums. Their light curves have a known Luminosity that can be used in the Brightness calculation. When we measure the Apparent Brightness of the White Dwarf explosion we can calculate the distance in the same way.

-

- The same light spectrum can be used to measure the Redshift of the light. With Redshift the recession velocity can be calculated. Knowing the Recession Velocity we can use Hubble’s Constant to calculate the distance in lightyears.

-

----------------------- Hubble’s Constant = 47,000 miles per hour / million lightyears.

-

- See Review #1084 where a Redshift of 6 determines the recession velocity to be 6,696,000 miles per hour and the distance to be 136,000,000 lightyears.

-

- When both the Redshift Calculation and the Brightness Calculation are made on a distant galaxy we find that the Brightness Calculation gets a greater distance than what is obtained using the Hubble Constant of expansion. The expansion must not be at a constant rate, it must be accelerating at a higher rate of expansion with distance.

-

- It is the Dark Energy of the repulsion of space, the repulsion of anti-gravity, that is used to explain this. If we assume the geometry of the Universe is flat then the ratio of repulsive energy to the attractive energy of gravity works out to be:

-

---------------------- 73% anti-gravity repulsion

---------------------- 27% gravity attraction.

--------------------- 100% total mass-energy in the Universe.

-

---------------------- 73% Dark Energy

---------------------- 27% Matter

--------------------- 100% total mass-energy in the Universe.

-

- In Part I , Review # 1594 we have shown that Ordinary Matter only accounts for 4% of this 27% total Matter. That leaves 23% of the mass-energy in the Universe being Dark Matter. Matter we can not see and don’t know what it is. See Review #1598 Part V of VI to learn the calculation for the Dark Matter.

-

- See Review #1599 Part VI of VI for the calculation to determine the geometry of the Universe is “ flat “.

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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email upon request. Some reviews are at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net. ---- “Jim Detrick” -- www.facebook.com, -- www.twitter.com, -- 707-536-3272 Wednesday, October 23, 2013

Why is 96% of the Universe " Dark"? Part V

-1598 - The previous Review #1597 calculated that 73% of the Universe was composed of Dark Energy, leaving the 27% composed of matter. How did we learn that 85% of that matter was “ Dark Matter” and not ordinary matter?

----------------------- # 1598 - Why is 96% of the Universe “ Dark“? ( Part V of VI )

-

- How did we learn that 85% of the Matter in the Universe was Dark Matter?

---------------- ( 23% / 27% is 85% ).

-

- In this calculation use Redshift calculations to get orbital velocities. From orbital velocities we can calculate the mass needed to create their stable orbits. Also called radial velocity, when the velocity is coming towards us it is Blueshifted. When the radial velocity is going away from us it is Redshifted.

-

- Kepler’s 3^rd law of motion tells us that the period of orbits squared is proportional to the radius of orbits cubed.

-

---------------- periods ^2 = k * radius^3

-

------------------ p^2 = k * r^3

-

- I am using “r” for radius but if the orbit is elliptical , not a circle, the semi major axis of the ellipse is used in this calculation. Later in history Isaac Newton made this proportion an equality by defining the constant of proportionality. The constant includes the Gravitational Constant, “G”, and the masses , “M” , involved in the orbit.

-

------------------ p^2 = 4* pi^2 * r^2 / G * M

-

- We can substitute the period with the radial velocity using the relationship that the circumference, 2 * pi * r, divided by the period equals the velocity.

-

------------------ p = 2 * pi * r / v

-

- Substituting this into Newton’s equation:

-

----------------- 4 * pi^2 * r^2 / v^2 = 4 * pi^2 r^3 / G * M

-

---------------- M = r * v^2 / G

-

- The gravitational constant , G = 6.67 * 10^-11

-

- Using the Redshift method the velocity was measured to be: v = 13.7*10^3 meters / second for a planet orbiting a star in another galaxy. The planet is an exoplanet that is transiting a star in another galaxy.

-

- We estimate the star to be 1/4^th the size of our Sun ( 25% Solar Mass).

-

- We estimate the radius of orbit to be 1.5 * 10^11 meters, about the same radius as our Earth, 93 million miles.

-

- We assume the Gravitational Constant to be the same every where in the Universe.

-

----------------------- M = 1.5*10^11 * (13/7 *10^3 )^2 / 6.67* 10^-11

-

---------------------- M = 42.2* 10^ 28 kilograms.

-

---------------------- 1 Solar Mass = 2 * 10^30 kilograms

-

---------------------- Mass = 0.21 Solar Mass

-

- The mass of the star is 21% Solar Mass, very close to the 25% that we estimated.

-

- Therefore we think that the calculations are the same every where, not just in our galaxy, but, in every other galaxy. When we do these same calculations for stars orbiting the center of their galaxies we get a calculation for mass that is 5 times greater than all the mass we can see in counting all the stars in the galaxy.

-

- The same happens when we do the calculation for a cluster of galaxies orbiting a cluster center of gravity. Stars and galaxies would be flying out of their orbits if it were not for some unseen mass existing around the galaxies. We call this Dark Matter because we can not see it and we do not know what it is.

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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email upon request. Some reviews are at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net. ---- “Jim Detrick” -- www.facebook.com, -- www.twitter.com, -- 707-536-3272 Wednesday, October 23, 2013

Why is 96% 0f the Universe "Dark"? Part VI

-1599 - Why is 96% of the Universe “ Dark”? What else could explain how these conclusions could not be true.

----------------------- # 1599 - Why is 96% of the Universe “ Dark“? ( Part VI of VI )

-

- The equations that explain the Big Bang theory for the Universe come out of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation image that can be made to expand over 13.7 billion years to the web of galaxies and voids we observe today. This expansion assumes that the geometry of the Universe is “ flat”. It concludes that the ratios of the repulsive energy to the attractive energy is 73% to 27%.

-

----------------------- 73% anti-gravity repulsion

----------------------- 23% gravity attraction by matter we can not see

----------------------- 4% gravity attraction by matter that we can see.

----------------------- 100% matter- energy total in the Universe.

-

- How can we show that the geometry of the Universe is “flat”.

-

- When we measure the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation with the highest resolution to detect 1 part in 100,000 variation, we can see the variations in hotter and colder patterns, denser and rarified patterns.

-

- These small variations expanded over 13.7 billion years at 47,000 miles per hour per million lightyears expansion rates create the galaxies and voids we observe today.

-

- Plotting this expansion over time. Plotting a triangle of distances connecting 3 points in these patterns. Creating 3 angles of a triangle always adds up to 180 degrees. The triangle must exist on a flat plane. If the triangle was on a spherical geometry the sum of the angles would more than 180 degrees. If the geometry of the Universe’s expansion were more like a hyperbola, or a saddle shape, the some of the angles would be less than 180 degrees. As far as we can measure the geometry of the expanding Universe its geometry is perfectly flat.

-

- The geometry might be different in the future. The Universe’s expansion was dominated by the attractive force of gravity for the first 5 billion years. It has been dominated by the anti-gravity repulsive force of Dark Energy over the last 5 billion years. Measured today the two forces about cancel out and we see the geometry as perfectly flat. It appears that Dark Energy is the dominating force in the future expansion of the Universe making the shape of the Universe a hyperbola. An accelerating expansion that will dilute all matter in the Universe until it is cold an empty.

-

- Are there other explanations that could change this conclusion?

-

- Do the laws of gravity change at different scales of the Universe? We can modify the equations for different laws of gravity at different scales. They even work with specific observations. But, these same equations do not work under other observations. So, we still think these same laws of physics apply every where in the Universe.

-

- Could there be ordinary matter out there that we are not counting because we can not see it? There could be dim stars, Brown Dwarf stars, asteroids, even planets that are invisible to us with today’s technology. Attempts have been made to detect unseen matter by using gravitational lensing. Could there be enough neutrinos to account for the missing mass? Adding all these speculations up together can not account for the 23% of Dark Matter that comes out of the calculations. Everything we can account for does not total to more than 4 ½% of the total in the Universe.

-

- Could the vacuum of space create a negative density that appears as an anti-gravity force? All attempts to make this theory work fail.

-

- Could there be a missing particle. A weakly interactive massive particle, a WIMP, that physics has not yet detected? There is a theoretical explanation called “Supersymmetry“ that adds massive particles to the Standard Model of Particles. This is still a good candidate for an explanation, but, these particles have yet to be discovered.

-

- An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned. In the meantime 96% of the Universes remains “ Dark”. Are you convinced?

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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email upon request. Some reviews are at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net. ---- “Jim Detrick” -- www.facebook.com, -- www.twitter.com, -- 707-536-3272 Wednesday, October 23, 2013