MATH - was Invented to Solve Problems?

-  2571  -  MATH  - was Invented to Solve Problems?  This review discusses the short hand languages of math and how they were invented to solve problems.  Then, there is an index of other math Reviews that are available upon request.
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---------------------------  2571  -  MATH  - was Invented to Solve Problems?
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-  Mathematics is a language.  It can be used to explain observations, to solve problems, to find results and to predict results coming in the future.  Its effectiveness in explaining nature is totally unreasonable.  Why does it work so well?  It is a wonderful gift that we neither fully understand nor deserve.
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-  Isaac Newton invented Calculus to explain “motion” and to explain things that “change“.  He breaks change down into infinitesimally small frame by frame sequences in order to solve problems.  Lots of things change so Calculus has wide application in today’s world.  Calculus is used to calculate the change in the value of money with time, for example.
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-  When Calculus is the rate of change of quantities it is interpreted as the slope of curves.
Example:  velocity is the slope of distance versus time.  This is called Differential Calculus.  When the math is used for lengths, areas, and volumes of objects it is called Integral Calculus.  Example:  Calculus can add up the areas of circles and get the volume of a sphere.
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-  Quantum Electrodynamics is a more recent math invention that explains how light and matter interact.  Scientists used this math to calculate the magnetic moment of an electron.  Their answer agrees with experiment to an accuracy of a few parts per trillion.
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-----------  electron’s magnetic moment  =  1.0011565218073
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-  Quantum Mechanics is a math concept that assumes matter and energy behave as particles as well as waves.  It states that measurements at the atomic level are always uncertain.  Position and velocity, time and energy are pairs that can not both  be known with precision.  There is always a trade-off in play between these pairs.
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-  Group Theory was a math invented in 1800 to solve polynomial equations .  Groups are algebraic structures made up of sets of objects, say a set of integers, united under a specific operation, say addition, that obeys a specific set of rules, say adding zero to any number does  not change the number.
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-  Now, in the 21st century this same Group Theory is used to develop the Standard Model in Particle Physics.  It models the building blocks of matter.  The fundamental particles of matter are given a specific group called SU(3)  that can be used to describe how atomic nuclei are held together.  Example:  SU(3) math predicts that there is a Higgs Boson, a force carrier particle that gives matter its mass.  The Large Hadron Collider in CERN, Switzerland, is a particle accelerator smashing protons and anti-protons together with 14 trillion watts of energy.  Physicists hope to discover the Higgs Boson in the debris.  And, I think they have already discovered the Higgs Particle.
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-  Group Theory becomes a way to represent symmetry in nature.  Lie Groups represent symmetries of solutions to differential equations that are infinite.  There is a Monster Group that defines the structure of the Universe at the subatomic level.
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-  Then, there is Knot Theory that studies knots, closed curves in 3 dimensions.  The math was born out of attempts to model the atom.  Today it is used in String Theory, Topology, DNA research and molecular biology.
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- Topology is the math that describes objects that remain unaffected by smooth deformations, such as stretching or squeezing, but do not involve tearing or cutting. Example:  a doughnut is the same Topology as a coffee cup.
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-  Number Theory is the math used in cryptography .Quantum Entanglement has recently been added to make cryptography messages unhackable and uncrackable.
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-  The General Theory of Relativity uses the math of non-Euclidian geometry.  Non-Euclidian are spaces where parallel lines converge and diverge.
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-  String Theory is math that describes fundamental particles as musical notes of vibrating strings.  The strings are very tiny , 10^-33 centimeters in length, but, they have no thickness.  The strings are 1 dimensional, yet the math needed to describe their behavior must use  10 dimensions.  Space-time has 4 dimensions, the other 6 dimensions are called Calabi-Yau spaces.
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-   All the properties of elementary particles such as mass, spin , charge can be mathematically described in vibrating strings.  The faster the vibration the greater the energy.  Since matter and energy are the same thing,  the faster the vibrations the greater the mass.
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-  Loop Quantum Gravity is Knot Theory math that is trying to reconcile space -time relativity with quantum mechanics  The math for one describes the Universe of big things.  The math for the  other describes small things, things at the sub-atomic level.  But, the two math’s are not compatible.  Neither one will work in the other’s domain.
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-  Chaos Theory uses math whereby the tiniest change in the initial conditions can produce entirely different end results.  Example:   A butterfly wing flap in the Amazon can cause a tornado in Kansas.
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-  Math is a language that just works.  We can not really explain why.  We just use it because it is reliable in learning stuff about our Observable Universe.  There appears to be fundamental symmetries that Nature uses in her own math.  There appears to be a grand design that we are discovering, not inventing.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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-  To learn more math, request these reviews:
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-  2520  -  Can bird poop break a car windshield?  Do the math.
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-  2519  -  How politicians use math.  They tend to use math to get the numbers they want.  2008 financial crisis at Lehman Brothers and AIG
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-  2518  -   Science and Math.  Interesting tricks and shortcuts.
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-  2482  -  The exponential curve.  Interest rates and growth.
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-  2400  -  Equations are sentences in short hand.  Frequency times wavelength equals a constant =  300,000,000 .  Energy divided by frequency equals a constant  =  6.6*10^-34.  The force of gravity times distance squared equals a constant  =  79*10^43.
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-  2390  -  The Greeks invented numbers.
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-  2362  -  How to calculate odds for poker hands.  The logic for these calculations is “ combinations.  There is a “rule of sums”  and  “ rule of products”.  The odds of a Flush are 0.198%.
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-  2222  -  The power o combinations.
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-  2095  -  Math through the ages.
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-  2092  -   Math through the decades.
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-  2076  -  The golden ratio.
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-  2068  -  Math causes confusing interpretations.
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-  1966  -   Math the easy way.  Tricks for math teachers.
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-  1963  -  Fabonacci’s sequence.  Includes Leonardo da Vinci’s golden ratio.
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-  1952  -  Transcendental numbers “ e” and “pi”.  This Review covers imaginary numbers.  “Pi” is an irrational number.  Compound interest uses “e”.  e^i *pi +1  = 0 is world’s most amazing equation.
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-  1935  -  How fast is the satellite?  How to calculate the speed to be 18,557 miles per hour
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-  1865  -  Equations are just another language.  There are a least 6 differed proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem.  Logarithms are designed to make the math simpler.  Calculus ws invented to calculate rates of change.  Fourier transforms describe time as a function of frequency.  Chaos Theory models copulation growth.
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-  1844  -  Pascal’s Wager on climate change.  Decision Theory - what is the best and the worst with any two alternatives.
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-  1780  -  How fast to orbit?  The same math as Review #1935.
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-  1750  -  Math for fun.  Short cuts you can do in your head for math calculations.  How to add up all the numbers in a multiplication tale up to 100?  The answer  =  3,025.  Pick any 4-digit number, scramble the order of the digits, subtract, add, the answer you get is always “9”.
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-  1661  -  Math is food for the brain.  The sum of he cubes of aa series of numbers is equal to the square of the sum of those numbers.  How to win at craps and roulette tables, Blackjack and Poker.  What is your probabilities when gambling?
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-  1650  -  Power of combinations.  Updated to 2222.
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-  1649  -  The power of combinations.  Factorials is multiplication is a descending sequence of numbers down to the number one.  When you get 23 people in a room the probability is 49% that none have the same birthday, 51% that 2 of them do have the same birthday.
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-  1638  -  Rent or buy decisions.
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-  1565  -  How fast is that satellite?
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-  1521  -  Math’s most powerful equations.  E=mc^2.  and  FV=PV( 1+i )^t
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-  1493  -  Puzzles in astronomy
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-  1467  -  The growth and decay of money .  Interest is really the price of money. Put one penny in a kitchen jar on December 1st and double it every day..  How much will you have by Christmas?  $117,772 and you could buy an airplane.
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-  1459  -  Modular math.
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-  1344  -  The rocket launch.
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-  #          -  Presidential poles.  I don’t believe the poles but the math is fun.
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-  1284  -  String theory.
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-  1281  -  Many more math examples.

-  1086  Formulas for space time, velocity, galaxies, solar systems, light , atoms, Quantum Mechanics, Energy, Action, Work, Momentum, Geometry, and more.
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-  1095  Math is a learned discipline.
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-  1042  Calculate areas by connecting the dots, Pick’s Theorem
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-  1041  The star with the golden ratio.   (a /b )  =  (a + b) /  a        1/1.618  =  1.618
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-  853  Math, the golden ratio
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-  805  Gambling, math for craps, roulette, blackjack.
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-   803  Transcendental numbers, “e” and “pi”.
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-  799  Science and Math, Part III.
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-  745  The calculus of a circle.
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-  Transcendental  -  is a function that is not an algebraic function.  It is a number that is real but not an algebraic with rational roots.
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-  Irrational  -  not expressible as a ratio of two integers having an infinite and nonrecurring expansion when expressed as a decimal.
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-  Rational  - number expressed as a quotient, a fraction, a ratio.
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-  December 30, 2019                                                          2571       1953                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Monday, December 30, 2019    --------------------
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PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT - light comes from atoms?

-   2570  -  PHOTOELECTRIC  EFFECT  -  light comes from atoms? The interaction between light and matter is the basis of many fundamental phenomena and various practical technologies.  The photoelectric effect causes electrons to be emitted from a material that is exposed to light of suitable energy. The advent of quantum theory and the genius of Albert Einstein was how the effect became understood.
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-------------------- 2570  -  PHOTOELECTRIC  EFFECT  -  light comes from atoms?
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-  Everyone is familiar with the photoelectric effect in our every day lives.  It is used in your cameras to adjust the aperture for light conditions.  It is used to dim headlights from approaching cars.  It is used to open doors.  The technology is everywhere.
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-   This photoelectric effect was first explained by Albert Einstein.  He received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for explaining the photoelectric effect in its most intuitive form.  Quantized energy is released when a single atom that is irradiated with light. According to Einstein, light consists of particles (photons) that transfer this quantized energy to the electron in the atom.
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-   If the photon's energy is sufficient, it knocks the electrons out of the atom. The photoelectric effect is the creation of photoelectrons through this process of ionization.  It is one of the most fundamental processes in the interaction between light and matter.  But questions still remain about exactly how photons transfer their linear momentum to electrons.
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-  The key principle is the transfer not of energy but of linear momentum, or, impulse, from photons to electrons. This is the case, for instance, when laser light is used to cool microscopic and macroscopic objects, or to understand the phenomenon of radiation pressure.
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-  Despite the fundamental importance of momentum transfer, the precise details of how light passes its impulse on to matter are still not fully understood. One reason is that the transferred impulse changes during an optical cycle are on extremely fast, sub-femto seconds timescales.
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-  The discovery that free electrons can move asymmetrically provides a deeper understanding of one of the basic processes in the photoelectric effect.  An electron that has just been released from an atom via the photoelectric effect can change its wave motion.  This change can be studied using a laser field. The free electron can both absorb and emit laser light, which changes the electron's rotation in an asymmetrical way.
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-  To study this phenomenon, the researchers used ultra short laser pulses with a time precision on an attosecond scale, which is staggeringly short: 0.000,000,000,000,000,001 seconds.
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-  The discovery of the asymmetry in combination with the high time resolution gave the researchers the opportunity to disrupt the electrons' ingrained behavior. From only moving up and down along the laser field, the researchers succeeded in getting the electrons to also spread sideways.
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-  In classical physics, particles move in a deterministic way from one point to another via Newton's laws. In contrast to this, quantum mechanics says that a particle can move to several places simultaneously. These researchers have been able to take advantage of the this effect.
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-  When we change the direction of the electron wave, we are using quantum mechanical interference. That is, the electron takes several paths towards its changed wave form. In the classical physics the electron can only go one way.
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-  The phenomenon of the asymmetrical movement pattern has been proved both in experiments and in theory. The results are based on the knowledge that electrons increase their rotating movements when they absorb light.
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-  The research aims to control electrons in atoms and molecules with greater precision.
Studies revealed mainly information on time-averaged behavior, missing time-dependent aspects of the linear-momentum transfer during photo ionization.
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-  Investigations are using high laser intensities, where multiple photons are involved in the ionization process, and measurements on how much momentum is transferred in the direction of laser propagation.
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-  To achieve sufficient time resolution, they employed the so-called attoclock technique. In this method, attosecond time resolution is achieved without having to produce attosecond laser pulses. Instead, information about the rotating laser-field vector in close to circular polarized light is used to measure time relative to the ionization event with attosecond precision. Very similar to the hand of a clock that is rotating through a full circle within one optical cycle of 11.3-femto-seconds duration.
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-  Physicists were able to determine how much linear momentum electrons gained depending on when the photoelectrons were 'born'. They found that the amount of momentum transferred in the propagation direction of the laser does indeed depend on when during the oscillation cycle of the laser the electron is 'freed' from the matter, in their case xenon atoms.
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-  The classical model had to be extended to take into account the interaction between the outgoing photoelectron and the residual xenon ion. This interaction induces an additional attosecond delay in the timing of the linear momentum transfer compared to the theoretical prediction for a free electron born during the pulse.
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-   The device in this experiment is 3 meters long and 2.5 meters high is an extremely high performing laser. Its photons collide with individual argon atoms in the apparatus, and thereby remove one electron from each of the atoms. The momentum of these electrons at the time of their appearance is measured with extreme precision in a long tube of the apparatus.
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-  When numerous photons from a laser pulse bombard an argon atom, they ionize it. Breaking up the atom partially consumes the photon's energy. The remaining energy is transferred to the released electron. The question of which reaction partner , electron or atom nucleus, conserves the momentum of the photon has occupied physicists for over 30 years.
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-  The simplest idea is as long as the electron is attached to the nucleus, the momentum is transferred to the heavier particle, i.e., the atom nucleus. As soon as it breaks free, the photon momentum is transferred to the electron.
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-   This would be analogous to wind transferring its momentum to the sail of a boat. As long as the sail is firmly attached, the wind's momentum propels the boat forward. The instant the ropes tear, however, the wind's momentum is transferred to the sail alone.
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-  The electron not only receives the expected momentum, but additionally one third of the photon momentum that actually should have gone to the atom nucleus. The sail of the boat therefore "knows" of the impending accident before the cords tear and steals a bit of the boat's momentum.
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-  The electrons tunnel through a small energy barrier. In doing so, they are pulled away from the nucleus by the strong electric field of the laser, while the magnetic field transfers this additional momentum to the electrons.
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-  To ensure that the small additional momentum of the electron was not caused accidentally by an asymmetry in the apparatus the laser pulse hit the gas from two sides, either from the right or the left, and then from both directions simultaneously, which was the biggest challenge for the measuring technique.
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-  This new method of precision measurement promises deeper understanding of the previously unexplored role of the magnetic components of laser light in atomic physics.
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-  100 years later and we are still learning how the photoelectric effect is actually working. 
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-  Our eyes have a type of photoelectric effect. Seeing is the most amazing thing.  It takes over one forth of the brain and your calorie to make seeing work.   Everyone knows that our eyes see with light photons entering the eye and striking the retina in the back of the eye ball.   Our brain creates an image from the pattern of chemical excitations created by these light photon energy swaps.
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-   Here are previous Reviews that are available for more background learning about these amazing photons: 
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-  2229  - When we approach the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second, Clocks run at different rates, distances appear to shrink, and objects themselves change color depending on their speed relative to your speed. Yet, at the same time, relativity declares that the laws of physics are the same and invariant for all observers, regardless of their motion. So what does this mean for a photon, which itself moves at the speed of light?
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-  2181  -  The photon is the force carrier for all electric charge repulsive and attractive forces.   These forces exit between particles because photons travel between them.  One eye blink contains as many erg-seconds as there are centimeters across the Observable Universe. 
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-  2113  -  The transfer of energy from a photon is dependent on its frequency.   The higher the frequency the higher the energy.  Ultraviolet light has higher energy than red light.  It can give you a sunburn. The human eye has 18 powers of 10 dynamic range.  The number of photons entering the eye in daylight is 79,000,000,000,000,000 photons per second. 
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-  1863  -  From starlight to star dust.  How the stars create the light?
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-  1810  -  How many photons enter your eye?  How many photons exist in the Universe? 
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-  1074  -  Physics the way I learned it.
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-  738  - The science of physics.
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-  December 29, 2019                                                                         2570                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Sunday, December 29, 2019    --------------------
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SPACE - is Anything But Empty?

-   2568  -  SPACE  -   is Anything But Empty?  The whole Universe is mostly “space”.  We tend to say “ empty space”  But, the Universe is anything but empty.   Space is full of amazing stuff.  The stars use their nuclear furnaces to produce all of the 90 natural elements from hydrogen t iron. 
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-------------------- 2568  -  SPACE  -   is Anything But Empty?
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-  When the star dies it goes either supernova or planetary nebula, depending on the size of the star, and the explosions spread the elements all over space.
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-  The nuclear fusion starts with the element hydrogen which is one proton and one electron.  The hydrogen fuses into helium, the helium fuses into oxygen, the oxygen in to carbon and so on right up the Periodic Table of Elements.  Gold has 80 protons and 80 electrons.  Uranium has 92 protons and 92 electrons.
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-  Whenever an atom is short an electron it has a net positive charge.  Whenever an atom has an extra electron it has a negative charge.  Free electrons are negative charges and free atomic nuclei carry a positive charge.  We call the positive nuclei ions.
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-  Whenever an electric charge is in motion it creates an electric field.  Whenever an charge is in motion it also creates a magnetic field.  Everything in the Universe is in constant motion.  Space is full of electric charges in motion therefore it is full of electric fields and magnetic fields.
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-   Light is electromagnetic radiation. Its motion has only one speed, 300,000,000 meters per second.
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-  Motion itself is energy.  It is called Kinetic Energy.  Space itself is in motion, but, a different kind of motion, it is expanding at 74,200 meters per second per 3.26 million lightyears.  We call this anti-gravity energy of expansion Dark Energy.
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-  Dark Energy makes up 73% of all the mass-energy in the Universe.  We don’t know what it is?  Most of the 27% of matter is Dark Matter.  We don’t know what that is either?  The 4% of Ordinary Matter that we understand is mass that has lots of energy.  E=m*c^2.
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-  The energy in mass is equal to mass times 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters^2 / second^2.  Energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared.
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-  Ordinary mass and energy and Dark Matter create gravitational fields that collapse space.  Dark Energy creates anti-gravitational fields that expand space.  So, space is full of this stuff.
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-   Kinetic energy, electric energy, magnetic energy, thermal energy, nuclear energy, gravitational potential energy, electromagnetic energy, and mass which is also energy.
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-  The world we know and love occupies only 4% of this stuff.  We call it Ordinary Matter.  It is made of protons and electrons and electromagnetic energy.  This Ordinary stuff creates chemistry out of the 90 elements.
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-   It also creates the biology, but, how we get from chemistry to biology is still a mystery.  The 90 elements get together to form molecules, compounds, gases, liquids, and solids that we do know.
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-  Astronomy to me is really the study of the Universe.  The big picture.  There is a lot to learn.  There is chemistry in space.  Elements binding together.  H2O  is hydrogen and oxygen binding together.  It is called a covalent bond when two atoms share the same electrons.
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-  Ionic bonds are when positive ions connect with negative ions.  Sodium connects with chlorine to become salt.   Metallic bonds like iron collect atoms in a bond that lets their outer electrons roam freely between the bonds. Electrons in motion is electricity.  All this is chemistry.
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-  Hot gas leaving the surface of the star cools down.  Atomic nuclei combine with free electrons to form ions and atoms.  Atoms begin combining with molecules which eventually become the dust that is in space.
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-  Here are the most abundant elements in space gas and dust:  hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, and iron.
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-  Particles of dust in an interstellar gas cloud are in very low density.  A near perfect vacuum on Earth would have one particle per cubic centimeter.  Interstellar gas might have one particle in 40 cubic miles. 
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-  This would be space gas that is not influenced by gravity.  Gravity starts pulling stuff together.  Density increases.  Pressure and temperature increases.  This can reverse the chemistry process turning the atoms back into ions and free electrons.
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-   When gravity collapses things further atoms enter the state of plasma where they are no longer atoms.  This gets past chemistry and into the realm of particle physics.  We won’t go there.
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-  The accretion disks that surround stars contain planets, comets, asteroids, and again the process can be reversed.  Atoms form, elements form, dust forms.  Chemistry again takes hold of the environment. 
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-  Planets in other solar systems have been found to possess water, carbon dioxide, and organic molecules.  So it is not just here that chemistry is happening it is happening all over the Universe.  The fun question remains.  How about biology?  Is that happening all over the Universe as well.
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-   Space is full of this stuff.  You can not say it is empty.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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-  December 28, 2019                                                          2568       1407                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Saturday, December 28, 2019    --------------------
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UNIVERSE - what is the fate of the universe?

-   2569  -   UNIVERSE  -  what is the fate of the universe?  The universe has always existed and always will. Few people challenged the dogma or even suspected it might not be true until the 1910s with the publication of Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity. The first models developed from Einstein’s equations showed that the universe does not have to be static and unchanging, but it can evolve over time.
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-------------------- 2569  -  UNIVERSE  -  what is the fate of the universe?
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-  I know the Universe’s fate is a long time from now.  But, wouldn’t you like to know what is ultimately going to happen to this Universe we are living in.  Of course, an even deeper question is how did we get here in the first place.  Although the answer to these ancient questions is still unknown, there are strong observational hints toward a clear future for this Universe.
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-  That concept, in and of itself, would have surprised most astronomers who thought about the subject during the past 100 years.
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-  For most of recorded history, the answer was simple: The universe has always existed and always will. Few people challenged the dogma or even suspected it might not be true.
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-  That challenge started to change in the 1910s with the publication of Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity. The first models developed from Einstein’s equations showed that the universe does not have to be static and unchanging, but it can evolve over time.
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-  In the 1920s, Belgian priest and astronomer Georges Lemaître developed the concept of the Big Bang. Coupled with Edwin Hubble’s observations of an expanding universe, astronomers were coming around to the idea that the universe had a beginning , and,  could have an end as well.
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-  It was not until the 1960s that strong observational evidence supported the Big Bang. The two breakthroughs were the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, and the realization that active galaxies existed preferentially in the distant universe.  This also meant they existed when the cosmos was much younger than it is today, and so the universe has been evolving.
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-  By the 1980s, most astronomers were convinced that the universe began with a bang, but they had little clue how it would end. There were basically three scenarios, all based on how much matter the universe contained.
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-   If the cosmos had less than a certain “critical density“, the universe was “open” and would expand forever; if the density were above the critical value, the universe was “closed” and the expansion ultimately would stop and then reverse, leading to a “Big Crunch”; if the universe were at the critical density, it was “flat” and expansion would continue forever, but the rate would eventually slow to zero.
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-  Observations seemed to favor an open universe, with astronomers finding only about 1 percent of the matter needed to halt expansion. But scientists knew that a lot of dark matter must exist.  This was non-luminous material that nevertheless has gravitational pull similar to normal matter.. Would it be enough to stop the expansion? No one knew.
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-  Matters grew more interesting in the 1980s when Alan Guth proposed his inflation hypothesis. This theory says a brief period of hyper-expansion in the universe’s first second made the universe “flat“. Astronomers eagerly accepted inflation because it solved some of the problems with the Big Bang model.
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-  But the most remarkable development came in the late 1990s. Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope and several large ground-based instruments were examining dozens of distant type Ia supernovae. This variety of exploding star arises when a white dwarf in a binary system pulls enough matter from its companion star to push it above 1.4 solar masses. At that stage, the white dwarf can no longer support itself, which triggers a runaway nuclear chain reaction that causes the star to explode with a calculated amount of energy.
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-  Because all these exploding “white dwarfs” have the same mass, they all have the same approximate peak luminosity. Simply measure how bright the type Ia supernova appears, and you can calculate its distance.   Brightness decreases as the square of the distance traveled.
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-  To their surprise astronomers found the most distant supernovae were fainter than their distances would imply. The only way this makes sense is if the expansion of the universe is speeding up. Gravity works to slow down the expansion, and did so successfully for billions of years. But it now appears we have entered an era where gravity is no match for the mysterious force causing the expansion to accelerate.
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-  The force may take the form of “dark energy“, quintessence, the cosmological constant, or some other strange name with a different effect. But the results of this energy that makes up 68 percent of the mass-energy content of the cosmos will lead to unending expansion.  If it keeps operating as it has, a “Big Rip” may be in our future. If not, a “Big Crunch” could still be ahead.
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--  Searching for knowledge is like picking up little pebbles on the beach with the whole ocean of the unknown out in front of us.  If you want to search more here are some other Reviews about the universe:
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-  2449  -  Strange universe is expanding forever.
-
-   2459  -   Measuring the universe.
-
-  2476  -  Determining the age of the universe?
-
-  2478 -  What is the shape of he universe?
-
-  2504  -  Measuring the universe from the biggest to the smallest.
-
-  2524 -  What is the structure of the universe?
-
-  2536  -  Explaining the universe is explaining the impossible.
-
-  2551  -  Exploring the age and size of the universe?
-
-  2552  -  Studying the birth of the universe.
-
-  2553  -  Is the Universe homogeneous?
-
-   2447  -  UNIVERSE  -  how did it all happen?  13.8 billion years ago the universe started as the Big Bang when space itself rapidly began expanding. At the time the observable universe, which included enough materials to build at least 2 trillion galaxies, fit into a space less than a centimeter across. Today the observable universe is 93 billion light-years across and still expanding.
-
-  2439 -   UNIVERSE  -  discovering the expansion?     One of the biggest scientific surprises in astronomy was the recent discovery that space itself is expanding. And, expanding the Universe at an ever increase rate.  Distant galaxies recede from us and from one another more quickly than the nearby ones, as though the fabric of space itself is being stretched by some dark form of energy.
-
-   2432  -  UNIVERSE  -  expanding space.  If you were born when the Universe was ten times its current age, our local group of galaxies would merge into one and would be the only galaxy you could see in the Universe for trillions of light years.
-
-  2419 - and  -  2393  - Age of the Universe
-
-  2412  -  Comprehending the expanding Universe.
-
-  2394  -  Wrap your mind around the Universe.
-
-  2348  -  The Universe from start to finish.  13 pages.
-
-  2347  -  The Island Universe
-
-  2335  -  The Universe almost did not happen.
-
-  2334  -  How is it expanding?
-
-  2262  -  How fast is it expanding?  Also list more reviews about the Universe.  It is a big topic.  In fact it is the biggest.

-
-  December 26, 2019                                                            2569                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Saturday, December 28, 2019    --------------------
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SPACETIME - creating new physics?

-   2567  -  SPACETIME  -  creating new physics?  Einstein invented spacetime to explain gravity.  Gravity is bent spacetime.  All objects, (ie:mass), move through gravity seeking the shortest distance and shortest time through the bent spacetime created by the mass.  Before Einstein almost everybody thought Isaac Newton already had figured it all out.
-
-

-
-------------------- 2567  -  SPACETIME  -  creating new physics?
-
-  A mind once stretched never returns to its previous size.   Space time is a stretch.  Space is what keeps things from being on top of each other.  Time is what keeps things from all happening at once. 
-
-  Einstein invented spacetime to explain gravity.  Gravity is bent spacetime.  All objects, (ie:mass), move through gravity seeking the shortest distance and shortest time through the bent spacetime created by the mass.  . 
-
-  Ever since Einstein came up with this scientists have  been scratching their heads about how to make sense of space and time. Before then, almost everybody thought Isaac Newton already had figured it all out.
-
-  Time flows equably without relation to anything external factors. Absolute space is also its own thing, always similar and immovable.  Events are a physical reality performed independently on a neutral stage.
-
-  But Einstein’s theories turned Newton’s absolute space and time into a relativistic theory.   His equations suggested a merged space-time, a new sort of arena in which the objects altered the space they moved in. No longer did space and time provide a featureless backdrop for matter and energy. Formerly independent and uniform, space and time became inseparable and variable.
-
-  As Einstein showed in his general theory of relativity, matter and energy warped the space-time surrounding them. That simple truth explained gravity. Newton’s apparent force of attraction became an illusion perpetrated by space-time geometry. It was the shape of space-time that dictated the motion of massive bodies,  and at the same time massive bodies determined space-time’s shape.
-
-  Verification of Einstein’s space-time revolution came over 100 years ago, when an eclipse expedition confirmed his general theory’s fundamental prediction.  The eclipse of the Sun provided a precise amount of bending of light passing near the edge of this massive body.
-
-  Now a new revolution is on the verge of answering that question again, based on insights from the other great physics surprise of the last century: quantum mechanics. Today’s revolution offers the potential for yet another rewrite of space-time’s theories.  At the same time perhaps explaining why quantum mechanics gives us such weird theories.
-
-  Space-time and gravity must ultimately emerge from something else,  Otherwise it’s hard to see how Einstein’s gravity and the math of quantum mechanics can reconcile their longstanding incompatibility. Einstein’s view of gravity as the manifestation of space-time geometry has been enormously successful but it doesn’t answer how the micro world works.
-
-  Quantum mechanics has perfectly described the machinations of matter and energy on the micro world atomic scale with unerring accuracy. Attempts to find coherent math that accommodates quantum weirdness with geometric gravity have met with difficult technical and conceptual roadblocks.
-
-  At least that has long been so for attempts to understand ordinary space-time. But clues to a possible path to progress around these roadblocks have emerged from the theoretical study of alternate space-time geometries.
-
-  One such geometry is known as “anti de Sitter space“.  Space that is weirdly curved and tends to collapse on itself, rather than expanding as the universe we live in does. Quantum gravity is sufficiently rich and confusing that even mind created universes can shed enormous light on the physics.

Anti de Sitter Space is a strange type of space-time with unusual curvature that is nothing like the universe we live in, but could nevertheless provide clues to the quantum processes that may be responsible for producing ordinary space-time that we do live in.
-
-  Studies suggest that the math describing gravity, that is, space-time geometry, can be equivalent to the math of quantum physics in a “space of one less dimension“, two dimensions instead of three dimensions..
-
-  Think of a hologram, a flat, two-dimensional surface that incorporates a three-dimensional image. In a similar way, perhaps the four-dimensional geometry of space-time could be encoded in the math of quantum physics operating in three-dimensions.
-
-  Investigations using this geometry have revealed a surprising possibility: Space-time itself may be generated by quantum physics by the baffling phenomenon known as “quantum entanglement“.
-
-  As popularly explained, entanglement is a spooky connection linking particles separated even by great distances. If emitted from a common source, such particles remain entangled no matter how far they fly away from each other.
-
-  If you measure a property such as spin or polarization for one of particle, you then know what the result of the same measurement would be for the other particle. But before the measurement, those properties are not already determined, a counterintuitive fact verified by many experiments. It seems like the measurement at one place determines what the measurement will be at another distant location.
-
-  That sounds like entangled particles must be able to communicate faster than the speed of light. Otherwise it’s impossible to imagine how one of them could know what was happening to the other across a vast space-time expanse.
-
-  But as far as we know they actually don’t send any message at all. So how do entangled particles transcend the space-time gulf separating them? Perhaps the answer is they don’t have to because entanglement doesn’t “happen” in space-time. Entanglement “creates” space-time.
-
-   At least that’s the proposal that current research in theoretical universes has inspired. The emergence of space-time and gravity is a mysterious phenomenon of quantum many-body physics that we would like to understand. 
-
-  Vigorous effort by several top-flight physicists has produced theoretical evidence that networks of entangled quantum states weave the space-time fabric. These quantum states are often described as “qubits”.
-
-  These are bits of quantum information, like ordinary computer bits, but existing in a mix of 1 and 0, not simply either 1 or 0. Entangled qubits create networks with geometry in space with an extra dimension beyond the number of dimensions that the qubits live in.
-
-  The quantum physics of qubits can then be equated to the geometry of a space with an extra dimension. Best of all, the geometry created by the entangled qubits may very well obey the equations from Einstein’s general relativity that describe motion due to gravity.
-
-   Apparently, a geometry with the right properties built from entanglement has to obey the gravitational equations of motion.  This result further justifies the claim that space-time arises from entanglement.
-
-   Still, it remains to be shown that the clues found in these universes with extra dimensions will lead to the true story for the ordinary space-time in which real physics resides.
-
-   Nobody really knows exactly what quantum processes in the real world would be responsible for weaving space-time into such a fabric.
-
-  Our universe is extremely unnatural, a weird permutation among countless other possibilities, observed for no other reason than that its special conditions allowed life to arise. Or, are the properties of the universe to be inevitable, predictable, that is, ‘natural,’ locking together into a sensible pattern?
-
-  Are life and mind irrelevant to the structure of the universe, or are they central to it? 
-
-  The nature of reality is revealed by the bizarre laws of quantum mechanics. According to the quantum theory, before the observation is made, a subatomic particle exists in several states, called a superposition. Once the particle is observed, it instantaneously collapses into a single position.
-
-  A natural universe is, in principle, a knowable universe.  But if the universe is unnatural and fine-tuned for life, the lucky outcome of a cosmic roulette wheel, then it stands to reason that a vast and diverse “multiverse” of universes must exist beyond our reach.  This multiverse renders our universe impossible to fully understand on its own terms.
-
-   A set of equations called the “Standard Model,” lack a sensible pattern and seem astonishingly fine-tuned for life
-
-   Einstein’s theory and the space-time concept break down inside black holes and at the moment of the big bang. Space-time, in other words, may be a translation of some other description of reality that, though more abstract or unfamiliar, can have greater explanatory power.”
-
-  These new discoveries have led us to explore new geometric formulations of particle-scattering amplitudes, hoping that it will lead away from our everyday, space-time-bound conception to some “grander” explanatory structure of reality.
-
-  Realty ain’t what it used to be.  Say tuned, we till have more to learn.
-
-  December 27, 2019                                                            2567                                                                                   
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Saturday, December 28, 2019    --------------------
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QUANTUM ENTANGLEMENT - Is it for real?

-   2566  -  QUANTUM  ENTANGLEMENT  -  Is it for real?  -  The nature of free will has long inspired philosophical debates, but it also raises a central question about the fundamental nature of the universe. Is the cosmos governed by strict physical laws that determine its fate from the big bang until the end of time? Or do the laws of nature sometimes allow for things to happen at “random“?
-
-

-
-------------------- 2566  -  QUANTUM  ENTANGLEMENT  -  Is it for real?
-
-  Life is full of choices and choices have consequences.   We make them of our own free will. Or do we?
-
-  Do the laws of nature sometimes allow for things to happen at “random“?   A century-old series of physics experiments still hasn’t been able to settle the question, but a new experiment has tilted the odds toward the latter by performing a quantum experiment across billions of light-years.
-
-  The laws of classical physics are “deterministic“. Newton’s mathematical cosmos is a clockwork universe, where each cause has a unique effect and we are governed not by our choices but by the rigid laws of nature.
-
-   “Quantum physics“, on the other hand, has a property of “fuzzy randomness“, which some scientists feel could open the door to free will. Since quantum physics lies at the heart of reality, it would seem that randomness is what determines everything. REALLY?
-
-  Some scientists have argued that quantum randomness isn’t truly random. If I roll a die the outcome seems random, but it isn’t really. All of its bumps and turns are caused by the forces of gravity and the table in a complex dance, but the result is deterministic.
-
-   The moment the die leaves my hand, its fate is sealed, even though I don’t know the outcome until it happens. Perhaps quantum objects behave in the same way. They seem to act in random ways, but they are really governed by some deterministic hidden variables.
-
-  Some aspects of “quantum gravity” is studying how Einstein’s deterministic theory of gravity can fit together with the randomness of quantum mechanics.
-
-  The question fascinated Einstein and he came up with an experiment that could test the idea. Together with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen he presented a thought experiment now known as the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen experiment.
-
-  You may have heard of Schrödinger’s cat, where a quantum cat is neither alive nor dead until observed in a definite state.  Like classical cats, quantum cats like quantum boxes. In the quantum realm things can be in an indefinite state until you observe them.  It is impossible to know what specific something , dead or alive,  is until you open the box to observation.
-
-   How we measure quantum objects determines what the outcome can be. It would be as if opening the box on the side forces it to be a live cat, while opening it from the top forces it to be a dead cat. How one box is opened affects another box miles away. In quantum theory, we say that our two boxes are entangled, so that observing the content of one box also tells us something about the other.
-
-   We can’t do this experiment with cats but we can do it with light. Two entangled photons can be sent in opposite directions. The polarity orientation of one photon at random, you measure the other, and then we compare our results. There are lots of different orientations we would measure, so we can each choose the orientation we want.
-
-  When this experiment is done in the lab, it actually works. If our measurements are random, there is no way for the photons to know ahead of time which orientation will be measured. So, there can’t be any hidden variable to determine the outcome. Whether we get the dead cart or the live cat the result is truly random.
-
-  This is the heart of why Einstein referred to entanglement as “spooky action at a distance.” It’s spooky because entangled objects have a quantum connection, even if they are light-years apart, or just separated between here and on the Moon. 
-
-  A measurement on one object is a measurement on both through this spooky entanglement. But it’s only spooky if the measurement we make is random. If it’s not random, then no spooky connection is necessary to explain the results.
-
-  This is known as the “freedom of choice” loophole. Experiments are done in a lab, and even though the choice of how to measure the photons seems random, if there’s no free will then the observation we make was determined by earlier conditions.
-
-  Since it takes time to set up the experiment in a lab, it’s possible that there are small interactions that could let the quantum system know ahead of time what measurement will be done. Maybe the experiment, the scientists and the lab are all entangled in such a way that the outcome isn’t truly random, so the quantum objects can game the outcome.
-
-  To get around the loophole, you have to deal with the speed of light. It’s often said that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, but it’s really information that can’t travel faster than light. We can send each other text messages, but never faster than the time it takes for light to travel between us.
-
-   In a small lab, light has plenty of time to travel back and forth across the room while the experiment is being set up, so perhaps small bits of information bias the “random” aspect of experiment before it’s even done. That doesn’t seem very likely, but a new experiment has overcome this problem. Rather than using a random number generator in the lab to decide which photon measurement to make, the experimenters used “quasars“.
-
-  Quasars are brilliant beacons of light powered by supermassive black holes in the centers of distant galaxies. Random fluctuations in the light from quasars  determine how the photons were measured. Since the light from a quasar has to travel for billions of years to reach us, the fluctuations in brightness happened billions of years before the experiment was done.  This is billions of years before humans even walked the Earth. So, there is absolutely no way for it to be entangled with the experiment.
-
-  The result was just what quantum theory predicts. It looks like there really are no deterministic hidden variables, and randomness is still possible throughout the cosmos.
-
-   Of course, randomness isn’t the only thing necessary for free will. But it does mean that your fate is not necessarily sealed.  Maybe, just maybe, the choice was yours after all.
-
-  2503  -To learn more of the math that is used in this experiment see Review 2503.
-.
-  2502  -  how the universe entangled in property pairs defies all reason?
-
-  2501  -   how quantum entanglement is faster than the speed of light?   This Review gives the history of these discoveries.
-
-  2500  -  we can not explain the quantum world?
-
-  2211  -  macro  - micro  extremes.
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-  2208  -  quantum entanglement.
-
-  1957  -  weird science.
-
-  1950  -  new mysteries in science.
-
-  1838  -  where is the missing link between quantum mechanics and general relativity?
-
-  1828  -  is the entire universe a space-time interconnected fabric?
-
-  1801  -  what are wormholes?
-
-  1949  -   how quantum computers will change cryptography?
-
-  1818 -  how quantum computing will change your life?
-
-  1733  -  quantum dots and valleytronics?
-
-  1457  -  quantum dots are a 10 nanometer window.
-
-  December 26, 2019                                                            2566                                                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Friday, December 27, 2019    --------------------
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TELESCOPES - come in all shapes and sizes.

-   2565  -  TELESCOPES  -  come in all shapes and sizes.  I know you have in your mind’s eye what a telescope looks like.  This Review will surprise you because it explores all different types of telescopes that in turn explore the full electromagnetic spectrum.
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-

-
-------------------- 2565  -  TELESCOPES  -  come in all shapes and sizes.
-
-   You probably do not recognize the telescope on your, or your neighbor’s, roof.  But, every satellite dish is a radio telescope.  The dish is collecting radio waves in a metallic mirror and focusing them on a detector.
-
-    The satellite is a stationary target because it is orbiting in just the right spot above the Earth to match the rotation of Earth.  The satellite is above the equator and completes one orbit in one day.
-
-  To calculate the TV satellite’s orbit use Kepler’s formula  that the period of the orbit squared = the radius of the orbit cubed.
-
----------------  One day  =  86,164 seconds
-
----------------  Mass of the Earth  =  5.976*10^24 kilograms
-
----------------  Gravitational constant  =  6.67*10^-11 meters^3  /  Kg*sec^2
-
--------------  Period^2  =  4*pi^2 * radius^3  /  G  *  Mass
-
-------------  (8.6164*10^4)^2  =  4*pi^2 * radius^3  /  6.67*10^-11 meters^3  / 
-                                                                 Kg*sec^2  *  5.976*10^24 kilograms
-
------------- Radius^3  =  74.96^10^21 meters^3
-
------------  Radius of orbit  =  42,157 kilometers.
-
------------  Radius of Earth  =  6,374 kilometers
-
-  The elevation of the satellite above Earth’s equator is 35,783 kilometers (22,235 miles).
-
-  The direct TV satellite dish is 0.5 meters in diameter.  It works ok for a strong TV signal but how well would it really work as an astronomy radio telescope?  All telescopes are rated in how well they resolve two objects.  Can the telescope resolve them as separate objects or are the two blurred together?  This is called angular resolution of the telescope.
-
-    For example the Hubble Space Telescope has an angular resolution of 0.05 arc seconds.  This resolution ability is dependent of the wavelength of the light and the diameter of the light collecting lens, or mirror.  The Hubble mirror is 2.4 meters diameter.  The wavelength of blue-green light is 500 nanometers.  The formula for the Diffraction Limit, as the angular resolution limit is called, is:
-
-------------  Arc seconds Limit  =  250,000 * wavelength / diameter

-------------  Hubble’s arc second limit  =  250,000 * 500 * 10^-9 meters /  2.4 meters

-------------  Hubble’s arc second limit  =  0.05 arc seconds.
-
-  Let’s do this same calculation for your direct TV satellite dish:  The wavelength used for radio astronomy is 21 centimeters.  This is the radio emission of active hydrogen gas.
-
-------------  Arc seconds Limit  =  250,000 * wavelength / diameter
-
-------------  Direct TV’s arc second limit  =  250,000 * 0.21 meters /  0.5 meters
-
-------------  Direct TV’s arc second limit  =  105,000 arc seconds
-
-  There are 3,600 arc seconds in a degree of arc so this corresponds to 29 degrees of arc.  The Full Moon is ½ degree of arc, so this is 60 times the diameter of the Full Moon.  That is the spot you have to hit in the sky in order to get your TV reception.
-
-   This would not be very good angular resolution for radio telescope astronomy.  We need a much larger dish.  The radio telescope in Puerto Rico is 1,000 feet ( 305 meters) in diameter.
-
-------------  Arc seconds Limit  =  250,000 * wavelength / diameter
-
-------------  Radio Telescope’s arc second limit  =  250,000 * 0.21 meters /  305 meters
-
-------------  Radio Telescope’s arc second limit  =  170 arc seconds
-
-  Therefore the radio telescope in Puerto Rico can resolve two hydrogen gas clouds that are separated by 170 arc seconds in the sky, but the antenna has to be the length of 3 football fields in order to do that.
-
-  Infrared light from space gets absorbed by our atmosphere and does not reach the ground.  Absorbing this energy is what keeps our atmosphere warm.  That is also why high mountain tops that are closer to the Sun are colder, because the atmosphere is thinner up there.
-
-   It is also why high mountain tops and high flying telescopes are used to get some infrared images.  Infrared wavelengths and thermal radiation are the same thing.  Therefore, infrared telescopes  need to be cooled with liquid helium to a few degrees above absolute zero in order to avoid thermal interference.    Infrared satellites are also in orbit behind the Earth’s orbit around the Sun in order to stay in Earth’s shadow.
-
-  Most ultraviolet radiation from space does not reach the ground either.  So ultraviolet telescopes also need to be satellites.  Conventional light  telescope’s lens and mirrors deflect the infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths well enough but different detectors need to be used to be sensitive to these longer and shorter wavelengths.  Hubble has all three detectors and has done a great job collecting images in infrared, light, and ultraviolet wavelengths.
-
-  X-ray telescopes can not use the conventional light collecting methods of light telescopes.  The wavelengths are too short and these photons travel right through visible light mirrors.  Instead of reflective mirrors they use metal shields that are at graduated angles to gently deflect the X-ray photons to focus on a target detector.
-
-    Typically X-ray photons are only deflected 2 degrees so the telescopes have to be very long.  A 4 meter diameter X-ray telescope would have a length of 2 meters times the sine of 2 degrees, a length of 57 meters.
-
-  Gamma ray photons have even shorter wavelengths and even grazing incidence mirrors will not work to focus them.  In Gamma Ray telescopes the photons go directly into the detectors without focusing.  As a consequence it is very hard to pin point the source of Gamma Ray emissions.  What happens is the Gamma Ray telescope detects the radiation in a general location.  Then, X-ray and visible light telescopes search for the afterglow and try to locate the source.
-
-  Neutrino telescopes are very unusual.  Neutrinos are almost like photons. They are nearly massless and travel at nearly the speed of light, but they do not interact with matter the way photons do.  They can pass right through the Earth and not be deflected at all. 
-
-  Neutrino telescopes are built in the ice glaciers of the Antarctic with detectors buried deep in the ice.  It takes a long time to collect only a few neutrino deflections as they pass through the Earth.
-
-  Cosmic Ray telescopes work on the same principles as the neutrino telescopes.  In fact, astronomers have trouble separating a hit in their telescope as being caused by a neutrino, or a Cosmic Ray.  The  big difference is that Cosmic Rays are charged particles and can be influenced by a magnetic field.  Neutrinos are neutral and are not influenced by magnetic or electric fields.
-
-  Gravity Wave telescopes are even more unusual.  Gravity waves travel at the speed of photons and distort the shape of spacetime as they pass by.  The distortions are very small.  Even the biggest emissions of gravity waves coming from binary Black Holes would only distort these telescopes by the width of a proton. 
-
-  The telescopes are laser beam interferometers that are several miles in length and perpendicular to each other.  As a gravity wave passes one length would be stretched while the other length would be compressed only this slight amount.  These telescopes have been built and their sensitivity has been continually improved.  We are just beginning  to discover gravity waves using these interferometers.
-
-  Interferometer techniques can also be used to improve the sensitivity of ordinary telescopes.  Telescopes need to collect as much light as possible and to have the smallest angular resolution as possible. 
-
-  Starting with radio telescopes multiple telescopes have been linked together using interferometry.   In Socorro, New Mexico, there are 27 radio dishes linked together with interferometry making the array equivalent to a single telescope 40 kilometers in diameter.(25 miles).
-
-  Interferometry is more difficult at higher frequencies than radio, but it is starting to happen.  This capability to use multiple telescopes will soon spread across the entire spectrum and even be launched into space.
-
-   As you can tell from the Diffraction Limit formula the angular resolution becomes smaller as the diameter of the telescope becomes larger.  The Keck Telescopes in Hawaii are 10 meters in diameter.  Using two Keck telescopes linked together with interferometry would have an equivalent diameter of 300 meters.  Substituting these numbers into the formula would give an Arc Second limit of 0.000417 arc seconds.  Amazing!
-
-  Hubble is 0.05 arc seconds limit and it can resolve two binary stars that are 20 light years away and only 200 million kilometers apart.  The angular separation is 206,265 * physical separation / distance.  1 lightyear is 10^13 kilometers .
-
-  The calculation works out to be an angular separation of 0.20 arc seconds.  So, the Hubble at 0.05 arc seconds could resolve these two stars.  Jupiter is 778 million kilometers from the Sun.  So, turning things around, if Hubble was orbiting these binary stars looking back at us it could resolve the planet Jupiter from the star, our Sun.
-
-  The human eye is a kind of telescope.  A lens focuses photons on a mirror called the retina.  When the dogs eyes glow in the headlights of your car you can see the mirror effects of the eye. 
-
-  The diameter of the eye is 0.8 centimeters.  Its Diffraction Limit is 15.6 arc seconds.  However, you have two eyes and a brain that can do interferometry.  The eyes are separated by 7 centimeters so you can get greater resolution power down to 1.8 arc seconds.  The Hubble is still 36 times better.
-
-   The other thing that Hubble can do is take long time exposure into the CCD’s, charge coupled detectors.  Your eye detects one photon at a time.  The CCD’s can collect one photon after another to accumulate a charge over time.  Some of the Hubble Deep Field time exposures have looked at the same spot for over 1,000,000 seconds.
-
-  I hope you learned some new things about telescopes.  We have come a long way in the last 400 years and the rate of change is the greatest today. 
-
-  December 26, 2019                                                            2565     941                                                                                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Thursday, December 26, 2019    --------------------
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Index

---
-  Index of recent Reviews email  available by requesting number:
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-   2547  - -  BIG BANG  -  recreated in the laboratory ?    How did science determine the age of the Universe?  How did they recreate this process of discovery in the laboratories?  It began with the discovery of radioactivity that reveled the existence of previously unknown sources of energy and unknown laws of physics.
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-   2548  -  ASTRONOMY  -  mysteries in the year 2019.  No physicist would dare assert that our physical knowledge of the universe is near completion. To the contrary, each new discovery seems to unlock a Pandora's box of even bigger, even deeper physics questions, as of February 27, 2017, here are some astronomical mysteries.
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-   2549  - ASTRONOMICAL  FACTS  -    A collection of facts in the study of astronomy.  Each a pearl of knowledge that the mind can ponder.  I hope 2019 has been good for you and 2020 will bring you even more good fortune and new knowledge.
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-   2550  -  COSMOLOGY  -  the history of astronomy?  Cosmology started with the Greeks when their Universe was the Solar System and the stars.  Cosmology changed drastically when Einstein proposed his theory of matter, energy, and gravity in 1905 and Hubble discovered galaxies outside our Milky Way that were speeding away from us.
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-   2551  -  UNIVERSE   -  the age and size explored?   The Universe is as big as it gets.  And , we do not know how big that is.  We think we know how old it is, just not how fast it has grown.  Today it seems to be growing faster and faster.  But, growing into what? Here is how we determined the age and rate of growth of today’s universe.
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-   2552  -  -  The study of the birth of my Universe is called “Cosmology“.  It is a science of speculation.  We take the data we observe today and run it backward as far as the physics will take us and come up with a beginning.  But, the whole thing is speculation.  How about educated guesses. Here is the most I could find:
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-   2553  -  UNIVERSE  -  why is it homogeneous?  -   Is the Universe expanding in space or is the Universe slowing in Time?  How could we tell?   If time were gradually slowing down it might take billions of years of time passage to see the change.  We would simply measure everything as getting faster and faster until everything reaches a snapshot and is frozen into one instant in Time.  Would this cause the universe to appear homogeneous?
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-   2554  -  UKRAINE  -  in 1987 updated to 2019   - Santa Rosa’s sister city in the Ukraine in 1987.  Press Democrat ran 6 articles on the change in US and USSR relations after the end of the Cold War and Gorbachev opened the Russian society to the West.
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-   2555  -   FORCES  -  and densities of the Universe?  If something is not a sphere than some other force is involved to make it so.  Crystals are not spheres because of the electromagnetic forces.  Same is true for you.  Asteroids are not spheres because they are too small to have enough gravity to pull themselves into a sphere.
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-   2556  - EINSTEIN‘S   -  legacy 100 years later?   Many science discoveries have followed with math giving the answer then later experience and observation proving it to be true.  Math deduced the General Theory of Relativity where gravity told spacetime how to bend and spacetime told gravity where to move.  Math said there were Black Holes, Singularities, and Neutron Stars.
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-   2557  -  ELECTRON  -  just the fundamentals?  The electron is the one fundamental particle that most affects our daily lives.  It is responsible for all electricity, magnetism, chemistry and biology, to name a few.  It was first identified as a particle in 1874.
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-   2558  -  ANTHROPIC  PRINCIPLE  -  if the universe was any different we would not be here to witness it. When it comes to the Universe as a whole, only gravitation matters. The Universe expands at the rate it does throughout its history for two reasons alone: our laws of gravity and all the forms of energy that exist in the Universe. If things were slightly different from how they actually are, we wouldn't exist.
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-   2560  -  ANTIMATTER  - is all around us?   Anti-matter is a term that most people relate to science fiction.  It is the ultimate fuel used to power space ships traveling at near light speed.  Few people realize that anti-matter is all around us, all the time, everyday.  Anti-matter is created naturally in nature through radioactivity.
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-  2561  -  ANTIMATTER  BLACKHOLES  -  what happens when they meet? Antimatter is not science fiction, it is all around us.  Antimatter is a mass that has the opposite electric charge but otherwise is exactly the same as ordinary matter, its counterpart.  What makes antimatter fascinating is that when it meets up with matter the two annihilate each other back into energy, according to E = mc^2.
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-   2562  -  ANTIMATTER  -  mystery in physics?   Why is there more matter than antimatter?  The Conservation of Energy tells us that at the time of the Big Bang, when matter was first created from energy, there should have been equal amounts of matter and antimatter created.  When matter and antimatter come back together again they annihilate each other and everything returns back to energy again, according to E=mc^2, Energy is Conserved
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-   2563  TEMPERATURE  -  Getting Temperature from Light?  If we measure the  frequency emitted we know the energy gap between orbits for that particular atom.  And , if we know the energy gaps for each element we can measure the frequency of radiation and identify the element that created. it.  That is how astronomers know the makeup of stars and gas nebulae that are billions of light years away.
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.-  2564  -  TEMPERATURE  -  calculating global Warming?    How to measure the temperature of stars? Knowing the temperature of the Earth how to calculate the total energy being radiated?   We live on the surface of  a  2,000,000,000,000,000 one hundred light bulbs.  And, the Sun that is warming us has a surface temperature of 6,000 degrees Kelvin.  How do we know these things?
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TEMPERATURE - Getting Temperature from Light?

-   2563 -   TEMPERATURE  -  Getting Temperature from Light?  If we measure the  frequency emitted we know the energy gap between orbits for that particular atom.  And , if we know the energy gaps for each element we can measure the frequency of radiation and identify the element that created. it.  That is how astronomers know the makeup of stars and gas nebulae that are billions of light years away. 
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---------------------  2563 -  TEMPERATURE  -  Getting Temperature from Light?
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-  We have leaned that atoms have orbiting electrons at distinct orbits, only those orbits having a standing wave, or multiple of a standing wave circumference.   A standing wave is a wave of half wavelengths where the end points are held stationary.
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-   Other orbits are not allowed otherwise a moving electron radiates energy.  If an electron in an atom absorbs or emits energy it must jump between these predefined orbits.  It must always absorb or emit a quantum of Energy / frequency equal to Planck’s
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-----------------------------  Constant of Action  =  6.6*10^-34. 
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-----------------------------  Energy / frequency = a constant.  E = h*f. 
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-  So, if we measure the  frequency emitted we know the energy gap between orbits for that particular atom.  And , if we know the energy gaps for each element we can measure the frequency of radiation and identify the element that created. it.  That is how astronomers know the makeup of stars and gas nebulae that are billions of light years away.  But, how do we measure temperature from this same data?
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-  It is Boltzman’s Constant that provides a bridge between temperature and energy. Ludwig Boltzman worked on statistical physics in the 1850”s and in 1884 he wrote the thermo dynamic equations for radiated power.  In 1879 Josef Stefan discovered experimentally that radiated power,  which is energy per unit time, per unit area varies as the 4th power of temperature. 
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--------------------  Boltzman later proved it mathematically.

-------------------  Radiated Power  = 5.68*10^-8 * temperature^4  watts / (meters^2*K^4)
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-------------------  Radiated  Power / temperature^4  =  a constant
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-  The Stefan-Boltzman constant is a small number 0.000000057 watts/(m^2*K^4)
If the temperature increase the radiated power must increase a lot in order to the keep the ratio a constant.
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-  One mole is the mass in grams equal to the element’s atomic weight.  One mole contains 6*10^23 molecules.  This is known as Avagadro’s Number.  A cube of sugar contains 600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules of sugar.
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-     At a constant temperature the pressure * volume / number of molecules  =  a constant.  At a constant temperature if pressure or volume increase number of molecules in that volume must increase.
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-----------  Pressure * Volume  =  n* R* Temperature
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------------  n*R is a constant = 8.3 Joules / mole*Kelvin
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------------  p*v / n*T  =  8.3
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-------------  where little “n” is the number of molecules
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-  The product of pressure and volume to number of molecules and temperature is a constant 8.3.  If temperature increases the pressure and volume must increase.  If pressure increases and the temperature remains constant then volume must decrease.  If pressure increase and volume is constant then temperature must increase.
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------------  Boltzman’s Constant  =  K  =  1.381*10^-23 Joules / Kelvin
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-  If we plot the radiated power versus frequency we find that power increases with frequency up to a maximum and then it decreases back to a minimum.  This is known as the Blackbody Curve.  The maximum power occurs at the frequency where h * f  = K*T
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----------.  Planck’s Constant * frequency  =  Boltzman’s Constant * Temperature.
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-----------  h * f  = K * T
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-----------  h  =  6.6*10^-34 joule*seconds.
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------------ K  =  1.4*10^-23  joules/Kelvin
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------------ f / T  = 1.4*10^-23 / 6.6*10^-34  =  22,00,000,000 cycles/second*Kelvin
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-  The ratio of frequency to Temperature is a constant, 20,800,000,000.  The constant is a big number.  If temperature increase the frequency increases.  Astronomers mostly deal in wavelengths instead of frequency, so we can translate this equation into wavelengths.
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--------------  Frequency * Wavelength  =  speed of light
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----------------  f * w  =  c  =  300,000,000 meters per second

----------------  T * w  =  0.0029 meter*Kelvin
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-  The product of Temperature and Wavelength is a constant 0.0029.  If temperatures increase the wavelength decreases, smaller wavelengths means a higher temperatures.  That is why a hotter flame turns from red to yellow to blue as it gets hotter.
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-  The wavelength versus radiation power graph of a Blackbody emitting or absorbing radiation is always the same shape.  The maximum and the minimums shift but the shape is always the same.  The Sun is a perfect emitter and considered a Blackbody.  The maximum intensity of the Sun occurs at frequency of 6.2*10^14 cycles per second.  This is a wavelength of 4.8*10^-7 meters, or 480 nanometers.  T * w  =  0.0029, therefore the temperature is 6000 K.
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-  The core of the Sun is very dense, containing 10^26 particles per cubic centimeter.  The temperature is `15,000,000 Kelvin.  Compare the pressure at the core with the pressure at the surface of the Earth, which is at 1 atmosphere.  Pressure is the force per unit area exerted on any surface.  Pressure depends of the number density of particles.
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--------------------  Pressure  = n * k * T
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---------------------  “n” Sun  =  10^26
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---------------------  K  =  1.4*10^-23 joules/Kelvin
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------------------  Pressure Sun core /  Pressure Earth  =  n*k*T Sun / n*k*T Earth
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-------------------   n*Tsun / n*T earth =  10^26 * 1.5*10^7 / 2.4*10^19 * 300 
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-----------------  where the at the surface of the Earth the density is 2.4*10^19 molecules per cubic centimeter and the temperature is 300 Kelvin.
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- -------------------------------    pS / pE  =  200,000,000,000
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-  The pressure at the core of the Sun is 200 billion times greater then the pressure at the surface of the Earth.  No wonder a thermo nuclear fusion reaction occurs at the core of the Sun.  And, no wonder it is so hard to create a fusion energy power source here on the surface of the Earth. 
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(1) --------------------   Planck’s Constant of Action =  h  =  6.260755
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(2)) --------------------     Boltzman’s Constant  =  K  =  1.380658 joule / Kelvin
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(3)) --------------------     Avagadro’s Number  N  =  6.0221367 * 10^23 molecules / mole
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(4)) --------------------     Speed of Light  =  c  =  299,792,458 meters per second
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(5) ) --------------------   Wein Displacement Constant  =  0.002897756 meters*Kelvin
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(6) ) --------------------    Molar gas Constant  =  R  8.314510 joule / (mol*Kelvin)

(7)) --------------------     Stefan-Boltzman Constant  =  5.67051*10^-8  watts / (m^2*K^4)
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-  Other Reviews on this subject:
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-  Review  505  How small is the Atom”
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-  Review 983  -  “How an Atom Works”
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-  Review  985 -   “Measuring How an Atom Works“.
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-  Review  986 -   “How a Molecule Works“.
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-  Review  924 -   “Rutherford’s Atom”
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-  Review  1740  -  “Temperature of the Earth”
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-  Review 2377  -  “Defining the Atom”
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-  Review 2333  -  “Rainbows can Tell Us What the Universe is Made Of.”
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-  Review 2555  -  History of the Atom to 1925
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-  Review  2555  -  History of the atom after 1925
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-    December 24, 2019.                                                       2563       988                                                                                                     
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Thursday, December 26, 2019  -------------------------
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