3178 - PHYSICS - don’t understand the extremes?

  -  3178   - PHYSICS  -  don’t understand the extremes?   This makes quantum physics all about “probabilities“. We can only say which state an object is “most likely” to be in once we look. These odds are encapsulated into a mathematical entity called the “wave function“. Making an observation is said to ‘collapse’ the wave function, destroying the superposition and forcing the object into just one of its many possible states.

- -----------------------  3178   -  PHYSICS  -  don’t understand the extremes?

-    Albert Einstein won a Nobel Prize for proving that energy is quantized.  Energy only comes in multiples of the same "quanta", hence the name quantum physics.

-

-  The quanta here is the “Planck constant“, named after Max Planck, the godfather of quantum physics. He was trying to solve a problem with our understanding of hot objects like the sun. Our best theories couldn’t match the observations of the energy they kick out. By proposing that energy is quantized, he was able to bring theory neatly into line with experiment.

-

-  A solar sail in space can exert light pressure like the wind on Earth.  J. J. Thomson won the Nobel Prize in 1906 for his discovery that electrons are particles. Yet his son George won the Nobel Prize in 1937 for showing that electrons are waves. Who was right? 

-

-  The answer is both of them. This so-called wave-particle duality is a cornerstone of quantum physics. It applies to light as well as electrons. Sometimes it pays to think about light as an electromagnetic wave, but at other times it’s more useful to picture it in the form of particles called photons. 

-

-  A telescope can focus light waves from distant stars, and also acts as a giant light bucket for collecting photons. It also means that light can exert pressure as photons slam into an object. This is something we already use to propel spacecraft with solar sails, and it may be possible to exploit it in order to maneuver a dangerous asteroid off a collision course with Earth.

-

-   Objects can be in two places at once.   Wave-particle duality is an example of “superposition“.  A quantum object can exist in multiple states at once. An electron is both ‘here’ and ‘there’ simultaneously. It’s only once we do an experiment to find out where it is that it settles down into one or the other. 

-

-  This makes quantum physics all about “probabilities“. We can only say which state an object is “most likely” to be in once we look. These odds are encapsulated into a mathematical entity called the “wave function“. Making an observation is said to ‘collapse’ the wave function, destroying the superposition and forcing the object into just one of its many possible states.

-

-  The idea that observation collapses the wave function and forces a quantum ‘choice’ is known as the “Copenhagen interpretation” of quantum physics. However, it’s not the only option on the table. 

-

-  As far as a quantum particle is concerned, there’s just one very weird reality consisting of many tangled-up layers. As we zoom out towards the larger scales that we experience day to day, those layers untangle into the worlds of the many worlds theory. Physicists call this process “decoherous“.

-

-  The spectra of stars can tell us what elements they contain, giving clues to their age and other characteristics. Danish physicist Niels Bohr showed us that the orbits of electrons inside atoms are also quantized. They come in predetermined sizes called energy levels. 

-

-  When an electron drops from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it spits out a photon with an energy equal to the size of the gap. Equally, an electron can absorb a particle of light and use its energy to leap up to a higher energy level.

-

-   We know what stars are made of because when we break up their light into a rainbow-like spectrum, we see colors that are missing. Different chemical elements have different energy level spacings, so we can work out the constituents of the sun and other stars from the precise colors that are absent.

-

-  Quantum tunneling is the finite possibility that a particle can break through an energy barrier.  The sun makes its energy through a process called nuclear fusion. It involves two protons, the positively charged particles in an atom sticking together. However, their identical charges make them repel each other, just like two north poles of a magnet. Physicists call this the “Coulomb barrier“, and it’s like a wall between the two protons. 

-

-  Think of protons as particles and they just collide with the wall and move apart: No fusion, no sunlight. Yet think of them as waves, and it’s a different story. When the wave’s crest reaches the wall, the leading edge has already made it through. 

-

-  The wave’s height represents where the proton is most likely to be. So although it is unlikely to be where the leading edge is, it is there sometimes. It’s as if the proton has burrowed through the barrier, and fusion occurs. Physicists call this effect "quantum tunneling".

-

-   Eventually fusion in the sun will stop and our star will die. Gravity will win and the sun will collapse, but not indefinitely. The smaller it gets, the more material is crammed together. Eventually a rule of quantum physics called the Pauli exclusion principle comes into play. 

-

-  This Pauli principle says that it is forbidden for certain kinds of particles, such as electrons, to exist in the “same quantum state“. As gravity tries to do just that, it encounters a resistance called “degeneracy pressure” The collapse stops, and a new Earth-sized object called a white dwarf forms. 

-

-  Degeneracy pressure can only put up so much resistance, however. If a white dwarf grows and approaches a mass equal to 1.4 suns, it triggers a wave of fusion that blasts it to bits. Astronomers call this explosion a Type Ia supernova, and it’s bright enough to outshine an entire galaxy.

-

-  A quantum rule called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle says that it’s impossible to perfectly know two properties of a system simultaneously. The more accurately you know one, the less precisely you know the other. This applies to momentum and position, and separately to energy and time.

-

-  This process leads us to virtual particles. If enough energy is ‘borrowed’ from nature then a pair of particles can fleetingly pop into existence, before rapidly disappearing..

-

-  Stephen Hawking imagined this process occurring at the boundary of a blackhole, where one particle escapes (as Hawking radiation), but the other is swallowed. Over time the blackhole slowly evaporates. 

-

-  Starting out as a singularity, the universe has been expanding for 13.8 billion years. 

This is our best theory of the universe’s origin is the Big Bang. Yet it was modified in the 1980s to include another theory called “inflation“.

-

- In the first trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second, the cosmos ballooned from smaller than an atom to about the size of a grapefruit. That’s a whopping 10^78 times bigger. Inflating a red blood cell by the same amount would make it larger than the entire observable universe today.

-

-  As it was initially smaller than an atom, the infant universe would have been dominated by quantum fluctuations linked to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Inflation caused the universe to grow rapidly before these fluctuations had a chance to fade away. 

-

-  This concentrated energy into some areas rather than others acting as seeds around which material could gather to form the clusters of galaxies we observe now.

-

-  As well as helping to prove that light is quantum, Einstein argued in favor of another effect that he dubbed ‘spooky action at distance’. Today we know that this ‘quantum entanglement’ is real, but we still don’t fully understand what’s going on. 

-

-  We bring two particles together in such a way that their quantum states are inexorably bound, or entangled. One is in state A, and the other in state B.  The “Pauli exclusion principle” says that they can’t both be in the same state.

-

-   If we change one, the other instantly changes to compensate. This happens even if we separate the two particles from each other on opposite sides of the universe. It’s as if information about the change we’ve made has traveled between them faster than the speed of light, something Einstein said was impossible

-

---------------------------  Other reviews that are just as confusing?

-

-  3131  -  PHYSICS   -   only six fundamental particles?   Really! Only six fundamental particles make up our whole world? In our everyday world, when you get down to the fundamentals, everything we see or touch is made of only 6 fundamental particles.  That is amazing. 

-  

-   3051  -  PHYSICS  -   mysteries to be solved?    -  We are all students if we are still learning, Right?  Well mysteries in science today are solutions for students in the future.  The science I refer to in this review is the broad look at astronomy and physics. 

-

-  2911 -  PHYSICS  -  unsolved mysteries?  1900, the British physicist Lord Kelvin is said to have pronounced: "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement.”  There are many mysteries we need to learn before we get hit by the next asteroid. Our Universe is full of surprises:

-

-  938  Universal Constants.  What are the natural constants and how do they shape our Universe.

-

-  2895  -  PHYSICS  -  mysteries we have yet to solve?  We are all students if we are still learning, Right?  Well mysteries in science today are solutions for students in the future.  The science I refer to in this review is the broad look at astronomy and physics.  Astronomy as the science of the very big.  Physics as the science of the very small.  

- 

-  2882  - Physics the Way I Learned It.

-

-  2386  -  The Science of Physics.  How all of physics can be narrowed down to two simple topics.

-

-  2004  -  The Trouble with Physics.  How string theory and academics have lead physics astray.

-

-  531 Joseph Henry, an American teacher.

-

-  532  Robert Millican, a Physics teacher.

-

-  524  Physics keeps getting simpler.  If you ask a stupid question you feel stupid.  If you don’t ask a stupid question you remain stupid.

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- 2220  -  The laws of motion.                                                    

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-  May 31, 2021   PHYSICS  -  don’t undersrand the extremes?        3178                                                                                                                                                        

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--------------------- ---  Monday, May 31, 2021  ---------------------------

3177 - PARTICLES - are waves with mass? -

  -  3177   - PARTICLES  -  are waves with mass?   Imagine a particle.  Chances are you picture a tiny ball, bobbing in space.  Now, try to imagine that tiny ball as a particle with no mass.   That gets us into particles being waves.  What is the difference between particles and waves?  It gets complicated.  Let’s start with the word “mass”

- -----------------------  3177   -  PARTICLES  -  are waves with mass?  

-  Sometimes the word “mass” is used interchangeably with the word “weight.” That’s not entirely wrong. The mass of an object is measured by its resistance to a force. When you pick something up to test its weight, it is resisting the Earth’s gravity, so an everyday object’s weight on Earth is indeed one measurement of its mass.

-

-  But there’s more to mass than just a resistance to gravity, especially on the scale of the smallest pieces of matter. So physicists’ definition of mass gets more complicated.

-

-  Most fundamental matter particles, such as electrons, muons and quarks, get their mass from their resistance to a field that permeates the universe called the “Higgs field“. The more the Higgs field pulls on a particle, the more mass it has. 

-

-  When it comes to composite particles like protons and neutrons, which are made up of quarks, most of their mass comes from the pull of the “strong force” that holds the quarks together. 

-

-  Photons and gluons, two force-carrying particles, are fundamental and are unaffected by the Higgs field. Indeed, they seem to be without mass.

-

-  Massless particles are pure energy.  These quanta of energy don’t have edges, and they don't have surfaces.  A better way to think of “particles” is as ripples on a “quantum field“.

-

-   A quantum field has vibration modes like the harmonics on a guitar string. Pluck it with the right frequency and you get a particle.

-

-  The two particles physicists know to be massless, photons and gluons, are both force-carrying particles, also known as “gauge bosons“. Photons are associated with the electromagnetic force, and gluons are associated with the strong force. 

-

-  The “graviton“, a gauge boson associated with gravity, is also expected be massless, but its existence hasn’t been confirmed yet.

-

-  These massless particles have some unique properties. They are completely stable, so unlike some particles, they do not lose their energy decaying into pairs of less massive particles. 

-

-  Because all their energy is all “kinetic“, the energy of motion, they always travel at the speed of light. And thanks to special relativity, “things traveling at the speed of light don't actually age.” 

-

-  Gravity affects anything with energy, even a particle that has no mass at all. That’s why the gravitational attraction of objects like galaxies and clumps of dark matter curves the path of light passing by them in space.  

-

-  It could be that the photon and the gluon are not the only massless particles in the universe. Scientists could one day  find the graviton. Or, the lightest of the three types of neutrinos has zero mass. 

-

-  If everything in the universe reduces to particles, a question presents itself: What are particles?

-

-  The easy answer quickly shows itself to be unsatisfying. Namely, electrons, photons, quarks and other “fundamental” particles supposedly lack substructure or physical extent. “We basically think of a particle as a pointlike object.   And yet particles have distinct traits, such as charge and mass. How can a dimensionless point bear weight?

-

-  With any other object, the object’s properties depend on its physical makeup its constituent particles. But those particles’ properties derive not from constituents of their own but from mathematical patterns. As points of contact between mathematics and reality, particles straddle both worlds.

-

-  The quest to understand nature’s fundamental building blocks began with the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus’s assertion that such things exist. Two millennia later, Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens debated whether light is made of particles or waves. 

-

-  The discovery of quantum mechanics some 250 years after that proved both luminaries said light comes in individual packets of energy known as photons, which behave as both particles and waves.

-

-  “Wave-particle duality” turned out to be a symptom of a deep strangeness. Quantum mechanics revealed to its discoverers in the 1920s that photons and other quantum objects are best described not as particles or waves but by abstract “wave functions”.  

-

-  Wave functions are  evolving mathematical functions that indicate a particle’s probability of having various properties.

-

-   The wave function representing an electron is spatially spread out, so that the electron has possible locations rather than a definite one. Somehow when you stick a detector in the scene and measure the electron’s location, its wave function suddenly “collapses” to a point, and the particle clicks at that position in the detector.

-

-  A particle is thus a “collapsed wave function“.  Why does observation cause a distended mathematical function to collapse and a concrete particle to appear? And what decides the measurement’s outcome? Nearly a century later, physicists have no idea.

-

-  The picture soon got even stranger. In the 1930s, physicists realized that the wave functions of many individual photons collectively behave like a single wave propagating through conjoined electric and magnetic fields exactly the classical picture of light discovered in the 19th century by James Clerk Maxwell. 

-

-  They found that they could “quantize” classical field theory, restricting fields so that they could only oscillate in discrete amounts known as the “quanta” of the fields. In addition to  photons, the quanta of light.   

-

-  Paul Dirac and others discovered that the idea could be extrapolated to electrons and everything else. According to quantum field theory, particles are excitations of quantum fields that fill all of space.

-

-  “Quantum field theory” stripped particles of status, characterizing them as mere bits of energy that set into fields.  As physicists discovered more of nature’s particles and their associated fields, a parallel perspective developed.

-

-   The properties of these particles and fields appeared to follow numerical patterns. By extending these patterns, physicists were able to predict the existence of more particles. Once you encode the patterns you observe into the mathematics, the mathematics is predictive; it tells you more things you might observe.

-

-  The patterns also suggested a more abstract and potentially deeper perspective on what particles actually are.

-

-  Particles are “representations” of “symmetry groups,” which are sets of transformations that can be done to objects.

-

-   Deep down, energy is simply the property that stays the same when the object shifts in time. Momentum is the property that stays the same as the object moves through space.

-

-  A third property is needed to specify how particles change under combinations of spatial rotations and boosts which, together, are rotations in space-time. This key property is “spin.”

-

-  Particle spin is a kind of “intrinsic angular momentum” that determines many aspects of particle behavior, including whether they act like matter (as electrons do) or as a force (like photons).

-

- There are particles with three spin degrees of freedom. These particles rotate in the same way as familiar 3D objects. All “matter particles” have two spin degrees of freedom, nicknamed “spin-up” and “spin-down,” which rotate differently. If you rotate an electron by 360 degrees, its state will be inverted and comes back around pointing the opposite way.

-

-  Particles with the same energy, momentum and spin behave identically but they can differ in other ways. For instance, they can carry different amounts of electric charge. As “the whole particle zoo” was discovered where additional distinctions between particles were revealed, necessitating new labels dubbed “color” and “flavor.”

-

-   Physicists ascertained that “quarks“, the elementary constituents of atomic nuclei, exist in a probabilistic combination of three possible states, which they nicknamed “red,” “green” and “blue.”

-

-   These states have nothing to do with actual color or any other perceivable property. It’s the number of labels that matters: Quarks, with their three labels, are representations of a group of transformations called SU(3) consisting of the infinitely many ways of mathematically mixing the three labels.

-

-  While particles with color are representations of the symmetry group SU(3), particles with the internal properties of “flavor” and “electric charge” are representations of the symmetry groups SU(2) and U(1), respectively. 

-

-  The Standard Model of particle physics which is the quantum field theory of all known elementary particles and their interactions, is often said to represent the symmetry group SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1), consisting of all combinations of the symmetry operations in the three subgroups.

-

-  The Standard Model is missing the force of gravity, which quantum field theory can’t handle. Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity separately describes gravity as curves in the space-time fabric.

-

-   The Standard Model’s three-part SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1) structure raises more questions.  Researchers placed even higher hopes in “string theory“: the idea that if you zoomed in enough on particles, you would see not points but one-dimensional vibrating strings. You would also see six extra spatial dimensions, which string theory says are curled up at every point in our familiar 4D space-time fabric. 

-

-  The geometry of the small dimensions determines the properties of strings and thus the macroscopic world. “Internal” symmetries of particles, like the SU(3) operations that transform quarks’ color, obtain physical meaning.

-

-  These operations map, in the string picture, onto rotations in the small spatial dimensions, just as spin reflects rotations in the large dimensions.  Geometry gives you symmetry gives you particles, and all of this goes together.

-

-  If any strings or extra dimensions exist, they’re too small to be detected experimentally.  Over the past decade, two approaches in particular have attracted the brightest minds in contemporary fundamental physics. Both approaches refresh the picture of particles yet again.

-  A Particle is a “Deformation of the Qubit Ocean’6“.  The first of these research efforts goes by the slogan “it-from-qubit,” which expresses the hypothesis that everything in the universe, all particles, as well as the space-time fabric those particles arises out of quantum bits of information, or qubits. 

-

-  Qubits are probabilistic combinations of two states, labeled 0 and 1.  Qubits can be stored in physical systems just as bits can be stored in transistors, but you can think of them more abstractly, as information itself.  When there are multiple qubits, their possible states can get tangled up, so that each one’s state depends on the states of all the others. Through these contingencies, a small number of entangled qubits can encode a huge amount of information.

-

-  In the “it-from-qubit” conception of the universe, if you want to understand what particles are, you first have to understand space-time.  Entangled qubits might stitch together the space-time fabric.

-

-  Thought experiments suggest that space-time has “holographic” properties: It’s possible to encode all information about a region of space-time in degrees of freedom in one fewer dimension, often on the region’s surface. 

-

-  What’s most surprising and fascinating to physicists about this holographic relationship is that space-time includes gravity. But the lower-dimensional system that encodes information about that space-time is a purely quantum system that lacks any sense of curvature, gravity or even geometry. It can be thought of as a system of entangled qubits.

-

-  Under the it-from-qubit hypothesis, the properties of space-time,  its symmetries, essentially come from the way 0’s and 1’s are braided together. The long-standing quest for a quantum description of gravity becomes a matter of identifying the qubit entanglement pattern that encodes the particular kind of space-time fabric found in the actual universe.

-

- Our universe is positively curved. But researchers have found, to their surprise, that anytime negatively curved space-time pops up like a hologram.  Whenever a system of qubits holographically encodes a region of space-time, there are always qubit entanglement patterns that correspond to localized bits of energy floating in the higher-dimensional world.

-

-   Algebraic operations on the qubits, when translated in terms of space-time, behave just like rotations acting on the particles

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-  When particles collide, amplitudes indicate how the particles might morph or scatter.  Normally, to calculate amplitudes, physicists systematically account for all possible ways colliding ripples might reverberate through the quantum fields that pervade the universe before they produce stable particles that fly away from the crash site.

-

-  The  scattering amplitudes involving gravitons, the putative carriers of gravity, turn out to be the square of amplitudes involving gluons, the particles that glue together quarks. 

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-  We associate gravity with the fabric of space-time itself, while gluons move around in space-time. Yet gravitons and gluons seemingly spring from the same symmetries. 

-

-  “What is a particle?”  We don’t know’ is the short answer.  Here are some theories:

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1:  At the moment that I detect it, it collapses the wave and becomes a particle.  The particle is the collapsed wave function.

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2:   What is a particle from a physicist’s point of view?   It’s a quantum excitation of a field. We write particle physics in a math called quantum field theory. In that, there are a bunch of different fields; each field has different properties and excitations, and they are different depending on the properties, and those excitations we can think of as a particle.

-

3:  Particles are at a very minimum described by irreducible representations of the Poincaré group.  

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4:  Particles have so many layers.

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5: What we think of as elementary particles, instead they might be vibrating strings.

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6: Every particle is a quantized wave. The wave is a deformation of the qubit ocean.

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7:  Particles are what we measure in detectors.  It is the quantum fields that are real, and particles are excitations. 

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-  And you thought the discussion about ‘what is a particle” and ‘what is a wave’ would be simple!  Think again.

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-  May 30, 2021     PARTICLES  -  are waves with mass?                 3169                                                                                                                                                        

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--------------------- ---  Sunday, May 30, 2021  ---------------------------

3175 - RELATIVITY - can this theory be replaced?

  -  3175   - RELATIVITY  -  can this theory be replaced?    The discovery of gravitational waves in 2015 was a decisive victory, but, like its predecessors, it too might be about to fall. That's because it is fundamentally incompatible with Quantum Theory and that does not reconcile with the Theory of Relativity. 

- ----------------  3175   - RELATIVITY  -  can this theory be replaced? 

-  Earliest humans  thought Earth was at the center of the solar system and that idea stood for over 1,000 years. Then Copernicus came along and said that the whole system would be a lot simpler if we are just another planet orbiting the sun. Despite much initial opposition, the old geocentric picture eventually buckled under the weight of evidence from the newly invented telescope.

-

-  Then Newton came along to explain that gravity is why the planets orbit the sun. He said all objects with mass have a gravitational attraction towards each other. According to his ideas we orbit the sun because it is pulling on us, the moon orbits Earth because we are pulling on it.

-

-   Newton ruled for two-and-a-half centuries before Albert Einstein turned up in 1915 to offer his explanation, the “General Theory of Relativity“. This new picture neatly explained inconsistencies in Mercury's orbit, and was famously confirmed by observations of a solar eclipse off the coast of Africa in 1919.

-

-    Instead of a pull, Einstein saw gravity as the result of curved space. He said that all objects in the universe sit in a smooth, four-dimensional fabric called space-time. 

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-  Massive objects such as the sun warp the space-time around them, and so Earth's orbit is simply the result of our planet following this curvature. To us that looks like a Newtonian gravitational pull but it is simply cured space.

-

-  In the quantum world single particles can be in two places at once. Only by making an observation do we force it to 'choose'. Before an observation we can only assign “probabilities” to the likely outcomes. 

-

-  Such a picture cannot be reconciled with a smooth, continuous fabric of space-time.  A gravitational field cannot be in two places at once. According to Einstein, space-time is warped by matter and energy, but quantum physics says matter and energy exist in multiple states simultaneously,  They can be both here and over there. 

-

-  Try and use general relativity and quantum theory together, and it doesn't work. Above a certain energy, you get probabilities that are larger than one, larger that 100%. One is the highest probability possible,  it means an outcome is certain. You can't be more certain than certain.

-

-   Equally, calculations sometimes give you the answer infinity, which has no real physical meaning. The two theories are therefore mathematically inconsistent. 

-

-  Physicists are searching for a new theory of “quantum gravity“.   The most famous is “string theory“. It's the idea that sub-atomic particles such as electrons and quarks are made from tiny vibrating strings. Just as you can play strings on a musical instrument to create different notes, string theorists argue that different combinations of strings create different particles. 

-

-  The attraction of the theory is that it can reconcile general relativity and quantum physics. However, the strings have to vibrate across eleven dimensions, seven more than the four in Einstein's space-time fabric. 

-

-  As yet there is no experimental evidence that these extra dimensions really exist.  It might be interesting mathematics, but whether it describes the space-time in which we live.

-

-    Partly inspired by string theory's perceived failings, other physicists have turned to an alternative called “Loop Quantum Gravity” (LQG). 

-

-  Physicists can get the two theories to play nicely if they do away with one of the central tenets of general relativity, that space-time is a smooth, continuous fabric. Instead space-time is made up of a series of interwoven loops and that it has structure at the smallest size scales. 

-

- This is a bit like a length of cloth. At first glance it looks like one smooth fabric. Look closely, however, and you'll see it is really made of a network of stitches. Alternatively, think of it like a photograph on a computer screen: Zoom in, and you'll see it is really made of individual pixels.

-

-  The trouble is that when LQG physicists say small, they mean really small. These defects in space-time would only be apparent on the level of the “Planck scale“, around a trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a meter. 

-

-  That's so tiny that there would be more loops in a cubic centimeter of space than cubic centimeters in the entire observable universe. 

-

-  Light arriving here from the furthest reaches of the universe has traveled through billions of light years of space-time along the way. While the effect of each space-time defect would be tiny, over those distances interactions with multiple defects might well add up to a potentially observable effect.

-  Astronomers have been using light from far-off Gamma Ray Bursts to look for evidence in support of LQG. These cosmic flashes are the result of massive stars collapsing at the ends of their lives.

-

-  There is something about these distant detonations we currently cannot explain. Their spectrum has a systematic distortion to it, but no one knows if that is something that happens on the way here or if it's something to do with the source of the bursts themselves. 

-

-  Space-time doesn't exist independently of the objects in it. Space-time is defined by the way objects interact. That would make space-time an artifact of the quantum world itself, not something to be combined with it. 

-

- This theory, called “modular space-time”  might help solve another long-standing problem in theoretical physics regarding something called “locality“, and a notorious phenomenon in quantum physics called “entanglement“.

-

-   Physicists can set up a situation whereby they bring two particles together and link their quantum properties. They then separate them by a large distance and find they are still linked. Change the properties of one and the other will change instantly, as if information has traveled from one to the other faster than the speed of light in direct violation of relativity. 

-

-  Einstein was so perturbed by this phenomenon that he called it 'spooky action at a distance'. 

-

-  Modular space-time theory can accommodate such behavior by redefining what it means to be separated. If space-time emerges from the quantum world, then being closer in a quantum sense is more fundamental than being close in a physical sense. 

-

-  Albert Einstein dispensed with the Newtonian picture of gravity as a force, replacing it with space-time.   

-

-  We sit in space, we travel through time, and if something changes in our understanding of space-time this will impact not only on our understanding of gravity, but of quantum theory in general.

-

-   All our present devices only work because of quantum theory. If we understand the quantum structure of space-time better that will have an impact on future technologies.

-

-   2902 -  RELATIVITY  -  measurements made in 2020?   At the heart of every white dwarf star, which is the dense stellar object that remains after a star has burned away its fuel reserve of gases as it nears the end of its life cycle,  lies a “quantum conundrum‘.   

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-----------------------------  Other reviews available:

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-  2838  -  RELATIVITY  -  as scientists explain it?  The Universe is hard to explain.  Here are our best minds trying with their favorite theories.  God provides a simpler explanation.  It is just the way he made things.  Yet, we keep trying to understand how he did it. Here are the scientists that have they best ideas to date, 2020.  We keep trying to understand how we got here?  It ain’t easy?

-

-  2701 -  RELATIVITY   -  as best I can explain it?  -   Relativity tells us that an object in motion changes “Time and Space“.  Mass also changes time and space with its gravity.  And, motion increases Mass at the same time is slows Time and shortens Space.  In this review you will learn how Relativity works and how to derive Einstein’s calculations of its effect using the Pythagorean Theorem and simple algebra.  Why didn’t I think of that?

-

-   2417  -  RELATIVITY  -  best I can explain it.  -  Relativity starts with a very simple concept.  It starts with all motion being relative.  Space and Time require a reference frame in order to be measured.  There is no dimension in space or interval in time without it being in reference to something else.  All observers see things from different space-time perspectives.

-

-  2302 -  Before Einstein’s time mass, or matter, and energy were totally different things.  In 1905 Einstein changed this world of physics and astronomy using one very, very simple idea, the laws of nature are the same for all observers regardless of their position or their relative motion.  Here is how he came up with this idea.

-

-  2302 -  Before Einstein’s time mass, or matter, and energy were totally different things.  In 1905 Einstein changed this world of physics and astronomy using one very, very simple idea, the laws of nature are the same for all observers regardless of their position or their relative motion.  Here is how he came up with this idea.

-

-   2269  -  Relativity  -  Light has no time.   Time has stopped for light.  In fact, time does not move for all the electromagnetic forces and gravity when they’re traveling at light speed.   If light or gravity had mass, or inertia, it would be infinitely large at light speeds.  Therefore, it would take infinite energy to move it. Light has no mass.  

-

-  2103  -  Not what time you think?  A moving person will  experience shorter time durations that a stationary person?

-

-  2054 -  Relativity explained.  It starts with all motion is relative.  Time and space are a reference frame.

-

-  1812 -  Blackholes and relativity.  

-

-  1803  - Blackholes test Relativity.  

-

-  1791  -  The consequences of Relativity?  

-

-  May 27, 2021     RELATIVITY  -  can this theory be replaced?       3175                                                                                                                                                        

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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----  

--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Sunday, May 30, 2021  ---------------------------

3174 - UNIVERSE - age and rotation? -

  -  3174   - UNIVERSE  -  age and rotation?  We think our Universe was born about 13.7 billion years ago.  This newborn universe didn’t look like it does today, with elegant, star-filled galaxies strewn in all directions. Instead of stars and galaxies, the early universe was filled with gas and dark matter.

- -----------------------  3174   -  UNIVERSE  -  age and rotation?

-  As dark matter coalesced into clumps, it pulled in gas and triggered stars, and thus galaxies, to form. This star and galaxy formation ramped up over a few billion years, reaching its peak 10 billion years ago. 

-

-  Spiral arms of stars were discovered in an unexpected place, a giant, extremely luminous galaxy about 12.3 billion years ago, offering a new puzzle for astronomers to ponder.

-

-   Previously, astronomers had found galaxies with spiral arms that had formed as early as about 10 to 11 billion years ago.  Astronomers find these snapshots of galaxies from billions of years in the past by looking deep into space.

-

-   Since light travels through a vacuum at a set speed, pointing a telescope at a galaxy that’s a billion light-years away means we see what that galaxy looked like a billion years ago.

-

-  This newly discovered galaxy, BRI 1335-0417, is forming about 5,000 solar masses worth of stars per year. The Milky Way galaxy is forming something like one to two solar masses’ worth of stars per year, though there may have been small bursts in star formation in the past.  This galaxy also has a “quasar’ in its center, a supermassive blackhole that’s actively gobbling up nearby mass.

-

-  Larger galaxies break down into a few different types, including disc, elliptical, and irregular galaxies. Disc galaxies, including spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, are called this because of their relatively flat plane of stars.

-

-  What’s especially interesting about this galaxy is that it’s forming stars so intensely and contains a quasar in its center. A galaxy like this is often the product of two galaxies smashing together and merging. 

-

-  If that’s what happened to this galaxy it somehow managed to form a disc and spiral arms in the time since such a collision.   Hot gas in this galaxy was rotating around the galaxy center.

-

-  The velocities of gas at different points in the galaxy match a typical pattern found in galaxies with discs, implying that this galaxy has a fairly well-defined disc.  The rotation speeds of gas in the arm-like structures match the rotation speeds of the disc, suggesting the structures could be arms within the disc rather than streams of gas outside it.

- 

-   The presence of spiral arms in a galaxy can affect how gas moves within a galaxy and encourage dense structures to form in galaxy centers, like the bar in the center of the Milky Way.

-

-  Spiral galaxies have distinct internal structures including a stellar bulge, disk and spiral arms. It is unknown when in cosmic history these structures formed.   This intensely star-forming galaxy in the distant Universe has a redshift of 4.41.

-

-   The gas kinematics show a steep velocity rise near the galaxy center and have a two-armed spiral morphology, which extends from about 2 to 5 kiloparsecs in radius. 

-

-  We interpret these features as due to a central compact structure, such as a bulge; a rotating gas disk; and either spiral arms or tidal tails. These features had formed within 1.4 billion years after the Big Bang, long before the peak of cosmic star formation.

-

-  Anther interesting galaxy, UGC 10738, had a thick disc containing ancient stars formed billions of years ago and a thin disc of relatively younger stars. The two star-filled discs were strikingly similar to those located in the Milky Way galaxy.

-

-  This presented the astronomers with a rare opportunity to compare our own galaxy with its very own galactic twin, a galaxy that may have evolved in a similar fashion to the Milky Way. They found that the Milky Way may have evolved gradually over time rather than having formed as a result of a massive collision between galaxies.

-

-  Their observations revealed that galaxy UGC 10738 has a thick disc consisting mostly of ancient stars, which have a low ratio of iron to hydrogen and helium, while its thin disc stars are younger and contain more metal, a sign that they formed from material left over by previous generations of stars.

-

-  Our Sun is a thin disc star, forming around 4.5 billion years ago.  These discs have been observed in galaxies before, but it was nearly impossible to tell whether they hosted the same kind of star distribution between the two discs.

-

-  By confirming that this galaxy has a similar distribution of young and old stars between its thin and thick discs, the astronomers concluded that it had a similar origin story to that of the Milky Way.

-

-  Nearly 14 billion years ago, enormous clouds of gas and dust collapsed under the weight of their own gravity to form the Milky Way.  These clouds then formed two main structures: a spherical halo, and a dense, bright disk.

-

-   A popular theory suggests that around 11 billion years ago, a small galaxy called Gaia-Enceladus slammed into the primordial Milky Way.

-

-  The Milky Way  today is headed for a collision with its neighboring galaxy, Andromeda, within the next several billion years  But the new study suggests that instead of a massive collision, the Milky Way came to be by way of natural progression.

-

-  Our observations indicate that the Milky Way’s thin and thick discs didn’t come about because of a gigantic mash-up, but a sort-of ‘default’ path of galaxy formation and evolution.  

-

-  The Milky Way was unique in that it formed as a result of mergers with other, smaller galaxies and therefore its structure was not observable with other spiral galaxies.

-

-  The new findings also don’t necessarily contradict the theory that the Milky Way collided with other smaller galaxies over time, leading to its structure today.  This is perhaps the closest comparison scientists have observed to our home galaxy and may suggest that the Milky Way is somewhat typical.

-

-  The Milky Way disk consists of two prominent components — a thick, alpha-rich, low-metallicity component and a thin, metal-rich, low-alpha component. External galaxies have been shown to contain thin and thick disk components, but whether distinct components in the [α/Fe]–[Z/H] plane exist in other Milky Way-like galaxies is not yet known. 

-

-  We present VLT-MUSE observations of UGC 10738, a nearby, edge-on Milky Way-like galaxy. We demonstrate through stellar population synthesis model fitting that UGC 10738 contains alpha-rich and alpha-poor stellar populations with similar spatial distributions to the same components in the Milky Way. 

-

-  We discuss how the finding that external galaxies also contain chemically distinct disk components may act as a significant constraint on the formation of the Milky Way’s own thin and thick disk.----------------------------------  Other reviews to cover the Universe.

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-   3151   -  UNIVERSE  -  size and beyond?  The universe doesn't need that outside perspective in order to exist. The universe simply is. It is entirely mathematically self-consistent to define a three-dimensional universe without requiring an outside to that universe. 

-     3143   -  UNIVERSE  -  rate of expansion?   The disagreement over the Hubble constant of expansion is one of the biggest mysteries in cosmology today. In addition to helping us unravel this puzzle, the spacetime ripples from these cataclysmic events open a new window on the universe. We can anticipate many exciting discoveries in the coming decade.

-

 -  3142   - UNIVERSE  -  is it also rotating?  This Review tackles the  question.  Einstein’s theory of general relativity is our only validated theory of the universe as a whole. Without it we would have difficulty explaining where the universe came from and where it is going.

-

-  3135  -  UNIVERSE  -  what is it expanding in to?  -  If the Universe is infinite, how can infinity be expanding?  Astronomers believe the Universe is finite and that eventually it comes back on itself.  To explain this we have to decide the shape of the Universe.  The shape is flat?

-

-   3106  -   UNIVERSE  -  The Universe you live in?  Space is completely silent. Sound needs an atmosphere to travel through, and since space has no atmosphere, it has no sound. The biggest, most awe-inspiring exploding star wouldn’t even make a peep. Astronauts are able to communicate up there thanks to radio waves, which can travel through space.

-

-   3101  - UNIVERSE  -  Is it spinning, or, is it just me?  An initial spinning Universe could cause parity-violating asymmetry where gravity is allowing matter to dominate over anti-matter.  Bold theories still need a preponderance of evidence.  A spinning Universe is a new idea.  What does it all mean? 

-

-  2016  -  Birth of the Universe. The universe was born 13.8 billion years ago.  Our telescopes can see back 13 billion years.   This is when the Universe was only 800,000 years old.  

-

-  2008  -  The universe almost did not happen.  There is a fine tuning problem for many of the constants in physics.  Change any of these constants only slightly and the universe we know would not have happened.   

-

-  1991  -  Universe -  what are the odds?  Our whole existence appears to be n the very edge of the best conditions.  Our bodies are a collection of elements that were formed inside exploding stars. So, what are the odds you are able to read this review?

-

-  1493  -  The universe is expanding at an ever accelerating rate due to a vacuum energy that we do not understand.  This energy will eventually over come all the gravity in the universe.    Enjoy life while you have it.  The future is not bright.  

-

-  1836  -  95% of the universe is Dark Matter and Dark Energy that we do not understand.  General Relativity was the theory used to detect gravitational waves.  These are ripples in Einstein’s space-time.  

-

-  1821  -  Describing the universe.  The universe can be described with a model using just 6 qualities. Astronomy is a time machine that looks backwards in time.  Hubble’s law describes the expansion.  

-

-  May 27, 2021           UNIVERSE                                                    3174                                                                                                                                                        

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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----  

--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Friday, May 28, 2021  ---------------------------

3176 - MOON - eclipse turns red?

  -  3176   -  MOON  -   eclipse turns red?  The only total lunar eclipse of the year will light up the sky this Wednesday, May 26, 2021, when the full moon, a supermoon due to the satellite's nearness to Earth,  passes through Earth's shadow. During this lunar eclipse, the face of the moon will turn a brick-red hue.

- -----------------------  3176   -  MOON  -   eclipse turns red?

-  The fiery glow is the most dramatic of the three types of lunar eclipses, the other two are called partial and penumbral. A total lunar eclipse happens only when the sun, Earth and moon are perfectly lined up. 

-

-  When enters the outer portion of Earth's shadow, becoming totally bathed in the darkest part of that shadow, why isn't the result a "lights out" for the sky? Why instead does the moon become engulfed in a light-orange to blood-red glow? 

-

-  Picture yourself standing on the moon, looking down on Earth during the spectacular night-sky event. When the Earth is directly in front of the sun, blocking the sun's rays from lighting up the moon, you'd see a fiery rim encircling the planet. 

-

-  The darkened terrestrial disk is ringed by every sunrise and every sunset in the world, all at once. Even though our planet is way bigger than the sun, our home star's light bends around the edges of Earth. This light gets reflected onto the moon.

-

-  But not before it travels through our atmosphere, which filters out the shorter-wavelength blue light, leaving the reds and oranges unscathed to bathe the moon's surface. 

-

-  The moon will change various shades during different stages of a total lunar eclipse, going from an initial grayish to orange and amber. Atmospheric conditions can also affect the brightness of the colors. For instance, extra particles in the atmosphere, such as ash from a large wildfire or a recent volcanic eruption, may cause the moon to appear a darker shade of red. 

-

-   The moon doesn't always hide completely behind Earth's shadow. During partial lunar eclipses, the sun, Earth and moon are slightly off in their alignment, and so our planet's shadow engulfs just part of the moon.

-

-  You might not even notice the third type of lunar eclipse, the penumbral kind, in which the moon sits in Earth's penumbra, or its faint outer shadow.

-

-  Our 2021 total lunar eclipse is expected to be visible in Australia, parts of the western United States, western South America and Southeast Asia.   Other areas of the world, including the entire U.S., will be able to see at least some stages of the lunar eclipse, including its partial and penumbral phases. ------------------- Other reviews available:

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-  3165   - WATER  -  on the moon, asteroids?  The moon has been considered a waterless world. However, a discovery has shown that at least some parts of the moon, such as the large, permanently shadowed craters at its poles, contain significant deposits of water. 

-

-  2936  -  MOON  -  facts from moon-watching?  -   If  you view the crescent moon seen from Mill Valley set behind Mount Tamalpais, Marin County, California, you see the brightness of the portion of the Moon not directly lit by the Sun, but instead illuminated by “Earthshine“. It will change over time, dependent on how reflective the Earth is, which is dependent on a number of factors, including cloud cover, ice cover, the time of day and the Earth's rotation, and even the seasons. 

-

-  2919  -  MOONS  -  in our solar system?  The discovery of moons around another planet left centuries’ worth of astronomers desperate to learn more about what other natural satellites the solar system holds. Increasingly powerful telescopes and interplanetary spacecraft have revealed that there are many of the moons in the solar system and they are far stranger than anyone could have imagined.

-

-  2527  -  MOON -  Take Me to the Moon. -  Twin astronauts, Mark Kelly and Scott Kelly, were part of a survival experiment. From March 2015 to March 2016 Scott spent a year on the International Space Station while his brother, Mark, remained on Earth.  In April 2019, the results of a 3 year study was published of what changed between them with the two different year experiences.  Can we survive on the Moon?

-

-  2919  -  MOONS  -  in our solar system?  The discovery of moons around another planet left centuries’ worth of astronomers desperate to learn more about what other natural satellites the solar system holds. Increasingly powerful telescopes and interplanetary spacecraft have revealed that there are many of the moons in the solar system and they are far stranger than anyone could have imagined.

-

-  2791  -  MOON  -  measuring the distance?  -  The distance to the Moon is 240,000 miles.  I learned that in High School.  Today the average distance is measured to be 238,856 miles.  Actually that distance can be measured to within less than an inch.

-

-  2752  -  MOON  -  mining the Moon?   Forty-five years have passed since humans last set foot on an extraterrestrial body. Now, the moon is back at the center of efforts not only to explore space, but to create a permanent, independent space-faring society.

-

- 2450  -  MOON  -  new analysis 50 years later.  The Apollo missions brought back 200 pounds of rocks and soil samples.   Half of these samples were locked in a vacuumed safe to be analyzed 50 years later with more advanced scientific instruments.  New sample testing inspired these new theories about the formation of the Moon.

-

-  May 25, 2021            MOON  -  eclipse turns red?                            3169                                                                                                                                                        

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----  

--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Friday, May 28, 2021  ---------------------------

3173 - PLANETS - travel time to each?

  -  3173   - PLANETS  -  travel time to each?   So, we find a new planet, so what?  We better be worrying about the planet we have.   In 500,000 years our oceans will have evaporated due to the Sun turning into a Red Giant then a Planetary Nebulae.  That is how much time we’ve got, if no other disaster hits us sooner.  Whatever we figure out let’s hope they do the math.

- -----------------------  3173   -  PLANETS  -  travel time to each?

-  Astronomy today has technology that is beyond the imagination.  And, at the same time we have imagination far beyond our technology.  Let me give you an example.  

-

-  Astronomers observed a planet that transits in front of its star.  It is 63 lightyears away in the Constellation Vulpecula.  First, astronomers recorded the star’s light spectrum with out planet in front of it.  Then, later, they obtained the light spectrum of the star with the planet and the planet’s atmosphere in front of it.  Now, subtract the two spectrums.  

-

-  What you have left is the spectrum of light trough the planet’s atmosphere.  Analyzing that spectrum astronomers learned that the planet’s atmosphere was mostly sodium, that is salty air.  The planet was too close to the star  and too hot for life so knowing its atmosphere was no big excitement.

-

-  Astronomers found another gas giant planet with a methane and water molecule atmosphere. It is also 63 lightyears away.  This was the first detection of an organic molecule on another planet ( HD189733b)  This planet completes an orbit in 2 days and is too close and too hot to support life as we know it.

-

-  So the technique works and one of these days we are sure to discover a planet with water vapor and oxygen in its atmosphere, similar to our own.  It there is liquid water and there is oxygen that means there is life there. 

-

-  Free oxygen can only exist with life recreating it continuously.  Oxygen binds with nearly everything, nearly everything oxidizes to some degree.  So, if you find free oxygen in the atmosphere life must be creating it.  On Earth free oxygen happened about 3,500,000,000 years ago.  It was created by microbes and blue algae.

-

-  Ok, let’s say you found an Earth-like planet, now what?

-

-  Let’s get NASA to send a space probe to investigate.  Right?  This is only 63 lightyears away, close on cosmic terms.  Our Milky Way Galaxy is 100,000 lightyears across.  That seems like a short distance by comparison.

-

-    Our current rockets travel 10 miles per second, that is 36,000 miles per hour.  That’s fast.  Ok, how long would it take to get there?  

-

----------------  63 lightyears * 5.88*10^12 miles/lightyear  =  370*10^12 miles / 36*10^3 miles/ hour =  10^10 hours which is 1,140,000 years.  Over one million years to get there and another 63 years to radio back to Earth that you made it.  Tell the people living then, if any, what they found.

-

--------------  Say the technology improves 10 fold and we build a rocket that could pass the Moon in 30 minutes traveling at 360,000 miles per hour.  It will still take 114,000 years to get to the planet.

-

-  This is just not working for me.  We have found life on another planet.  We have to learn more.  Let’s invent a rocket that can travel 1000 miles in one second.  Then it is traveling  3,600,000 miles per hour.  Now we got the journey down to 11,700 years, one way.  

-

-  This space travel to the planets is nonsense.  What are we going to do freeze dry our astronauts before they take off then thaw them out when they get there.  After 500 generations I hope people still remember they are out there. 

-

-   Or, they could just show up on a return trip 230 centuries from now.  The computers on board would have been obsoleted 50,000 times by then.  Our language would have changed so much we could not even understand each other.

-

-  So, we find a new planet, so what?  We better be worrying about the planet we have.

-

-  In 500,000 years our oceans will have evaporated due to the Sun turning into a Red Giant then a Planetary Nebulae.  That is how much time we’ve got, if no other disaster hits us sooner.  Whatever we figure out let’s hope they do the math.

-

-   Time to each planet assuming we can double the speed of the Shuttle to 54,000 miles per hour.  These are one way trips.

-

----------------  Mercury  --------  27 days

-

----------------  Venus      --------  52 days

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----------------  Mars        --------  109  days

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----------------  Jupiter  --------    365 days

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----------------  Saturn      --------  1.8 years

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----------------  Uranus     --------  3.8 years

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----------------  Neptune  --------   5.9 years

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----------------  Pluto  ------------   7.8 years

-

-  These times do not include the return trip.  Nor the time to build and fuel another rocket.

-

- --------------------------------------  Other reviews available about the planets:

-

- 3154   - PLANETS  -  which one to move to?    Venus is too toxic, hot, and inhospitable.  Mars is deadly too.   Just as Venus is extremely hot, Mars is frigid cold. Venus has a thick, poisonous atmosphere, but Mars has a paper-thin one. Mars has all that radiation exposure to deal with.  How do we choose?

-

-   3148   - PLANETS  -  in our Solar System?    The order of the planets in the solar system, starting nearest the sun and working outward is the following: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and then the possible Planet Nine.

-

-  3043  -  PLANETS  -  how many are out there?  We are content in thinking we have discovered the planets in our solar system.  We have eight planets circling he Sun.  Nine if you count Pluto.  Then more planetoids are being discovered orbiting farther from the Sun than Pluto.

-  

 -  2666  -  PLANET  NINE  .   I always thought that Pluto was Planet Nine. Then Pluto got demoted to a “ Dwarf Planet”.  Now astronomers are telling us there are many more dwarf planet out there, and also one “real planet nine“.  We still have more to discover in our own Solar System.

-

-  2647  -  PLANET  NINE  -  may be a blackhole?  One theory is that it is a “blackhole“.  Maybe there is an ancient, grapefruit-size blackhole hiding out in our solar system.  This tiny, heavy object might in fact take the place of a theoretical planet that might be tugging on other objects in our solar system.   This so-called “Planet 9” could explain the math calculations and why we cannot find it.

-

-   2448  -  PLANET NINE  -   could it be a blackhole?    Maybe there is an ancient, grapefruit-size blackhole hiding out in our solar system.  This tiny, heavy object might in fact take the place of a theoretical planet that might be tugging on other objects in our solar system. 

-

-  2637  -  FOURIER -  Math Discovers Exoplanets.  If technology continues to improve and astronomers can capture some reflected light from the exoplanet its spectroscopy can detect the elements that are in the planet’s atmosphere.   Detecting the slightest sinusoidal wobble in the light spectrum and performing the Fourier transform on the data so the period of the orbiting object will pop out of the data,  astronomers will detect Earth-size terrestrial planets orbiting other stars. 

-

-  965  -  The chemistry of planet formation.  .  Astronomers are using 2 different methods to find these planets.  The “Transit Method” and the “Radial Velocity Method”.  With both of these methods we have to be lucky and happen to be viewing the planet orbits edge-on.  If we are viewing the orbits face-on we can never discover planets with these methods.  

-

-  935  -  Planet temperatures.

-

-  928  -  Planet formation. .  Astronomers have found more than 4,000 planets in other solar systems.  How they formed and how they contain such wide diversity is a new mystery.  We thought we had a design for planet formation that matched our Solar System.  In contrast, other solar systems are so diverse and supposedly formed out of chaos.

-

-  May 26, 2021     PLANETS  -  travel time to each?         919          3173                                                                                                                                                        

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----  

--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Wednesday, May 26, 2021  ---------------------------