The Gravity of It All

-  2356 -  If a gravity wave comes through the detector it would sound like a “chirp”.  This chirp could be a very old gravity wave.  Today the Universe is 13.7 billion years old.  Light, or photon, did not appear until 100,000 years after the Big Bang.   But gravity started at the first instant, 10^-43 seconds after the beginning.  Studying gravity waves will allow us to peer far back in to the beginning of time and space.
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-
-
---------------------------- -  2356  -   The Gravity of It All
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-  Gravity has been around for a long time but there is still a lot we do not understand about it.  Gravity accelerates things.  It accelerates you at 32 feet per second per second towards the center of the Earth.
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-   Our Sun and all the other stars accelerate towards the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.  But, gravity acceleration powers decrease as the square of the distance, so the Sun’s acceleration toward the center of the Milky Way is only the width of an atom per second per second.  The Sun only feels the gravity of the Milky Way 100 billionth as strong as you feel gravity on the surface of the Earth.
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-  What would happen if you drilled a hole from the North Pole to the South Pole and dropped a bowling ball into the hole?
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-   If you drilled a  hole from the North Pole to the South Pole and dropped a bowling ball into the hole, the bowling ball would accelerate to the center, then it would slow down until it reached the South Pole, then it would turn around and fall to the center again, and again, and again.
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-  Isaac Newton developed the three laws of motion and the theory of gravity.  In Newton’s universe space and time were absolute, regardless of the motion of the observer and the mass contained within space.
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-  Newton found the force of gravity depends on the size of the masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
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-  In 1905, Albert Einstein changed all that.  His universe described gravity as the warping of space-time, not a force acting at a distance.  He had space and time as relative to the observer and both are altered as motion approaches the speed of light, distances appear to stretch and time slows down.  He also predicted the gravity waves distorting space-time travel at the speed of light.
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- We are just beginning to detect  gravity waves.  LIGO detectors are getting close to routine detection.  Gravity waves are traveling through you and the Earth all the time.  They are ripples in space-time.  These ripples actually cause wobbles in mass and material.  The whole Earth is wobbling all the time due to passing gravity waves.
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-   For example, when a gravity wave of 200 cycles per second travels through the Earth the distance between the North Pole and the South Pole increases and the Earth’s diameter at the equator decreases. (Assuming a north - south orientation of the gravity wave in this case.)
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-  A half-cycle later the opposite wobble occurs causing the distance between the North and South poles to shorten and the diameter at the equator to lengthen.  This wobbling, or oscillation, goes on at 200 cycles per second until the gravity wave passes through the Earth.
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-  The wave is traveling at the speed of light, but one cycle of the gravity wave lasts 5 thousandths of a second (the reciprocal of the 200 cycles per second frequency).
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-  Why is it so hard to measure such a wave?
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-  There are two projects called LIGO and LISA that are using laser interferometers to measure the changes in length caused by such gravity waves.  The changes are actually stretches and contractions in space itself.  It is not the mass that is stretching but the space the mass occupies is stretching.
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-  These ripples in the geometry of space-time are caused whenever a massive object is moving rapidly, near the speed of light.
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-  Such a massive object could be a pulsar, neutron star, supernovae, or black hole moving rapidly.  We can see the results of gravity waves by observing these pulsars.  Several binary pulsars are being studied today.   Binary pulsars are two neutron stars orbiting each other.
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-   Astronomers have observed that there orbits are speeding up and getting closer together with time.  It is believed that this is due to the fact that they are emitting gravity waves and losing energy.
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-  This loss of energy is compensated for in order to maintain the law of Conservation of Momentum ( Momentum is mass times velocity, or times distance per unit time).  As the orbit decays the stars velocity is increasing.
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-  Several binary pulsars have been observed demonstrating this behavior.PSR1913+16 is a binary pulsar that has been studied since 1975.  The stars are spinning at 17 times per second and orbiting each other in 8 hours and they are 1,000,000 miles apart. The predicted rate of inward spiral from the equations of general relativity are 3 millimeters per orbit.  To date the inward spiral and increased speed of orbit has exactly matched this.  The orbital times have decreased ( speed increased ) 30 seconds over a 27 year period.
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-  LIGO and LISA are projects designed to detect and measure waves emanating from binary pulsars.  It is not easy.  The changes in lengths that we have been talking about are very, very small.  The wobble in the diameter of the Earth would be the size of a nucleus, about 10^-15 meters.
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-   If we used a laser interferometer between Earth and the Sun we would only see a change in distance the diameter of an atom, about 10^-10 meters.  So, gravity waves have massive scales and distort space only a tiny bit.
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-  You are thinking, “ How could you ever detect a change in length that small occurring over a distance as long as that between the North and South Poles?”
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-  Well, with laser interferometers astronomers are getting powerfully close for routine detections.  Believe it or not.
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-  First, we have to learn a little about a laser interferometer, if you want to believe it.  Think of the interferometer instrument to be in the form of a giant plus sign.  The laser source is at the beginning of one arm, there is a half mirror at 45 degree angle at the center, there are full mirrors at the ends of the 90 degree arms, and the receiving detector at the end of the last arm.
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-   The laser source is emitting coherent light at a single frequency.  LIGO uses infrared light at 640 nanometers.  When the laser light hit’s the half mirror it splits into two beams at 90 degree angles.  With the half silvered mirror half the light is reflected at 45 degrees and the remaining half is transmitted through the glass.  The transmitted light is traveling in the same direction it had been traveling in originally.  The reflected light moves off at right angles to that direction.  Their amplitudes are reduced by 1 / square root of 2.
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-  Both light beams are reflected by a full mirror and travel back to the mirror splitter.  These mirrors are polished to have a uniform surface to within one nanometer.  The originally reflected light beam passes through while the originally transmitted light beam is now reflected.  In this way the two light beams join back together again.
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-  A single beam of coherent light is split in two.  The two halves are sent in directions at right angles to each other.  The two beams are returned and join into a combined beam again.
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-  If the two beams are not exactly aligned and in phase at the point of rejoining then interference patterns are generated.  The word interferometer means to measure interference.  It the beams travel the exact same distances on their separate trips then they recombine in phase.  If one beam travels a half wavelength further, then when the beams recombine out of phase and they cancel each other.  The detector output is zero.
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-  The idea of the LIGO interferometer is to set the two beams to exactly cancel to zero then when a gravity wave comes through first one beam then the other beam will experience the change in length and the detector will see a ringing interference pattern.
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- The wave length of the infrared laser is 0.64 * 10^-6 meters . The distances LIGO is trying to measure is 10^-18 meters.
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-----------------------------  Frequency = speed of light / wavelength
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-----------------------------  Frequency = 299.8 * 10^6 meters / second / 640 * 10^-9 meters
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-----------------------------  Frequency = 468,000,000,000,000 cycles per second.
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-----------------------------    How small is 10^-18 meters?
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-----------------------------    Start with one meter:
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----------------    Divide by 10,000 and you get 100 microns the diameter of human hair.
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----------------    Divide by 100 = 1 micron = wavelength of light. Micron = 10^-6 meters.
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-----------------------------    Divide by 10,000 = 10^-10 = diameter of an atom.
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-----------------------    Divide by 100,000 = 10^-15 = diameter of the nucleus of the atom.
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----------------------    Divide by 1,000 = 10^-18 meters which is what LIGO is measuring.
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-  The length change they are trying to detect is much smaller than the wavelength used to measure it.  Much more has to be done to optimize these measurements.  (I will not go into these technical details here but check out www.ligo.org to learn how they are doing this optimization at Caltech).
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-  LIGO stands for Laser Interferometer Gravity-wave Observatory.  Each arm is 4 kilometers long.  There are two sites.  One at Hanford, Richland, Washington.  The other at Livingston, Louisiana.  They are 3002 kilometers apart and will be able to tell if they both are detecting the same gravity wave.
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-  LISA stands for Laser Interferometer Space Antenna.  It is going to be 5,000,000 kilometers in each arm.   One big advantage of a space interferometer is that it is free from the vibrations of Earth.  Earth is always ringing like a big bell and these vibrations must be isolated from the measurement or it interferes with the interference measurements.
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-   Due to these Earth vibrations and cosmic noise LIGO is limited to measure waves in the frequency range of 40 to 2000 cycles per second.  This is the low end of the audio range so you can actually listen to the output detector in the interference arm.
-
-  If a gravity wave comes through it would sound like a “chirp”.  This chirp could be a very old gravity wave.  Today the Universe is 13.7 billion years old.  Light, or photon, did not appear until 100,000 years after the Big Bang.  Neutrinos appeared one second after.  But gravity started at the first instant, 10^-43 seconds after the beginning.  Studying gravity waves will allow us to peer far back in to the beginning of time and space.
-
-  Gravity is not always intuitive.  Here are some examples for thought:
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-  If you fired two bullets, one straight up, the second at 45 degrees from horizontal, which would hit the ground first?
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-  The bullet fired at an angle.  Gravity has less vertical acceleration to overcome.
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-   If the Earth were spinning 5 times faster what would happen to gravity?
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-  Nothing.  Gravity is a function of mass and distance, not rotation.
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-  If you dropped a bowling ball off a 10 foot ladder and fired a bullet horizontally at the same time and same height, which would hit the ground first?
-
-  They both hit at the same time.
-
-  Seeing with gravity is new learning never experienced before and not without the ingenuity of these scientists and engineers.
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-  May 6, 2019.                                                                                     43
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The Brain - it is what makes you you.

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-  -  2355 - The Brain - it is what makes you you.  -  What was your memory just before you became conscious of it?  What is consciousness anyway?  Is consciousness something that resides at the molecular level, at the cellular level, at the neural circuit level, or at some higher organizational level in our brain?   It still remains unbelievable that consciousness can be created from mindless little neurons.
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---------------------------- -  2355   -  The Brain - it is what makes you you.
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-    Who are we?
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-    Are we our brain?
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-  Our eyes do not see without it.  Our nose does not smell.  Our ears do not hear.  Our skin does not feel pain.  These are our sensors.  What we actually experience from our sensors all happens in our brain.
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-  On a dark, starry night look at all the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.  All those stars that you can see plus all those stars that you can not see in our Galaxy are less that the number of neurons in your brain. 
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-  Our brains are the most complex objects you will find in the Universe.  It only weighs 3 pounds but it is more complex than anything else you can find out there.
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-  Neurons are the brain cells.  Axons are the wires in the brain that carry electrical impulses between the brain cells.  The electrical signals they carry then release chemical signals in the brain.  It is this chemistry that makes us think. 
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-  Chemicals can get complicated enough that they can look inside themselves, understand what they see, and marvel at the very fact that they even exist. 
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-  Better living through chemistry.
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-  The millisecond  electrical signals are voltage spikes that occur along the axons between the neurons.  The spikes mean different things to different places in the brain at different times.  More spikes usually mean more heat, or louder sound, or a stronger muscle contraction.
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-   But, a single neuron may receive inputs form 10,000 other neurons.  It is the entire population of a group of neurons that gives us value judgments, predictions of the future, reminiscence, and the desire for sex or food.
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-   The neurons are not the only thing in the act either.  We really don’t understand the roles of glial cells.  There are 10 of them for every one neuron.  Then, there are the biochemical cascades that occur inside each cell.  The complexity of all this is more then our best chemistry can understand,  so far.
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-  By reading this review and learning new facts you are making PHYSICAL CHANGES in the structure of your brain.  Unless you are one of those people the don’t have a firing synapse in your head this is what happens.
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-  Synapses are the tiny connections between the brain cells.  The strange thing about memory in the  brain is that it appears to record the relationship between things and not the things themselves.  You can sing a melody because you remember the relationship between the notes and not the notes themselves.
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-  A resting brain uses 20% of the bodies total oxygen.  3 pounds is only 2% of the body’s mass but it is burning 20% of the energy when it is at rest.
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-  The emulation of possible futures is a key activity of a resting brain.  This allows our “hypotheses to die in our stead.”  We think it through before we act.  Our memories are the tools we use to make good predictions of what will happen in the future.
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-  Emotions seem to employ largely unconscious machinery in the brain.  Basic emotions are remarkably similar across all the animal species.  I myself hope to become the man my dog thinks I am. 
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-  Most of the animal species are “hard-wired” to solve particular problems.  Somehow, our human brains have the ability to go into the abstract and solve open ended problems.
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-  If you snap your fingers in front of your eyes you will see the snap 30 milliseconds faster than your ears hear the snap.  But, when the brain processes it , it makes them both simultaneous.
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-  Your brain takes your senses and interprets them as it thinks things ought to happen.  What happens to the 80 milliseconds of darkness that occurs whenever you blink your eyes?  Your brain chooses not to register that. 
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-  Look into a mirror at you left eye.  Now, your right eye.  Your eye movements take time but you do not see your eyes move.  Your brain is managing time the way it think things should happen, not the way they do happen.
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-  Animals deprived of sleep for 10 days die.  All animals need sleep.  Why? Is sleep rest and a chance for the brain’s restoration?  But, the brain remains highly active during sleep.  With our dreams you can actually see things with our eyes closed.
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-   Is the brain running models, or simulations, in preparation for the next day’s activities?  Maybe the brain is reorganizing your memory putting things where they need to be and throwing away unnecessary information during sleep?  Sleep may be an off-line practice session for the brain to figure things out before you actually get to do them? 
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-  In that case sleep is a learning process.  Maybe you can learn something by sleeping on your text books???  These are all questions because science really does not know why we sleep.  But, we know we need it.
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-  What was your memory just before you became conscious of it?  What is consciousness anyway?  Is consciousness something that resides at the molecular level, at the cellular level, at the neural circuit level, or at some higher organizational level in our brain? 
-
-  Maybe that organizational level has a massive feedback circuit that produces our consciousness?  It still remains unbelievable that consciousness can be created from mindless little neurons.
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-   Regardless, the brain is what makes us human.  And,  your brain is what makes you you.  Be careful what you feed it.  Hopefully this Review is good for your brain?
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-  May 6, 2019.                                                                                    801
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Monday, May 6, 2019  -------------------------
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Gambling - Let’s do the math

-  2354  -  Gambling can be fun.  But, if you are going to gamble you might as well be smart about it.  Casino’s and Insurance Companies make their money on probabilities in their favor.  The laws of probabilities are rooted in math.  Let’s do the math:
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-------------------------------- -  2354  -  Gambling  -  Let’s do the math
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-   Assuming everything is fair and truly random coin flips, balanced die, unmarked cards, are all on the up and up, here are the laws of probabilities:  You start out with $60 and you want to make $100 by gambling.  Let‘s do the math:
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-------------------------------------------  Craps  --------- 
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-  Winning at craps has a 49.3 % chance on every bet.  Your chance of winning and meeting your goal is 28%.   In other words the shooter has less than 3 chances out of 10 of meeting the $100 target. 
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-   If you bet against the shooter you are expected to loose $.014 on every dollar bet. You would think that if the shooter has poor odds of winning you could get ahead be betting against the shooter.  Your odds are actually a little worse because of another rule in craps.  If the shooter rolls a double 6 it is a push and you don’t win or loose.
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-  Here is what happens betting against the crap shooter.  With 100 bets your expected loss is $1.40 having a standard deviation of $10.00.  One standard deviation about the mean encompasses 68% of the events, so you have a 68% chance of winning $8.60 or loosing $11.40.
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-   Because for independent events each roll of the dice offers equal likelihood’s, the variance of the sum is equal to the sum of the variances.  Look what happens after 10,000 bets. 
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-  You will be down $140 with a standard deviation of $100.  The standard deviation grows with the square root of the number of bets.( 10,000^½ = 100).   You have a 68% chance of being down $40 or down $240.  After a million bets you will be down $14,000 with a standard deviation of $1,000. 
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-  Two standard deviations encompasses 95% of the events, therefore,  you have a 95% probability of being down somewhere between $16,000 and $12,000.  Your chance of meeting your goal of winning $100 is only 19%.  Remember the shooter’s chance of meeting the goal is 28%.
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-------------------------------------------  Roulette ---------
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-  Your probability of winning on any given play is 47.3%.  You have only a 1.3% chance of reaching your goal without going broke.
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-   The math for the gambler’s ruin formula is:  1-(q/p)^d  / 1-(q/p)^n
Where q/p is the ratio of the probabilities.  “p” you win “q” you loose,  q=1-p.  So in roulette you have a .473 chance of winning and a .527 chance of loosing.  The ratio “p/q” is 1.1142.
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-   The starting bet is “d” = $60 and the goal is “n” = $100.  The formula becomes
  1-656.1 / 1-49,695  =  -655.1 /-49694  =  1.3%.  With those odds in roulette you have a 1.3% chance of meeting your goal of $100 starting with $60.
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-  In roulette there are 18 red numbers and 18 black numbers, and 2 green numbers, 0 and 00.  You bet red you have 18/38 chances to win and 20/38 chances to loose.  That puts the odds at -2/38 = -.0526 %.
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-   You are expected to loose 5 ¼ cents with every dollar bet.  After 10,000 bets the loss is $526 with a standard deviation of 100.  3 standard deviations are 99% of the distribution which means your are almost certain to loose between $226 to $826.
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------------------------------------------------  Blackjack -------------
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-   With fair cards and knowing very well how to play the game you have a 51% chance of winning and a  93% chance of reaching your goal.  The majority of the people at the blackjack table do not know how to play the game and become the losers.  Blackjack is a much better game for gamblers who want to meet their gambling goals.
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-------------  Here is the individual probabilities of winning for each roll of the dice in craps:
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-------------  2----------snake eyes   -------------  you loose
-------------  3-----------one ace       ---------------  you loose
-------------  4 ----------- 2.8%
-------------  5------------ 4.4%
-------------  6 -----------  6.3%
-------------  7 ----------- 16.7%
-------------  8  ------------ 6.3%
-------------  9  ------------  4.4%
-------------  10 -------------  2.8%
-------------  11 ------------  5.5%
-------------  12 ------------ two sixes ---------  You loose
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-  These probabilities work out because for example there are 3 ways out of 36 that you can roll a 4 with 2 dice.    But, there are 6 ways out of 36 to roll a 7.   So, when you do the math you have one chance in 3 of rolling a 4 before rolling a 7.   Multiplying a 1/3 rd probability and 3/36 probability gives us 3/108 = .02777777, or the 2.8% chance  of rolling a 4 before rolling a 7.
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----------------------------- Slot machines?
-   Well, they are adjustable so the house can set any odds it wants.  You are always using your money to play against their odds.  Good Luck!
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-  May 5, 2019.                                                                                    805
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   Sunday, May 5, 2019  -------------------------
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Archimedes and Aristotle,great teachers

-  2353  -   What Creativity from the Ancient Greeks?  Every teacher must have a student.  Every student must want to learn.  Confucius say:  “First you must become a student then a teacher will come.”    Great teachers beget great teachers.  You have not really mastered a subject until you teach it to someone else.  Archimedes and Aristotle knew this.
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---------------------------- 2353  -  What Creativity from the Ancient Greeks?
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-   Archimedes of Syracuse born in 287 B.C. and died 212 B.C.  During his life he traveled to Egypt and the city of Alexandria.  While he was there he invented the hydraulic screw to lift water out of the rivers and dump it into irrigation canals.
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-   He mathematically documented the power of the block and tackle and the lever.  He made the famous quote about the lever, “ Give me a place to stand and I will move the Earth”
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-  In 214 B.C. the Greeks were at war with the Romans.  Archimedes helped the Greek Army by designing catapults as machines of war.  Archimedes proposed arming the Greek soldiers with mirrors and as the Roman ships sailed into the harbor of Syracuse focus the sunlight on the ships and set them ablaze.
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-  In 212 B.C. the Romans conquered Syracuse and he was killed by a Roman soldier.  He was 75 years old and at the time was working on another math problem at his desk.
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-  Archimedes first calculated the volume of a sphere to be 4/3rds times Pi times the cube of the radius.  He came up with this by first nesting a sphere inside a cylinder where the diameter of the sphere equaled the height of the cylinder.  The volume of the cylinder could be calculated as the area of the circle, Pi*r^2. at on end times the height of the cylinder, 2*r, or 2*Pi* r^3 for the volume of the cylinder.
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-    Archimedes’ genius was in using the concepts of calculus to determine that the sphere was 2/3rds the volume of the cylinder.  He broke the volume down into thin slices and then “integrated”, or summed, all the slices to get the whole.
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-------------------------------   Volume of a sphere = 4/3*Pi*r^3.
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-  Archimedes discovered the value of Pi by using the same method of calculus.  He fitted a hexagon inside a circle and measured the perimeter by adding up the lengths of 6 sides of 6 equilateral triangles.  Each side being the radius of the circle.  The circumference of the circle must be a little more than 6 times the radius.
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-   He recognized that all circles have a circumference that was directly proportional to the length of the diameter.  To find the equality he had to discover the constant of proportionality, that we call “Pi“.
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-  To make the hexagons inside the circle closer and closer to the perimeter he divided again to get a 12 sided polygon, then a 24 sided polygon, then a 48 sided polygon, then a 96 sided polygon.  Each time the polygon perimeter approaching the shape of a perfect circle.  He calculated Pi to be 3.14 times the diameter of the circle.
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-  When Archimedes was 47 years old another Greek, named Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth.  Syene was a city in southern Egypt and on June 21st, the Summer Solstice, the Sun was directly overhead as evidenced by the Sun’s reflection at the bottom of a deep well.  Alexandria was a city at the north coast of Egypt. 
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-  At the same time of year, also at high noon, the Sun cast a shadow at 7.2 degrees from the vertical.  The distance between Alexandria and Syene was 5,000 stadia.  The “stadion” was equivalent to 157.5 meters.
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-  Eratosthenes figured that the Sun’s rays were parallel lines.  The angle at the center of the Earth drawn to intercept  Alexandria and Syene on the surface was also 7.2 degrees.  The ratio of the angle 7.2 degrees to the circumference of Earth , 360 degrees, must be the same as the 5,000 stadia to the circumference in stadia.
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--------------  7.2  /  360  =  5,000  / circumference
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--------------  circumference  =  250,000 stadia.
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-  Today’s measure of stadia at 157.2 meters times 250,000 stadia  =  39,300,000 meters.

-  Today’s measure of the circumference of the Earth is 24,900miles.  At 1,610 meters per mile that equals 40,089,000 meters.

-  Eratosthenes got to within 2% of the correct answer in his calculation 240 years before the birth of Christ.  How cool is that?
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-  Socrates was a great teacher, his student was Plato (B:428 B.C.),  his student was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) and his student was Alexander the Great.
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-  Aristotle, the teacher, founded his school in Athens, Greece, in 335 B.C. when he was 29 years old.  His father died when he was 10 years old.  He lost his mother too and was raised by a family friend until he was 17.  Then he entered the academy founded by Plato and was there as a student / teacher for 20 years. 
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-  Aristotle was known to have a mind of his own.  He never felt bound by his teacher’s teachings.  “It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.”  (It is a mark of an educated teacher to teach students to think for themselves).
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-  Aristotle believed that reality was what you could observe and touch.  He had a scientific mind.   The topics in his school included physics, astronomy, zoology, and psychology.  And, these fields of study did not exist before he originated them.
-
-  Aristotle used inductive reasoning.  He started by developing underlying principles derived from observations.  He insisted on defining each of his subjects, first for similarities, then for differences. 
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-  He used logic to determine axioms and then axioms to derive theorems.  He would establish facts by taking two known quantities to establish a third. Fact: To be a teacher you must have a student. Fact: To be a student you must want to learn.  Therefore, teachers can only teach people you want to learn.
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-  These were ancient times.  Aristotle had to make his observations fixing time without a clock, comparing degrees of heat without a thermometer, observing the heavens without a telescope, and observing the weather without a barometer.
-
-  Aristotle was a teacher who listened eagerly to others; he freely altered his views when presented with compelling evidence that he was wrong.  He often went back and modified his own writings when he learned more. 
-
-  His school was called the Peripatetic School because he held his lectures and discussions while walking around in the school gardens. (peripatetic means “walk about”).
-
-   Modern teachers would do better teaching if they had their students stand and/or walk and not simply sit at a desk.  Socrates taught by always answering a question with a question.  He believed that active participation required that the student figure out the answers for themselves.
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-  Aristotle’s writings became a “ university library”, over 150 volumes, and eventually they served as the kernel for the great Library of Alexandria.
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-  Every teacher must have a student.  Every student must want to learn.  Confucius say:  “First you must become a student then a teacher will come.”
-
-   Great teachers beget great teachers.  You have not really mastered a subject until you teach it to someone else. 
-
-  These old guys were pretty smart.
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-  See also Review #651 - Plato’s Dialogue for Justice
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-  May 5, 2019.                                                                             667  1125
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   Sunday, May 5, 2019  -------------------------
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he Birth of the Universe.

-  2352  -  The Birth of the Universe.   It took only 3 minutes for the Universe to be born.  Yet,  it took 70 years before the prejudices were overcome and the community accepted the model worked out by a Catholic priest and mathematician.  In 1933 Lemaitre said,            “ There is no conflict between religion and science“. He was both a priest and a mathematician, I guess he should know.  He certainly was far ahead of his time.
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-

-
---------------------------- -  2352  -  The Birth of the Universe.
-
-  It was not until 1998 that astronomers discovered that the expanding Universe was actually accelerating in its expansion.  Up until that time astronomers thought that gravity would eventually slow the expansion down and the Universe would at some point in time stop expanding and reverse itself into a Big Crunch. 
-
-  Ever increasing expansion means that the Universe will eventually expand faster than our limit of observation.  Galaxies that we see today will go out of sight.  Our Observable Universe will get less and less as the expansion makes the Universe bigger and bigger, but less dense and less dense.
-
-   As light no longer reaches us it is like LIVING INSIDE A BLACK HOLE.  This is not what we expected the evolution of the Universe to be.
-
-  However, there was a Catholic priest and Belgian mathematician named Georges Lamaitre (1894-1966) who predicted just such an evolution for the Universe.  He described the birth of the Universe as a burst of fireworks spreading out in an ever expanding sphere from the center of the burst.
-
-    He believed the burst of fireworks was the beginning of time and it occurred on a “”day without yesterday“.  Lamaitre believed that the Universe would for ever keep expanding.  No one else believed him at the time.
-
-  At the time of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity in 1916 most all astronomers believed the Universe was stable and unchanging.  Lemaitre studied Einstein’s equations and concluded that a static Universe could not exist, it either had to be shrinking or expanding. 
-
-  To be static was setting a pencil on its point.  He decided it was expanding after observing the reddish glow of galaxies observed outside our own galaxy.  Known as a redshift, it told Lemaitre that all the galaxies were moving away from us.
-
-    He published these conclusions in 1927 but no one took notice.  In fact, Einstein himself told Lemaitre that “ your calculations are correct, but your grasp of physics is abominable”.
-
-  In 1929 Edwin Hubble put Einstein on his heels with a systematic confirmation that galaxies were redshifted.  Einstein referred to his cosmological constant used to keep the Universe static in his equations as “ his greatest blunder”.
-
-  Lemaitre wrote to Sir Arthur Eddington that the world had a definite beginning in which all its matter and energy were concentrated at one point.  If the world has begun with a single quantum, the notions of space and time would altogether fail to have any meaning in the beginning.  They would only begin to have sensible meaning when the original quantum had been divided into a sufficient number of quanta.  If this suggestion is correct the beginning of the world happened a little before the beginning of space and time.
-
-  By 1933 Einstein was convinced and called Lemaitre’s theory “the most beautiful and satisfactory explanation of creation to which I have ever listened”
-
-  It was not until 1944 that Fred Hoyle, an astronomer at Cambridge coined the term        “ BIG BANG”
-
-  In 1964 the discovery of the cosmic background radiation at 2.7 Kelvin confirmed Lemaitre’s theories.  That radiation was the remnant of the Big Bang that occurred on a day without yesterday.
-
-  In 1998 Stephen Hawking said, “considering the observations, they look quite good.  This led me to reconsider my theoretical prejudices“.  He too agreed that the evidence of receding Supernova explosions in the distant past confirms the Universe to be expanding at an ever increasing rate. 
-
-  It took 70 years before the prejudices were overcome and the community accepted the model worked out by a Catholic priest and mathematician.  In 1933 Lemaitre said,            “ There is no conflict between religion and science“. He was both a priest and a mathematician, I guess he should know.  He certainly was far ahead of his time.
-
-  The first 3 minutes of the birth of the Universe could be a television commercial.  Or, it could be the time it takes to cook an egg.  It is also the time it takes to make a Universe.
-
-  In the beginning all the energy for the Universe was condensed into a black hole from which nothing could escape.  It was so dense as to be a single point, a “Singularity“. 
-
-  Something caused it to go boom.  God only knows.  But, after it went Bang everything escaped and the Universe started expanding with all this energy dispersing outward into space as fast as space and time were expanding.
-
--------------------  Zero seconds to 10^-43 seconds  >> 3*10^28 eV
-
-  If we treating the Universe as a Black Hole:  A Black Hole has a radius determined by gravity, mass, and the speed of light squared:
-
-----------------  Event Horizon Radius = G * m / c^2
-
-  The smallest radius an Event Horizon can have is one wavelength determined by Planck’s Action Constant, mass and the speed of light.
-
--------------------  Wavelength  = h / m * c
-
-  So, if the smallest Event Horizon is the wavelength and the radius is the wavelength then we can put these two equations equal to each other:
-
-------------------  G*m/c^2  = h/m*c
-
-------------------  m^2 = h*c/G
-
-  G is the gravitational constant of proportionality that depends on the units we use.  In our case:
-
------------------ G = 6.674215 * 10^-11 m^3/(kg*sec^2)
-
------------------ c = 2.998+10^8 meters / sec
-
------------------ h = 6.625*10^-34 kg*m^2/sec
-
-  Substituting into the equation and solving for mass:
-
-----------------  Planck Mass = 5.455*10^-8 kilograms
-
-  This mass is about the mass of an amoeba or the mass of the period at the end of this sentence.
 -
-  Substituting Planck Mass back into the Event Horizon Radius equation:
-
--------------------  Planck Event Radius  = 4.05 * 10-35 meters
-
-  This is the wavelength for a very high frequency and very high energy.  Gamma Rays begin at a frequency of 3*10^21 cycles / second and this frequency is 7.4*10^44 cycles / second.  That is a one followed by 23 zeros times higher frequency.
-
-  The time it takes for light to travel across this Event Horizon :
-
-----------------  Planck Time = c * Radius  =  1.35 * 10^-43 seconds.
-
-  So, this is where the 10^-43 seconds comes from.  Our calculations can not go back any further than that.  At that time, in the beginning,  all four of the fundamental forces were combined into one force inside the Black Hole.  After the 10^-43 seconds the Universe continued to expand, temperatures cooled, and particles lost energy.
-
---------------------    The Universe expands, energy disperses and each particle has an average energy  =   10^28 electron volts
-
Gravity was the first force to separate out from the other three at this energy level.
-
--------------------  10^-36 seconds  -  10^23 electron volts
-
-   The Strong Force separated out from the Electroweak Force.  This triggered the Inflationary Period to begin.  The Strong Force was distinct from Gravity but the energy level was too high for the Strong Force to hold protons together.   ( See Review #633 to learn about the “The Force Carriers”)
-
The Universe is still a sizzling sea of Quarks.
-
--------------------  10^-36 to 10^-32 seconds was the Inflationary Period.
-
-  During this period of .0001 seconds the Universe expanded from 10^-50 meters to 10 meters radius.  This expansion of space is much, much faster than the speed of light.  This rapid expansion carried the same material in all directions and allowed the Universe to be homogeneous in all directions.
-
-   It also allowed the Universe to be isotropic, which means it looks the same in all directions regardless from where you observe it.
-
--------------------  10^-32 to 10^-12 seconds
-
-  The Universe continues to be a sizzling sea of Quarks
-
--------------------  10^-12 seconds  -  10^11 eV
-
-   The Weak Force separates from the Electromagnetic Force.
-
--------------------  10^-6 seconds  -  10^9 eV  -  10^13 Kelvin.
-
-  The Universe has expanded and cooled to where the Strong Force could hold on to Quarks and form protons and neutrons.
-
--------------------  .02 seconds  -  8.6*10^6 eV  -  10^11 degrees Kelvin
-
-  The Universe was mostly radiation.  Gamma Rays consumed everything.  The temperature was 100,000,000,000 Kelvin.  It was so hot that electrons and anti-electrons, or positrons, of matter came out in pairs and were destroyed at equal rates. 
-
-  Only about 1 neutron or proton existed for every 1,000,000,000 gamma ray photons.  Gamma rays colliding with protons or neutrons would create a pair of particle and antiparticles.
-
--------------------  .11 seconds  -  2.6*10^6 eV  -  3^10^10 Kelvin
-
-   Free neutrons decay into protons so there begins to be an excess of protons.
-
--------------------  1.04 seconds  -  8.6*10^5 eV  -  1,000,000,000,00 degrees Kelvin
-
-   The fireball of radiation and gamma ray light becomes transparent to neutrinos.  Neutrinos escape but light and electromagnetic radiation still can not escape.  The fireball remains opaque and very hot.
-
-  During this first second all space was full of protons, neutrons, electrons and their antiparticles immersed in high energy gamma rays.  After the Universe expanded and cooled a little more past 1 second, gamma ray photons no longer created particles and antiparticles. 
-
-  Particles and antiparticles collided together and converted their masses back into photons.  Somehow, for every 1,000,000,000 antiprotons 1,000,000,001 protons formed.  And for every 1,000,000,000 anti-electrons 1,000,000,001 electrons formed.
-
-  This small amount of asymmetry allowed the Universe to form with matter as we know it.  If this imbalance, or asymmetry, did not happen than an equal number of particles and antiparticles would have annihilated each other and all matter would be back in the form of energy.
-
--------------------  13.8 seconds  -  2.6*10^5 eV  -  3,000,000,000 Kelvin
-
-   Electrons and anti-electrons are no longer produced in pairs.
-
--------------------  3 minutes, 2 seconds  -  8.6*10^4 eV  -  1,000,000,000 Kelvin
-
-  Electrons and anti-electrons are nearly all gone.  Photons and neutrinos contain most all the energy in the Universe.  Neutrons decay into protons leaving 86% protons and 14% neutrons, but these represent only a small fraction of the total energy.
-
--------------------  3 minutes, 46 seconds  -  7.8*10^4 eV  -  900,000,000 Kelvin
-
-  Neutrons and protons now combine to form the atomic nucleus of Deuterium.  This is called Heavy Hydrogen because it is the Hydrogen nucleus plus one neutron.  Two Deuterium nuclei combine together to create Helium.
-
-   Neutrons no longer decay because they are stable in the nucleus, held together by the Weak Nuclear Force.  The Helium nucleus has two neutrons and two protons. 
-
-  The protons have a positive charge and are repelled apart by the Electromagnetic Force, but the Strong Nuclear Force is 60 times more powerful and is able to hold the protons together.  Helium at this point is 26% of the mass of the Universe.  No nuclei heavier than Helium are formed because the Universe has cooled down to much.
-
--------------------  34 minutes, 40 seconds  -  26,000 eV  -  300,000,000 Kelvin
-
-   The temperature has cooled to 300,000,000 Kelvin.
-
--------------------  700,000 years  -  .26 eV  -  3,000 Kelvin
-
-  The Universe is 3,000 degrees Kelvin and it is now cool enough for Hydrogen and Helium nuclei to collect electrons and become neutral atoms.  Once these gases collect electrons they are no longer ionized. 
-
-  The neutral environment created now allows the photons of light to escape and the Universe is no longer an opaque fireball.  It is this light that later becomes the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.
-
--------------------  13,700,000,000 years  -  .0001 eV  -  3 Kelvin
-
-   Today the temperature of the Universe is 3 Kelvin (2.73K).  We see it as Cosmic Background Microwave radiation and human beings on Earth first begin to analyze this process. 
-
-  The Gamma Ray radiation that was released when the Universe was no longer opaque has lost so much energy it is now microwave energy, in the radio spectrum.  The mass of the Universe is made up of 73% Hydrogen and 25% Helium and only 2% for all the other elements. 
-
-  The Earth itself contains only .15% Hydrogen and Helium.  We are a unique concentration of heavy elements not found everywhere in the Universe.
-
-  This ratio of Hydrogen to Helium very closely defines the expansion of the Universe as just described.  If the expansion had been faster there would be more neutrons and therefore more Helium.  If the expansion had been slower more of the neutrons would have decayed before Deuterium could have become stable, and therefore, there would be less Helium.
-
-   The Universe has expanded to where there is only 1 Hydrogen atom per 3 cubic meters of space.  There are 10^79 electrons in the Universe and that works out to 1 electron per 1 cubic meter.  However, the microwave background radiation from the Big Bang still has 400,000,000 photons per cubic meter of space.
-
-  Hydrogen, Helium and Lithium are the 3 lowest mass elements.  They were all created in the first few minutes of the age of the Universe.  And, they exist in the same ratios today.  All the higher mass elements will have to wait for 500,000,000 years for the first massive stars and supernova explosions to create them.  Supernova explosions will be the first time carbon and oxygen will have formed.
-
-  Then we still have to get from carbon and oxygen atoms to human beings to analyze this process that was set in motion in only 3 minutes and  13,800,000,000 years ago.
-
--------------------------  (1) wavelength * frequency = speed of light
-
-------------------------   (2)  energy = Planck’s constant * frequency
-
-------------------------         Planck’s constant = 4.136*10^-15 eV
-
-  May 4, 2019.                                                                  634     652                                                                             
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Saturday, May 4, 2019  -------------------------
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What is Behind the Man in the Moon?

-  2351   -  -  After U.S. astronauts have landed on the Moon 6 times and many more robotic missions have completed more measurements on the Moon, what more have we learned?  Using lasers and seismographs science has formulated how the Moon likely formed and what its interior is like below the surface.  That surface is what we see today and it has not changed much over the past 3,000,000,000 years.
-
-

-
---------------------- 2351  -  What is Behind the Man in the Moon?
-
-  We call it a Full Moon, but, really it’s a Half Moon.  We have been looking at the same face of The Man in the Moon that has been there since shortly after it first formed 4,500,000,000 years ago.
-
-  The planets were formed in the accretion disk that surrounded the Sun.  In the early years of the Solar System formation much of the material circling the Sun was coalescing and colliding. 
-
-  The Earth had accreted about 70% of the mass that it has today when it was pummeled by a Mars-size planet.  Mars-size is about 11% the size of today’s Earth mass.  The collision was a glancing blow that pulverized the Mars-size planet and splashed a big chunk of the Earth’s crust into orbit.
-
-  Everything was hot and molten as the gravitational forces pulled the two orbiting bodies into their spherical shapes.  When the Moon first formed from this debris the Moon was only 14,000 miles away.  It took only another 1,000 years for the Moon to fully coalesce into our Moon we see today.
-
-   The orbiting accretion disk debris continued to impact the surfaces as meteorites.  The orbiting Moon slowed down and the orbit radius expanded outward.  Today it is 252,229 miles away and traveling 2,237 miles per hour in its orbit around the Earth.
-
-   Mass of  the Moon  =  7.349 * 1-^22 kilograms  =  1.23% of Earth mass.
-
-   Mass of the Earth  =  597 * 10^22 kilograms
-
-   Mass of Mars  =  64.2 * 10^22 kilograms  =  11% of Earth mass.
-
- The period of the Moon’s elliptical orbit is 27.55 days.
-
-  The Moon immediately fell into a 1 to 1 synchronizing orbit, meaning it completes 1 revolution on its axis for each 1 revolution in orbit about the Earth.  This resulted in one side of the Moon  always facing the Earth.
-
-  The Moon, like the Earth, was and still is bombarded by meteors.  Although the meteor showers were much more extensive in past than they are today, the Moon still receives over 2,000 pounds of meteor impacts on its surface each day.
-
-   Technically, a meteor is an interplanetary object that is bigger than a speck of dust and smaller than an asteroid.  It is some of the same stuff left over from the Earth and other terrestrial planet formations.
-
-  The Earth is bombarded by 4,000,000,000 meteors each day.  Most are minuscule in size and are quickly slowed down and  burned up in the Earth’s atmosphere.
-
-  The Moon however has no atmosphere.  Its surface gets bombarded by meteors that are not slowed down until they hit the surface.  If you look at the Moon through a telescope you can easily see the results.
-
-  Meteor craters are on top of meteor craters on the scared surface, but, outside of continuing impacts, the Moon’s surface has not much changed in the last 3,000,000,000 years. 
-
-  There is no weather, no erosion, no atmosphere, no wind, on plate tectonics, no volcanoes, just pockmarks and craters to change its surface.  After looking at the same face for so long, science would really like to know what is going-on on the backside and the inside of the Moon.
-
-  Since 1969 to 2011, Apollo astronauts have landed 6 times at 6 different locations on the near side of the Moon.   Each visit allowed the astronauts to spend  only 3 days setting up experiments and collecting samples to return.  No manned trips have occurred over the past 40 years but many different robotic missions have visited our satellite and added to our knowledge about what it is made of.
-
-  Like the molten Earth, the molten Moon, allowed heavier minerals to sink to the center and the lighter elements to remain on the surface.  In the case of the Moon the heavier elements olivine and pyroxene sank to the bottom of the molten ocean and formed the mantle.
-
-  The lighter minerals floated to the surface and formed the crust.  The heavier elements like iron, nickel, and sulfur sank to the center core.  For some reason the crust is 37 miles thick on the near side and 50 miles thick on the far side of the Moon.  We are not sure why that is?
-
-  As the Moon cooled it preserved some water in the form of hydroxyl.  Hydroxyl is a molecule with one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom.  The hydroxyl molecule was trapped in a mineral lattice.
-
-   When the mineral lattice decomposes the hydroxyl is released.  It quickly combines with a second hydrogen atom and becomes a water molecule.  Science now thinks that the Moon contains 100 times more water than previous estimates.  50 parts per billion, but, barely 1% of the amount of water in proportion to what is on the Earth.
-
-  The Moon’s interior is still hot, perhaps from the decay of radioactive elements.  185 miles below the surface temperatures are 1,300 C.  This is hot enough to melt the mineral periodotite.
-
-  The Moon is still cooling and shallow moonquakes are still occurring within 125 miles below the surface.  The largest moonquake recorded was 5.9 on the Richter scale.
-
-  We are still learning about the Moon from 5 retro-reflectors left on the surface that has allowed lasers on Earth to measure the distances to the surface to within one inch.    There are also 4 seismometers that the Apollo astronauts left on the surface. 
-
-  Using the precision of these measurements we have determined that the Moon has a slight wobble as it rotates.  This indicated to scientists that the Moon still has a liquid core.
-
-  What science thinks today is that the Moon has a solid iron core that is about 100 miles radius.  Above that is a liquid outer core that extends out to 220 miles radius.  The mantle above that extends to the crust. 
-
-  The radius of the Moon is 1,080 miles with the curst being 37 to 50 miles thick.  The diameter of the Moon is 2,160 miles.  Since it is traveling 2,237 miles per hour, it travels its own diameter each hour across the sky.  Measure it with your thumb at arms length it moves that diameter every hour. 
-
-  The Moon still has much more to tell us.  We still want to learn more about its evolution and the evolution of our Solar System.  The Moon is like a prehistoric rock for an archeologist.  We would love to explore more of its secrets. 
-
-  The friction of the tides continues to expend energy in the gravitational tug of war between the Moon and the Earth.  As a consequence the Earth’s rotation is slowing down 0.001 seconds per 100 years.  You probably did not even notice that?
-
- And, the Moon is spiraling away in its orbit 1.5 inches each year.  I know, you will hardly notice these things.  But, it will make for a nice conservation the next time you look up to see the “Half Moon“.
-
-  May 2, 2019                                                                                     1243                         
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 --------------------------   Friday, May 3, 2019  --------------------------
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How your eyes can see to the edge of the Universe.

-  2350   -  The hardest thing to put your head around is that these telescopes are looking backwards in time.  What you see happened a long, long time ago.  With the constant speed of light we can only see what the Universe was like 13,400,000,000 years ago. 
-
-

-
---------------------- 2350  -  How your eyes can see to the edge of the Universe.
-
-  How far can the eyes see?
-
-  All the stars we see in the night sky are in our own galaxy, the Milky Way.  However in the north-east, just above the horizon, we can see a faint cloud that is the Andromeda Galaxy.  It is our neighbor in our Local group of some 24 other smaller galaxies that we cannot see with our naked eyes.
-
-  Add a telescope and things change.   Review 536 has some more interesting data on how far telescopes are reaching in seeing galaxies in the Universe.  This review is an update on astronomers currently viewing the edge of the Universe.
-
-  The hardest thing to put your head around is that these telescopes are looking backwards in time.  What you see happened a long, long time ago.  With the constant speed of light we can only see what the Universe was like 13,400,000,000 years ago. 
-
-  With the constant speed of light being 186,282 miles per second we can only see that light that has just reached us after traveling for 13,400,000,000 years,  During that time what we see has moved away from us even further in an expanding Universe.  Today that galaxy we can’t see is 43,000,000,000 lightyears away from us.  The rest of the light is still coming and has not reached us yet.
-
-  It is amazing that astronomers can see almost back to the beginning of the Universe that was not much earlier occurring just 13,800,000,000 years ago.  The furthest galaxy seen to date existed just 400,000,000 years after that beginning, called the big Bang.
-
-  This farthest galaxy recently is named GN-z11.  The z11 has some significance as it the ratio of how much the wavelength of light has stretched during that distance traveled to reach our eyes.   The wavelength has stretched 11 times longer.  The frequency of the light is 11 times slower and has 11 times less energy.
-
-  We are seeing what the galaxy looked like just 400 million years after it all started in the beginning.
-
-  The galaxy we are seeing is only 3% of its current age.  The human analogy would be looking at 100 year old man when he was only 3 years old.  We could only guess what he looks like today at 100. 
-
-  These early galaxies were also 20 times more active than what we see today .  Our Milky Way is 20 times less active in churning out new stars.  Back then galaxies were closer together.  Collisions were more frequent.  And, the galaxies were more luminous.
-
-  The early galaxies were forming stars from clouds of pristine hydrogen and helium gas.  There were almost no heavier elements in these early clouds of gas.  The gas was falling inward due the pull of gravity.  Bright, massive stars were forming.  Powerful shock waves were compressing the gas.  Smaller galaxies were colliding forming more massive galaxies. 
-
-  These early galaxies were first seen by the Hubble Telescope in 1996 when a time lapsed image was created looking at the same spot in the sky for 100 hours.  The image was called the Hubble Deep Field North. 
-
-  This first time lapsed image captured nearly 3,000 small galaxies in a tiny spot in the night sky.  The field of view was covering only 1 / 20,000,000 of the sky.  The small galaxies ranged from a few spiral galaxies to irregular galaxies and elliptical galaxies.  Galaxies were often merging with other galaxies 
-
-  The redshift for this first image was about 6, which represents a time in the Universe about 1 billion years after the Big Bang. 
-
-  Using gravitational wells as magnifying glasses astronomers have viewed galaxies at a redshift of 8 which is viewing images that are 13 billion lightyears away. 
-
-  Astronomers hope to learn how the distribution of early galaxies are linked to the distribution of Dark Matter that they can not see.  Its existence is only surmised on its affect on gravity that in turn affects the galaxies that we can see. 
-
-  The most visible galaxies have quasars at their core which are extremely luminous active super massive blackholes. 
-
-  Astronomers are pushing our observational and intellectual horizons ever further outward and back in time. They are viewing younger, and younger galaxies back to their first creations.  Astronomers are learning the foundations upon which our Universe is built.  Looking backwards in time to discover the beginning of time. 
-
-  Our mind’s eye creates far beyond what we see.
-
-  Other Reviews to learn more about galaxies:
-
-  2340  -  How to weigh a galaxy.
-
-  2283  -  The Universe forms itself into filaments and threads that are all interconnecting with galaxies at the nodes where the filaments come together.
-
-  2046  -  How galaxies form and grow.  This review lists 13 more other reviews about galaxies.
-
-  May 2, 2019                                                                   
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 --------------------------   Thursday, May 2, 2019  --------------------------
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