--------------------- #1496 - The Mystery of Cosmic Rays
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- In 1912 science concluded that charged particles, called Cosmic Rays, were coming from outer space and not from the Earth below. They were called rays , but, they were not any form of radiation. They were charged atomic particles.
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-------------------- 90% of Cosmic Rays reaching Earth are protons, the positive nucleus of the hydrogen atom.
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-------------------- 1 % are electrons that carry a negative charge.
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-------------------- 9% are atomic nuclei heavier than hydrogen. Positive charges with masses ranging from helium nuclei to iron nuclei.
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- Because any charged particle moving through a magnetic field feels the electromagnetic force at right angles to its direction of travel, it does not travel in a straight line. ( This is why an electric motor works.) Cosmic Rays will spiral along their path of travel hiding any indication of the direction in which they originated. One hundred years later and astronomers are still not sure of the source, or sources, of Cosmic Rays. The candidates range from Gamma Ray Bursts, to Supernovae, to Blackholes.
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- Some Cosmic Rays originate from our Sun’s Solar Flares. These charged particles, protons and electrons, reach our upper atmosphere traveling at 1,000,000 miles per hour (300 miles per second). The Kinetic Energy of these fast moving particles is 0.01 billion electron-volts. We call this the Solar Wind and we give the name Cosmic Rays to much higher energy particles.
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- Most Cosmic Rays have energy levels ranging form 10 million to 10 billion electron-volts. ( 10^7 to 10^10 eV). And, most Cosmic Rays originate in a source inside our Milky Way Galaxy.
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- Galactic Cosmic Rays are so common about 10 of them pass through your thumb every minute.
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- If you are above the Earth’s atmosphere about 500 Cosmic Rays would pass through your thumb every minute.
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- Galactic Cosmic Rays can have energies as great as 10^18 electron volts, ( a billion, billion eV). These charged particles are heavier and are traveling very near the speed of light.
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- Supernovae explosions in our Galaxy could be a likely sources of high energy Cosmic Rays.
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- A few Cosmic Rays coming from outside our Galaxy have been detected with energies up to 100,000,000,000 billion electron volts, ( 10^20 eV). This amount of energy is equivalent to being hit by a tennis ball traveling at 100 miles per hour. However, the mass of these subatomic particles is exceedingly small. To have this amount of energy the are traveling 699,000,000 miles per hour. Kinetic Energy is equal to mass times velocity squared. ( KE = ½*m*v^2)
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- When a Cosmic Ray enters our atmosphere it collides with gas atoms and produces a shower of subatomic particles that reach the surface of Earth.
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- A Cosmic Ray proton collides with a nitrogen nucleus producing a neutron, a positive pion, a negative pion, and a neutral pion. Pions and Mesons are collective names given to elementary particles that have strong interactions with other particles. The negative pion splits into an anti-neutrino and a negative Muon. A Muon is a high energy electron. The positive pion splits into a neutrino and a positive Muon. A neutral pion releases Gamma Rays and produces electrons and anti-electrons. All of these subatomic particles comprise a shower of particles that reach the surface of Earth. The shower can be spread out over an area of 30 square kilometers.
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- The highest energy Cosmic Rays ( > 10^18 eV) are most likely heavier nuclei. An iron nuclei has 26 protons. 26 times the mass of a single proton and also 26 times as much positive charge making it accelerate even faster in a magnetic field.
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- 100 years of study and science is still trying to learn where Cosmic Rays come from? What effects do they have on Earth and on life? Theories are that they may be responsible for DNA mutations that have created the diversity of life we find on Earth? Other theories are that they are responsible for creation of the cloud formations in Earth’s atmosphere. There is nothing like a 100 year old mystery to keep you thinking. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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(1) To learn more about Cosmic Rays request Reviews # 1377, #810, #763, #687, #541 to get an e-mail copy.
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Saturday, July 21, 2012
--------- ----------------- 1495 - The Higgs Particle
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- December 9, 2006 Fermilab’s particle accelerator physicists may have detected the Higgs particle. The Higgs Boson is the particle expected to give every other fundamental particle its mass. They saw the particle at 160 GeV ( 160,000,000,000 electron volts, 6^10^11 eV, ), which is close to the theoretical mass of the Higgs.
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- When you got up this morning and hopped on the bathroom scales hoping that you had lost weight the number you get is determined by your mass, the mass and radius of Earth and the force of gravity. The last three probably did not change. So, your weight is determined by your mass, but what determines your mass, besides dieting? Physicists have been pursuing that question for hundreds of years.
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- We know mass as inertia that resists a force trying to accelerate it. The Higgs Boson may be the particle that causes that resistance. Bosons are photons, W-Z bosons, Gluons and now Higgs Bosons. Photons carry the electromagnetic force and have no mass. W-Z bosons carry the nuclear Weak Force but they have a huge mass. The theoretical Higgs Boson would explain the difference between these two forces. Its discovery could unleash an explanation for mass and inertia. It could be one of the fundamental building blocks of nature.
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- Particle accelerators have verified the existence of 12 fundamental particles of matter and 3 fundamental particles of force carriers, but the Higgs has not been found to date. The Higgs is a quantum particle of the Higgs Field that permeates empty space, just as the photon is a quantum particle that permeates an Electric Field. The Higgs Field has a value of 246 GeV. It is a scalar field giving the Higgs Boson a spin of zero, no intrinsic angular momentum. It permeates all of empty space and carries the force that gives the other particles their mass. Theories predict the mass of the Higgs to be between 130 - 190 GeV. This particle discovered at 160 GeV is a good candidate.
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- Particle accelerators need tremendous energies to detect these high mass particles. Why are such high energies necessary. It is because E = h*f, E = h*c/w. “h” is Planck’s Constant. “c” is speed of light. “f“ is frequency. “w” is the wavelength.
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The Energy = 6.6 * 10^-34 kg*m^2/sec * 3*10^8 m/sec / wavelength.
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E = 2*10^-25 / wavelength
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- Wavelength is inversely proportional to Energy. In order to “see” with shorter wavelengths we need to use higher and higher energies.
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The particle accelerator is a type of microscope. Like the electron microscope can see smaller objects than the photon microscope. Larger energies correspond to smaller distances. (See footnote (2) to learn how mass is shown in electron volts.)
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-------------- Energy, or Mass ------------ Length
------------------ --------
---------------- 10^28 eV ------------------ --------------------- Planck scale mass
------------------------------ ------------------ 10^-35 meters - Planck scale length
---------------- 10^27 eV ------------------
---------------- 10^25 eV ------------------ 10^-33 - Three Forces come together
---------------- 10^24 eV ------------------
-------------------------- ---------------------- 10^-30 meters
---------------- 10^21 eV ------------------
---------------------------- -------------------- 10^-27meters
---------------- 10^18 eV ------------------
-------------------------- ----------------------- 10^-24 meters
---------------- 10^15 eV ------------------
--------------------------- ------------------ --- 10^-21 meters - Energy to find the Higgs
---------------- 10^12 eV ----------------------------------- Weak Force scale
------------------------------ ------------------ 10^-18 meters
---------------- 10^9 eV -------------------------------------- proton mass
------------------------------------------------- 10^-15 meters
---------------- 10^6 eV ------------------------------------ electron mass
------------------------------------------------- 10^-12 meters -
---------------- 1,000 eV ---------------- --- 10^-10 meters - size of atom
---------------------------------------------- --- 10^-9 meters
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- Note that larger energies correspond to smaller distances. The large Planck Scale Energy 10^28 electron volts means that the force of gravity is weak. The Weak Force Scale Energy is 10^12 electron volts and it operates over a distance of 10^-18 meters. It is a mystery to physicists why the Planck scale is 16 orders of magnitude more massive than the Weak scale (10^28 vs. 10^12 = 10^16). The Standard Model predicts that if the mass of the W-Boson is between 80.2 and 80.4 GeV. And, the mass of the Top Quark is between 160 and 185 GeV. Then, the Higgs Boson is between 114 and 400 GeV. But, experiments are giving differing results. So, is the Standard Model correct, or incomplete?
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- One of the theories, called Super symmetry, predicts that there are five Higgs Bosons of different masses. However, the Standard Model predicts only a single Higgs. In order to discover which theory is true we need more powerful accelerators. A speed of light collision between protons and anti-protons would create Higgs particles that would decay into 2 Tau Leptons in a fraction of a second. Then the Tau’s would decay into other particles. Physicists are busy studying these collisions and the particle debris they create in search of the illusive Higgs. Its discovery will be a great day in physics.
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-An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned
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(1) Originally #735
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(2) The mass of a particle is often abbreviated by physicists in Electron Volts. It is shorthand. The assumption is that the Energy number is divided by the speed of light squared. E = m*c^2, therefore, mass = E / c^2. The proton mass is 1 GeV / c^2, 1 billion Electron Volts / c^2 . Where “c” is (3*10^8 meters per second )^2 = 9 * 10^16 meters^2 per seconds^2. One Electron Volt = 1.6*10^-19 Joules. A Joule is kilogram* meter^2 / second^2. Therefore the mass of a proton is E / c^2 = 1*10^9 eV * 1.6*10^-19 kg*m^2 / sec^2 / 9 *10^16 m^2 / sec^2 = 1.6 *10^10 / 9*10^16 = 1.78 * 10^-27 kilograms. Using a more precise calculation the mass of a proton is 1.67 * 10^-27 kilograms
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(3) The more recent measurements put the mass of the Higgs Boson at 125 electron volts discovered in CERN’s particle accelerator. See Review # 1423 to learn more.
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
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707-536-3272, Wednesday, July 11, 2012
--------- #1493 - Puzzles in Astronomy
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- Astronomers have a challenging job. So many problems to solve. And, these are BIG problems. We know the Universe is BIG. It has been expanding for 13.7 billion years. That is how old the Universe is. But, the visible Universe that we can see is constrained by the speed of light. During the 13.7 billion years from the beginning the light we see has traveled nearly that many light years. What we can see is in the past and over that time it takes the light to get to us the Universe has expanded even further. Calculating the rate of expansion which is accelerating the visible Universe has moved beyond to a radius of 42 billion lightyears radius.
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- I know, it is hard to wrap your mind around this.
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- It is likely that there is an even greater Universe beyond this “ visible Universe”. The “ visible Universe is not visible yet because all the light has not had enough time to reach us yet. This part of the Universe is 84 billion lightyears in diameter. To explain the homogeneity and the geometric flatness of the Universe astronomers believe that soon after the Big Bang the Universe experienced Cosmic Inflation that expanded the Universe faster than the speed of light. It was space expanding rather than the matter in the Universe moving. The light in this part of the Universe will never reach us. It is too far away and accelerating too fast. But, that still means there is much more of the Universe out there.
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- Now, to make the Universe even more challenging within the Universe that we can see there exists 95% of matter and energy that we can’t see. It is called Dark Matter and Dark Energy. This mass-energy effects gravity but it does not interact with electromagnetic energy. It can not be detected with light or any other electromagnetic radiation. We know it is there because of the gravity effects on matter that we can see.
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- Spinning galaxies could not remain intact if there were not unseen matter providing 10 times more gravity needed to hold things together. 10 times more mass than we can see and detect with any other means.
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- Light passing past a large Dark Matter mass is bent with gravitational lensing. We can see these effects on images that are in the background of the Dark Matter mass. Again calculations tell us that there is 10 times more matter causing this that we can detect, other than by gravity.
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- The Universe is expanding at an accelerating rate. There must be some form of Dark Energy in the vacuum of space that opposes gravity and causes the expansion to accelerate. Astronomers can use E = mc^2 to calculate the amount of mass and energy in the Universe. Their calculations are that 72.1% is Dark Energy and 23.3% is Dark Matter. The remainder 4.6% is “everything” we can see and detect. 95% is “ Dark” and called dark because it is a puzzle that has yet to be solved.
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- Another puzzle is the Big Bang itself. Supposedly, it really came out of “ nothing”. If it was truly created out of nothing than there must have been equal amounts of matter and anti-matter that put back together would equal nothing. There must have been equal amounts of positive and negative charges, protons and electrons. There must have been an equal number of north and south magnetic poles to cancel out all magnetic energy. It all must add up to nothing. Was there nothing there before the Big Bang exploded with space and time expanding from the beginning? Are there other Universes out there experiencing the same thing?
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- Somehow the Universe we know exists with matter outnumbering anti-matter. For every billion anti-matter particles there would have to have been 1 billion plus one matter particle. That is the only way we can explain how we got here.
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- We also must assume that all the laws of nature are the same everywhere in the Universe. Not only the same but without the slightest change from what we experience or life could not exist. Not only must the laws of nature be friendly to life these laws must exist for billions of years, the time it takes for life to evolve.
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- We have evidence that the first galaxies formed less than 500 million years after the Big Bang. Galaxies formed from small density fluctuations in the hot primordial gas that formed out of the plasma as it expanded and cooled. Slightly higher densities provided the gravity needed to make denser regions that eventually coalesced into stars and galaxies. Dark Matter had to be present as part of the calculations that predict the Universe we see today.
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- After the puzzle as to how it all began there is the puzzle as to how it will all end. The Universe is expanding at an ever faster rate. The distances between galaxies is becoming greater and greater. Eventually the distances will be so great their light will never have time to reach us. We will only see the stars that are gravitationally connected to us. And, those stars will be running out of fuel and will extinguish. The rarefied vacuum of space will contain only blackholes and dead stars.
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- Backholes have an Event Horizon that separates the hole from the surrounding Universe. Anything inside the Event Horizon disappears from the Universe for good. Blackholes themselves are a dark universe. In the end they will exist in a totally dark Universe expanding into infinity.
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- Enjoy life while you have it. The far distant future does not look so bright.
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- An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Saturday, June 30, 2012
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----------------- #684 - Velocity is Space/Time
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- Heracleides was a Greek who ,in 350 B.C., figured out that the Earth was spinning on its axis. Everyone on Earth is spinning East. The people on the equator are traveling east at 1038 miles per hour. To find out how fast you are going multiply the cosine of your latitude by 1038 miles per hour.
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- Santa Rosa is 38 degrees, 20 minutes, and 12 seconds latitude
--------- 122 degrees, 39 minutes, and 38 seconds longitude
--------- 174 feet above sea level
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- 1038 mph * cosine (38.3 degrees) = 814 miles per hour
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- Multiply by 1.47 to get feet per second = 1,194 feet in one second. In one second we moved more than the length of 4 football fields. We do not feel it because the motion is constant. The body only perceives acceleration and deceleration, when motion increases or decreases. The sound barrier is 700 mph, or 1,029 feet per second. So we are breaking the sound barrier in velocity and don’t even notice it.
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- In 250 B.C. Aristarchus of Samos figured out that the Earth was circling the Sun and not the other way around, that everybody else thought. The Earth does not orbit in a perfect circle. It has an elliptical orbit which causes it to travel faster when it is closest to the Sun in January and slowest when it is farthest from the Sun in July. But the average speed is 18.5 miles per second, 66,629 miles per hour. The distance from the Sun is not what causes winter and summer. It is the 23 degree tilt to the Earth on its axis that creates the seasons.
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- Harlow Sharpley, an American astronomer, figured out that our Solar System is 2/3rds out from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy traveling towards the constellation Hercules at 12 miles per second, or 43,200 miles per hour. But, this turns out to be only our sideways drift. Our Solar System is mainly moving forward toward the bright star Deneb in the constellation Cygnus traveling 135 miles per second, or 486,000 miles per hour. We will get to where Deneb is now in 1,500,000 years. Of course, Deneb will have flown off somewhere else by then.
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- It is hard to keep these velocities in perspective. Velocity is the ratio of motion in space / to duration in time. If we normalize speeds to always miles per hour it gets a little easier.
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---------------- a person walking ---------- 4 mph
---------------- a car on the highway------------ 65 mph
---------------- a jet plane ---------------- 600 mph
---------------- Sun’s rotation -------------- 2,231 mph
---------------- Pluto’s orbit --------------- 1,620 mph
---------------- Neptune’s orbit ---------- 12,253 mph
---------------- Uranus’ orbit ---------- 15,290 mph
---------------- Saturn’s orbit ---------- 21,614 mph
---------------- Jupiter’s orbit ---------- 29,236 mph
---------------- Mars’ orbit ---------- 53,979 mph
---------------- Earth’s orbit -------------- 66,629 mph
---------------- Venus’ orbit ---------- 78,341 mph
---------------- Mercury’s orbit -------- 107,088 mph
---------------- Comet Halley ---------- 122,070 mph
---------------- Sun’s orbit ------------- 486,000 mph
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----------------- Andromeda Galaxy ---------- 288,000 mph
Andromeda is approaching the center of the Milky Way at this speed. Because we are orbiting the center Andromeda is actually approaching us at:
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---------------- Andromeda Galaxy & us ---------- 670,000 mph
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---------------- Virgo Cluster of Galaxies ---------- 2,370,000 mph
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---------------- Coma Cluster of Galaxies ---------- 16,000,000 mph
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The Coma Cluster is 350,000,000 lightyears away from us.
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---------------- Cosmic Background Radiation ---------- nearly the speed of light, 186,282 miles per second, 18,628 miles in a tenth of a second ,or in a blink of an eye ---------------- 670,615,200 mph
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Nothing goes faster than light. Right?
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Well, no material thing, but space can grow faster than light. The Universe is expanding at 14 mps, or 50,400 mph for each million light years distance. Galaxies are like dots painted on a balloon that is expanding and the dots are all moving apart from each other. So, for a galaxy that is 100 million lightyears away we see it traveling 1,400 miles per second, or 5,040,000 miles per hour, 0.7 % the speed of light.
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- Ok, let’s say the galaxy is 10 billion lightyears from us. It is traveling 140,000 miles per second, or 504,000,000 miles per hour, or 75% the speed of light. Then we look in the opposite direction and we see another galaxy 10 billion light years distant. The two galaxies are 20 billion light years apart and separating at 1,008,000,000 miles per hour or 1.5 times the speed of light. And, the Universe is only 13,700,000,000 years old so light could not have traveled 20 billion light years in that amount of time in the first place. Are we breaking the laws of Relativity and traveling at faster than the speed of light?
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- No, we are not traveling faster than light. Distances to objects in the Universe refer to their value TODAY, not the time when their light was emitted. The space between galaxies is getting bigger because the Universe is expanding in all directions. Light traveling through space is being stretched by this expansion. Stretched light means it grows in longer wavelengths, lower frequency. The Big Bang’s Gamma Rays we see today as Cosmic Microwave Background radiation at a much lower frequency and much longer wavelengths than when it was emitted.
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- An object 10 billion light years away does not mean that it took light 10 billion years to travel that distance. The total distance in lightyears as measured TODAY is greater than the actual time of travel multiplied by the speed of light.
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The edge of the Observable Universe is actually 45 billion lightyears away even though the Universe itself is only 13.7 billion years old. Relative velocities do not make sense unless objects are relatively close together and traveling at speeds far less than the speed of light. Calculations in these fastest arenas require Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. The expansion of the Universe that is stretching space is not limited to the Theory of Relativity and it can exceed the speed of light without breaking the Theory.
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- Astronomers have to keep this straight using different definitions for distance. Distance measured by the amount of light entering a telescope is called luminosity distance. The dimmer the object the farther away it is. Distance measured by the angular size of an object seen through a telescope is called angular-diameter distance. The farther away the smaller it looks. These definitions only agree with each other on scales where the separations are smaller than 100 million lightyears. Beyond this short distance limit distances of two objects located in opposite directions relative to us can not be added together to get their distance of separation.
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- Farther galaxies mean they are traveling faster. The galaxies farther away from us have increasingly higher velocities, which can be calculated to be faster than the speed of light. The speed of light remains constant at 18,682 miles per second, in the blink of an eye. Light from the Moon reaches us in 1.3 seconds. Light from the Sun in 8 minutes. Light travels one foot in about a nanosecond. Light speed remains constant therefore space must lengthen and time must slow down in order for this to happen at the fastest velocities. But, that is another story.
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(1) #628 - Velocity - the Very Slow to the Very Fast
(2) #399 - Students - Sit There Perfectly Still
(3) #648 - Relativity Explained.
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Friday, June 29, 2012
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--------- #1492 - New things we have learned about our galaxy
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- At the center of our galaxy is a massive blackhole. It is 4,000,000 times more massive than our Sun. And, its size is about 15 times the size of our Sun, which is very, very small on galactic scales.
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- The Earth is 27,400 lightyears away from the center Blackhole. The Blackhole is called Sagittarius A Star. From our vantage point on Earth we can see where the A Star is located. Look to the southern night sky above the horizon at the Constellation Sagittarius. the Constellation is recognized as the outline of a teapot. Above the spout of the teapot is the location of the Blackhole.
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- We can not see much in visible light because the interstellar medium is filled with gas and dust that blocks our view. New telescopes in orbit above our atmosphere have new capabilities to view the full electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to Gamma rays. Astronomers have a new vision to learn much more about our Milky Way Galaxy.
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- Astronomers have found 24 smaller galaxies that are along side our giant Milky Way Galaxy.
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- Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy that appears similar to many spiral galaxies found throughout the cosmos. Our galaxy has a sphere-shaped “bulge” at the center surrounding the massive Blackhole. If the galaxy were a long playing phonograph record viewed edge-on this bulge would be the size of an orange at the center. The diameter of the bulge is 8,000 lightyears. That puts the bulge about 24,400 lightyears from us.
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- Running through the bulge is a “ bar” of stars and planets. The bar is a dense elongated concentration of stars in the shape of a cylinder. It could be represented by a thick straw punched through the center of the orange in the plane of the phonograph. The tube like clump of stars is rotating as a cylinder, like a toilet roll. At either end of the bar is a great stream of stars pouring off to create the pinwheel shape of the galaxy.
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- The galaxy is rotating stars and planets traveling at 559,250 miles per hour. Even at these break-neck speeds our Solar System takes 230,000,000 years to complete one rotation. We have completed the trip 22 times since the birth of the galaxy. However, our 2,000 years of human history have hardly moved at all by comparison.
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- The spiral arms look like water streams coming from a lawn sprinkler. However, a better analogy to explain the spiral arms is a “density wave”. More like a stream of cars on a 3-lane highway that is reduced to 2-lane and back to 3-lanes again. The spiral arms are those greater concentration, or density of stars.
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- The spiral density regions are rotating at half the speed of the rotating stars. Stars behind the region of greater density and gravity are pulled forward into the region and speed up. Stars leaving the spiral arm of greater gravity are pulled backward and slow down. Astronomers do not know what causes these density waves in spiral galaxies.
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- Astronomers are having problems getting physics to explain all the motions found in the bulge, the bar, and the spiral arms. The evidence suggests many galaxy collisions to create such diversity of motion. As if that were not challenging enough physics tells us that what we see is only 10% of what is there.
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- The physics that explains our solar system works perfectly. Planets orbiting a mass of our Sun are a balance between centripetal acceleration, (velocity)^2 / radius, and gravitational acceleration, Gravitational Constant * mass / radius^2.
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---------------------- v^2 / R = G * M / R^2
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- This equation works perfectly on our Solar System, but it does not work on galaxies. Solving for mass in this equation:
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---------------------------- M = v^2 * R / G
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- The equation tells us that mass should increase with radius, the distance from the center of the galaxy. However, the rotational velocities of the stars remain constant with distance. We should reach a point where the enclosed mass does not increase with distance. That would find the edge of the galaxy.
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- Beyond the edge the rotational velocities should decrease. The galaxy edge is not found in these measurements. The stars, dust, and gas in the disk , the stellar halo, all this can not explain the mass in the calculation. There must be additional mass that we cannot see. 90% of the mass must be “ Dark Matter”.
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- Could Dark Matter be explained with planets, Brown Dwarf stars, blackholes, neutrinos, or some exotic particles yet to be discovered? We do not know? We leave it as a puzzle for you to figure out. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Monday, June 25, 2012
--------- #1490 - What are their ages?
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- Can you figure out how old Jenn is in this case. We know Debbie is 44. Debbie is twice as old as Jenn was when Deb was as old as Jenn is now. How old is Jennifer now?
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- Do not read below this line if you want to try to solve the problem on your own. The answer and the solution are below for those who need a hint.
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- The problem with ages can be solved by realizing that the difference in the ages always remains a constant. Let’s call the constant = “k”. Debbie’s age - Jenn’s age = k
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- However, the ratio of the ages or the percentages of age comparison is constantly changing from one time to another. For example: When me and my brother were ages 2 and 4 , I was twice as old as he was, 200%.
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- However, when I was 52 and he was 50 I was only 4% older than he was, 2 / 50 = 4%
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- We have 2 time frames, now and some other time identified as “when”. Let’s start with the first time frame. Debbie is 44 now. The question is what is Jenn’s age now, in the first time frame?
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------------------- Debbie(1) = 44
------------------- Jenn (1) = ?
------------------ Debbie - Jenn = the constant = k
------------------ D1 - J1 = k
------------------ 44 - J1 = k
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-------------------- Now let’s work with the second time frame: , When Deb was as old as Jenn is now. We are at time (2) and Debbie(2) = Jenn (1)
-
------------------------- D2 = J1
------------------ Debbie(2) is twice as old as Jenn(2) when …. Deb(2) = 2 * (Jenn (2))
------------------ Therefore , Jenn(2) is half as old as Debbie (1),
-------------------- Jenn(2) = 0.5 * 44 = 22
------------------------- J2 = 22
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- The constant, k, remains the same in the second time frame, and D2 = J1:
-
--------------------- Debbie(2) - Jenn(2) = k
--------------------- J1 - 22 = k
-------------------- k = k , the difference between their ages remains constant regardless of time frame
-------------------- J1 - 22 = 44 - J1
------------------- 2 * J1 = 66
------------------- J1 = 33
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- When Debbie was 44 years old, Jenn was 33 years old.
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- Now that you have the secret on how to calculate ages, I will give you one more to work on:
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- When Jenn was in high school their combined ages summed to 44 years. Debbie was twice as old as Jenn was when Debbie was half as old as Jenn will be when Jenn is 3 times as old as Debbie was when Debbie was 3 times as old as Jenn. How old was Jenn and Debbie at that time Jenn was in high school?
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(1) To learn the answer, as soon as I figure out how it is done, I will be glad to share.
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- Here is the answer to the above ages calculations puzzle: Debbie is 27.5 years old and Jennifer is 16.5 years old and still in High School.
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- Split up the problem into the 4 different time frames (1) through (4):
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-When Jenn (J1) was in high school their combined ages summed to 44 years.
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---------------------- D1 + J1 = 44
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- Debbie (D1) was twice as old as Jenn (J2) was when:
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----------------------- D1 = 2 * J2
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-Debbie (D2) was half as old as Jenn (J3) will be when :
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-------------------- D2 = ½ * J3
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-Jenn J3) is 3 times as old as Debbie (D4) was when:
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---------------------- J3 = 3 * D4
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- Debbie (D4) was 3 times as old as Jenn (J4):
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----------------- D4 = 3 * J4
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- Next we define the difference in their ages as “k”, since it is always constant regardless of the time frame.
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------------------- D4 - J4 = k
------------------- J4 = (D4 - k)
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- Next work backwards through each time frame until we get back to the start where :
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------------------ D4 + J4 = 44 years.
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- Debbie (D4) was 3 times as old as Jenn (J4):
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------------------ D4 = 3 * J4 = 3 * (D4 - k)
------------------ D4 = 3 * k / 2
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- Jenn (J3) is 3 times as old as Debbie (D4) was when:
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- Next: -------- J3 = 3 * D4
------------------- J3 = 9 * k / 2
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-Debbie (D2) was half as old as Jenn (J3) will be when :
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- Next: -------- D2 = J3 / 2
------------------- D2 = 9 * k / 4
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- Debbie (D1) was twice as old as Jenn (J2) was when:
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- Next: ---------- D1 = 2 * J2
------------------- J2 = D2 - k = 9 * k / 4 - 4 * k / 4 = 5 * k / 4
----------------------D1 = 5 * k / 2
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- Next solve two simultaneous equations for “k“:
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--------- ----------- D1 = J1 + k
--------------------- J1 = D1 - k = 5 k / 2 - 2 k / 2 = 3k /2
--------------------- D1 + J1 = 44
--------------------- 5 k / 2 + 3 k / 2 = 44 = 88 / 2
---------------------- 8 k / 2 = 88 /2
----------------------- k = 11
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- The difference in Debbie and Jenn ages is 11 years. The sum of their ages is 44 years. Solve these two simultaneous equations:
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----------------- D1 - J1 = 11
---------------- D1 + J1 = 44
----------------- 2 D1 = 55
----------------- D1 = 27.5 years
----------------- J1 = 16.5 years
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- To double check their ages at the various time frames, here is how the puzzle was created:
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------------------ D4 + J4 = 44 years. ------------ 27.5 + 16.5 = 44
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- Debbie (D4) was 3 times as old as Jenn (J4):
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------------------ D4 = 3 * J4 = 3 * (D4 - k) --------- 16.5 - 5.5 = 11
------------------ D4 = 3 * k / 2
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- Jenn (J3) is 3 times as old as Debbie (D4) was when:
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- Next: -------- J3 = 3 * D4 ------------- 60.3 - 49.5 = 11
------------------- J3 = 9 * k / 2
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-Debbie (D2) was half as old as Jenn (J3) will be when :
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- Next: -------- D2 = J3 / 2 ------------ 24.75 - 13.75 = 11
------------------- D2 = 9 * k / 4
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- Debbie (D1) was twice as old as Jenn (J2) was when:
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- Next: ---------- D1 = 2 * J2 ---------------- 27.5 - 16.5 = 11
------------------- J2 = D2 - k = 9 * k / 4 - 4 * k / 4 = 5 * k / 4
----------------------D1 = 5 * k / 2
-
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, June 21, 2012
--------- #1491 - Globular Nebulae are dark silhouettes surrounded by star light.
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- Astronomers are looking at stars and galaxies in the night sky. The stars are the sources of light in the Universe. It seems unusual that astronomers can also be studying dark objects in the night sky.
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- The Globules are dark clouds in space that are often silhouetted by light emissions in the background. The dark clouds are called Bok Globules after the Dutch-American astronomer Bart Bok.
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- Astronomers have located about 100 of these globules in the Milky Way Galaxy. However, they expect there are 10,000’s more whose silhouettes we just can not see.
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- Most globules are about 30,000 AU in diameter. An AU is an astronomical unit of distance that is the distance between the Earth and the Sun, 93 million miles. So, these globules are 30,000 times larger then the orbit of the Earth. Our entire Solar System is 60 AU across.
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- Globules appear as dark clouds , however, these are very, very light clouds. The air we breath is 100,000,000,000 times denser then these clouds. But, if you were inside one of these globules it would be totally dark. No star light would penetrate far into the cloud of gas and dust grains.
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- Two of the most famous globules are the Horsehead Nebula, ( B33) and the Eagle Nebula ( M16)
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- These nebulae globules are star forming regions that astronomers are studying. Stars form from the fragmentation and eventual collapse of interstellar molecular clouds. The collapse of clouds is usually caused by shockwaves from nearby supernova explosions.
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- The Bok Globule Bernard 68 is in the Constellation Ophiuchus, The Serpent Bearer, and is between 100,000 and 1,000,000 years old. It is 350 lightyears from Earth. The temperature of the cloud has been measured to be 10 Kelvin. The surrounding interstellar medium is 50 Kelvin.
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- Bernard 68 is oscillating like a beating heart which is believed to have been caused by being hit by something. The globule is denser towards the center than on the edges which suggest it is slowly collapsing into a star. Calculations are that in another 100,000 years B68 will be a low mass Red-Dwarf star.
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- Other globules suggest that multiple star formations are common. Star formations may take a few million years. The outward push of heated gas balances the inward pull of gravity. The core can reach a few thousand Kelvin causing molecules of hydrogen to break down into individual atoms of hydrogen. Gravity will eventually win, a protostar will form, and nuclear fusion will light up the star. A star is born.
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- Globules are chemically rich. The gas inside the globules freezes into dust grains. An analogy would be blowing your breath on a cold window and the frost will form on the window. Ultraviolet radiation will break down the dust grains into molecules that can come back together to form new compounds. Laboratories that try to simulate this process have created protein molecules and even cell membranes. If it can happen in the lab maybe it can happen in space.
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- Some of the compounds that have been identified in globules include methanol, carbon dioxide, and ammonia.
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- This is exciting stuff to study. Astronomers are building more sensitive spectroscopy equipment in the hopes of detecting complex organic molecules. Globules are good for study and hopefully easier to understand that the giant molecular clouds that form hundreds of star clusters.
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An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned
-------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Wednesday, June 13, 2012
