--------- #1416 - Radiation Therapy for Cancer Patients?
- Attachments : none
- Sonoma State University lecture, 2-17-12 , by Joseph Perl of SLAC, Stanford Linear Accelerator. The subject was radiation treatment for cancer patients. Joseph is an expert in particle physics and using GEANT4 software to plot the path of sub-atomic particles to target cancer tumors. Particles must pass through the radiation machinery, air, flesh, bone, muscle, heart, lungs, vessels, etc. Each medium influences the path the radiation particle will take. The goal is to hit the target only and destroy the cancer cells.
- Each atomic particle is like a bullet that we want to aim precisely at a cancer cell. The software calculates the path of the particle then simulates the tracking to the target. Cancer cells are runaway dividing cells and are more susceptible to radiation destruction than normal cells. However, the goal is to kill as few normal cells as possible and at the same time kill 100% of the cancer cells.
- Each type of atomic particle ( radiation ) travels a different distance into the body. Different particle radiations are chosen depending on the type of cancer being treated.
---------------- Electrons that are 4 mega-electron-volts travel the shortest distance into the flesh. This radiation would work for skin cancer.
--------------- X-rays that are 20 mega-electron-volts travel the farthest into the body.
------------- X-rays that are 4 mega-electron-volts travel not as far.
--------------- Protons that are 150 mega-electron-volts travel 15 centimeters into the body and stop. This is the best therapy when there is a need to not damage an organ that is behind the tumor. Proper dosage can gauge the depth of the radiation using protons. Secondary neutron emissions at the target must also be taken into account.
- Proton beams can be sent from several angles to intersect at the target. The software has to plot the path of each projection. Sometimes the calculations can take a super computer up to 250 hours to complete the simulation for one treatment. Each person and each type of cancer requires a custom plan of attack. Often 20 to 40 separate doses are required for one complete treatment.
- The particle paths get even more complicated to calculate because the patient is breathing. Organs, tumors, rib bones are always moving into and out of the path of the particles. This all has to be integrated into the strategy of treatment.
- 23,000,000 Americans are getting radiation treatment for cancer today. Chemotherapy and blunt radiation treatments are crude and overkill for the ideal treatment. This targeted radiation therapy is a revolution in cancer research that can bring precise doses of treatment to the tumor alone. This precise dose treatment is especially critical for children because radiation has long term side effects that can affect a patient in 20 years after treatment. When you are 70 years old it does not matter, but, when you are 7 this is a serious consideration.
- 1,500,000 new cancer patients are diagnosed every year.
- 1,000,000 of these will get radiation treatments each year.
- The radiation therapies range from:
------------------- LINAC
------------------- Cyber Knife
------------------ TomoTherapy
---- -------------- Gamma Knife
------------------- Proton Therapy
------------------- Ion Therapy
------------------ HDR Brach therapy
------------------ radioactive seed implants,( prostrate)
- Some cells are more sensitive to radiation than others. So each type of cancer takes its own therapy strategy. Cells that divide frequently are the most sensitive to radiation. That is why the patient’s hair falls out with treatments. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy work together to optimize the effectiveness of each treatment. Both therapies rely heavily on medical imaging such as:
--------------------- CT , CAT scans
-------------------- MRI
-------------------- PET
-Medical imaging needs to tell radiation therapy the exact location and extent of each tumor in the body.
- The software to plan the radiation particles paths and create the simulations uses the Monte Carlo statistical technique. Each path is broken down into small segments and probabilities are calculated at each step. Multiple steps complete the path. Then, millions of particles are repeated to get a statistical picture of the behavior of the radiation to the target. When the simulation matches the data the therapy for that patient is planned out.
- Proton radiation machines cost $200,000,000. There are less than 20 of these in the U.S.
- Ion radiation machines use heavier particles and they cost $400,000,000 each.
- This amazing Object Oriented software ( C++ ) is free. Anyone can download it off the internet. It does geometry and tracking not just for radiation therapy. It works for Cosmic Ray tracking, for X-ray reflections off the surface of Mercury, for Fermi Gamma Ray telescope design, and any application requiring geometry and tracking. The software is complicated and most users need to attend a 5 day training seminar.
- The group at SLAC is trying to develop a very user friendly version of GEANT4 software for exclusive use in medical proton radiation therapy of cancer patients. 23,000,000 Americans are currently using radiation therapy today and they need quick and reliable implementation of these new innovations to save a life. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Tuesday, February 28, 2012
Tuesday, February 28, 2012
Monday, February 27, 2012
The Earth is Doomed, learn what happens?
--------- #1415 - The Earth is Doomed?
- Attachments : Helix Planetary Nebula
- The Earth is Doomed. The planet is doomed; it is just a matter of time. The Sun is burning fuel. It will eventually run out. Just like the fossil fuels on Earth, there is a finite amount. And, when it is gone, it’s gone. In the case of the Sun, we will also need an alternative. What a challenge!
- The hydrogen fuel at the core of the Sun is a fusion furnace that produces helium and releases Gamma Ray energy. The Gamma Rays work their way to the surface and are emitted into space as infrared, light, and ultraviolet radiation. When the hydrogen runs out the helium will burn into carbon and the carbon into oxygen. But, that is about it. The Sun is not big enough to have enough gravity to continue the fusion process beyond oxygen. The lights will go out. Well, not with out a light show.
- As the fusion process winds down it does not go out quietly. The Sun will get hotter and hotter. At its peak the Sun will be 2,700 times more luminous than it is today. The flood of ultraviolet radiation hitting the Earth’s atmosphere will evaporate the oceans. The increased water vapor in the atmosphere will create a runaway greenhouse effect turning the Earth into what Venus is today. Life on Earth will end.
- As the helium is building up at the core of the Sun at the age of 12.2 billion years the Sun will expand into a Red Giant star. It will swell to a 110 million mile radius. The Earth is 93 million miles away from the Sun today. The Sun is about 6 million years old today, middle aged. The Sun will be blowing off mass in a Solar Wind which will make it lighter and will allow the planets and asteroids to move out to new orbits. Many of the planets, asteroids, comets will be vaporized in the intense heat. Some will escape into a new accretion disk still orbiting the Sun.
- The Red Giant star will loose ½ its mass in violent solar winds and pulsations. It will stop spinning and a White Dwarf star will be born once the Red Giant dies out. The White Dwarf star at the center of the expansion will be the diameter of the Earth. It will be surrounded by an expanding giant cloud of gas and dust known as Planetary Nebula. You can see many beautiful pictures of Planetary Nebula in the space photography available on the web.
- The White Dwarf will cool and dim like a cosmic carbon ember throughout the Universe’s lifetime. The dusty disk remains surrounding the White Dwarf that no longer shines. The White Dwarf is composed of carbon and oxygen with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. The dust rings are composed of silicate, calcium, and aluminum like fine grains of beach sand.
- Stars that are lower mass than the Sun will become Brown Dwarf stars. They are smaller mass about the diameter of Jupiter, but, 10 times the size of the White Dwarf star. Higher mass stars are compressed to smaller diameters.
- Space telescopes have detected these dusty rings around White Dwarf stars. Over 50 have been discovered. And 40 White Dwarf stars have been found in binary systems with a companion Brown Dwarf star.
- The elements in these dusty rings were discovered with spectrographs mounted on the telescopes. They separate the light wavelength by wavelength, the longest wavelengths in the infrared 3400 to 4600 nanometers. The emission lines and absorption lines in these spectrums allow the astronomers to determine the elements that are in the dust debris.
- The dust debris is the rocky remains of former planetary systems. Our planetary system will be one of these in 5 billion years from now. It is just a matter of time. The Earth is doomed. Dust to dust. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1) Check out the Helix Planetary Nebula, NGC 7293
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Monday, February 27, 2012
- Attachments : Helix Planetary Nebula
- The hydrogen fuel at the core of the Sun is a fusion furnace that produces helium and releases Gamma Ray energy. The Gamma Rays work their way to the surface and are emitted into space as infrared, light, and ultraviolet radiation. When the hydrogen runs out the helium will burn into carbon and the carbon into oxygen. But, that is about it. The Sun is not big enough to have enough gravity to continue the fusion process beyond oxygen. The lights will go out. Well, not with out a light show.
- As the fusion process winds down it does not go out quietly. The Sun will get hotter and hotter. At its peak the Sun will be 2,700 times more luminous than it is today. The flood of ultraviolet radiation hitting the Earth’s atmosphere will evaporate the oceans. The increased water vapor in the atmosphere will create a runaway greenhouse effect turning the Earth into what Venus is today. Life on Earth will end.
- As the helium is building up at the core of the Sun at the age of 12.2 billion years the Sun will expand into a Red Giant star. It will swell to a 110 million mile radius. The Earth is 93 million miles away from the Sun today. The Sun is about 6 million years old today, middle aged. The Sun will be blowing off mass in a Solar Wind which will make it lighter and will allow the planets and asteroids to move out to new orbits. Many of the planets, asteroids, comets will be vaporized in the intense heat. Some will escape into a new accretion disk still orbiting the Sun.
- The Red Giant star will loose ½ its mass in violent solar winds and pulsations. It will stop spinning and a White Dwarf star will be born once the Red Giant dies out. The White Dwarf star at the center of the expansion will be the diameter of the Earth. It will be surrounded by an expanding giant cloud of gas and dust known as Planetary Nebula. You can see many beautiful pictures of Planetary Nebula in the space photography available on the web.
- The White Dwarf will cool and dim like a cosmic carbon ember throughout the Universe’s lifetime. The dusty disk remains surrounding the White Dwarf that no longer shines. The White Dwarf is composed of carbon and oxygen with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. The dust rings are composed of silicate, calcium, and aluminum like fine grains of beach sand.
- Stars that are lower mass than the Sun will become Brown Dwarf stars. They are smaller mass about the diameter of Jupiter, but, 10 times the size of the White Dwarf star. Higher mass stars are compressed to smaller diameters.
- Space telescopes have detected these dusty rings around White Dwarf stars. Over 50 have been discovered. And 40 White Dwarf stars have been found in binary systems with a companion Brown Dwarf star.
- The elements in these dusty rings were discovered with spectrographs mounted on the telescopes. They separate the light wavelength by wavelength, the longest wavelengths in the infrared 3400 to 4600 nanometers. The emission lines and absorption lines in these spectrums allow the astronomers to determine the elements that are in the dust debris.
- The dust debris is the rocky remains of former planetary systems. Our planetary system will be one of these in 5 billion years from now. It is just a matter of time. The Earth is doomed. Dust to dust. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1) Check out the Helix Planetary Nebula, NGC 7293
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Monday, February 27, 2012
Sunday, February 26, 2012
Is Global Warming real?
--------- #1414 - Is Global Warming Real?
- Attachments : Looking west
- Is Global Warming real? Yes it is real. It has occurred and reoccurred over 1000’s of years. Just as the ice ages are real. Is Global Warming recently caused by human technology and activity? Yes, to some degree but likely overwhelmed by other activities continually occurring in nature. Just as sunspots change the Sun’s intensity. An El Nino’s in the ocean changes the climate in the Northern Hemisphere. Is the extremist’s actions to mandate changes in human activity doing things right? No, it is not. It is likely having the opposite effect which takes longer to undo.
- You always have 2 decisions to make, what and how, doing the right things and doing things right. So many actions responding to Global Warming are doing the right things. However, you can ruin the efforts by not doing things right. Removing individual freedoms with mandates and interfering with the free- market system is not doing things right. Providing incentives, education, facilitating, making it easier for the right free market decisions to be made is doing things right.
- Climatologists use data from tree rings, coral growth bands, and ice cores to calculate ancient temperatures. The thickness of the tree rings is a function of the warmth of the growing period and the wetness of the season. They plot the averages temperatures of the Northern Hemisphere back in time, 1000 years. 1000 years ago was the Medieval Warm Period. 100 to 300 years ago was the ice ages The last 150 years is the rapidly rising temperatures that are called “ Global Warming”. The debate is if this “hockey stick” appearance on the graph in the last 150 years is caused solely by human activity?
- Certainly the evidence of increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is a sign of human activity. And, carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that does cause global warming. Water vapor is an even greater cause of global warming. The glacier ice is retreating. The sea levels are rising. Like predicting the weather the science is not perfectly certain enough to identify the exact cause or causes of these occurrences or to predict the exact results.
- Scientist today must take responsibility for ensuring their science is communicated accurately. You just can’t turn it over to the media and expect an accurate publication to be produced. Today’s media is biased. Today’s media often has an agenda. Scientists can not trust that the impact of their work will percolate honestly and productively into the public discourse. Just as the public does not trust the media today the public will not trust the science.
- Human activity taking action to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is not unlike taking action against the use of tobacco that is causing cancer, or, the use of chlorofluorocarbons that are causing ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere. It takes time to educate the public with honesty. If you do not do the right things it takes more time and more perseverance to overcome the dishonesty.
- Politics by its very nature is biased. When it is overdone politics plays a dishonest role in the end justifying the means. Politicians saying one thing and doing another. Politicians always manipulating communications to pursue a predetermined agenda. Politics manipulating rather than educating. In many ways politics is the opposite of science.
- Don’t let politics creep into science. In fact, take responsibility for politics and publications to assure they do not misrepresent science. Dishonest science sets doing the right things back even further. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For further reading see reviews: #909, 908, 788 The history of climate change
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Sunday, February 26, 2012
- Is Global Warming real? Yes it is real. It has occurred and reoccurred over 1000’s of years. Just as the ice ages are real. Is Global Warming recently caused by human technology and activity? Yes, to some degree but likely overwhelmed by other activities continually occurring in nature. Just as sunspots change the Sun’s intensity. An El Nino’s in the ocean changes the climate in the Northern Hemisphere. Is the extremist’s actions to mandate changes in human activity doing things right? No, it is not. It is likely having the opposite effect which takes longer to undo.
- You always have 2 decisions to make, what and how, doing the right things and doing things right. So many actions responding to Global Warming are doing the right things. However, you can ruin the efforts by not doing things right. Removing individual freedoms with mandates and interfering with the free- market system is not doing things right. Providing incentives, education, facilitating, making it easier for the right free market decisions to be made is doing things right.
- Climatologists use data from tree rings, coral growth bands, and ice cores to calculate ancient temperatures. The thickness of the tree rings is a function of the warmth of the growing period and the wetness of the season. They plot the averages temperatures of the Northern Hemisphere back in time, 1000 years. 1000 years ago was the Medieval Warm Period. 100 to 300 years ago was the ice ages The last 150 years is the rapidly rising temperatures that are called “ Global Warming”. The debate is if this “hockey stick” appearance on the graph in the last 150 years is caused solely by human activity?
- Certainly the evidence of increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is a sign of human activity. And, carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that does cause global warming. Water vapor is an even greater cause of global warming. The glacier ice is retreating. The sea levels are rising. Like predicting the weather the science is not perfectly certain enough to identify the exact cause or causes of these occurrences or to predict the exact results.
- Scientist today must take responsibility for ensuring their science is communicated accurately. You just can’t turn it over to the media and expect an accurate publication to be produced. Today’s media is biased. Today’s media often has an agenda. Scientists can not trust that the impact of their work will percolate honestly and productively into the public discourse. Just as the public does not trust the media today the public will not trust the science.
- Human activity taking action to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is not unlike taking action against the use of tobacco that is causing cancer, or, the use of chlorofluorocarbons that are causing ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere. It takes time to educate the public with honesty. If you do not do the right things it takes more time and more perseverance to overcome the dishonesty.
- Politics by its very nature is biased. When it is overdone politics plays a dishonest role in the end justifying the means. Politicians saying one thing and doing another. Politicians always manipulating communications to pursue a predetermined agenda. Politics manipulating rather than educating. In many ways politics is the opposite of science.
- Don’t let politics creep into science. In fact, take responsibility for politics and publications to assure they do not misrepresent science. Dishonest science sets doing the right things back even further. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For further reading see reviews: #909, 908, 788 The history of climate change
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Sunday, February 26, 2012
Thursday, February 23, 2012
Does the vacuum of space contain energy?
--------- #1413 - Is there Vacuum Energy in Empty Space?
- Attachments : Nanocantilever.
- The Casimir Effect is a theory that in a perfect vacuum there still is energy. In November, 2011, scientists claimed to have conjured up light from nowhere simply by squeezing down on empty space. How can energy come from nothing? If energy is in empty space could nanotechnology take advantage of it?
- The “Uncertainty Principle in Particle Physics” says that pairs of parameters are connected. The more you know about one the less you can know about the other. Time and Energy are such a pair. Position and Velocity are another pair. According to this theory even a perfect vacuum is filled with wave-like fields that fluctuate constantly. These wave-particles pop in and out of existence constantly creating a “ zero-point energy” that is non - zero.
- Zero-Point Energy comes from the idea of the lowest temperature being - 273 C, or Absolute Zero, does not bring the atom’s vibrations completely to rest. Atom’s still vibrate at the quantum level, which is the lowest energy level. From the Uncertainty Principle with paired position and momentum(velocity) the momentum can not be zero unless the position is infinite. Therefore, some momentum must always remain.
- Close study of atoms shows that vacuum fluctuations is jostling orbiting electrons thus altering their energy levels. In some cases electrons can spontaneously jump between orbital levels emitting a photon of light of the exact frequency as the energy gap.
- Hendrik Casimir in 1948 experimented with two metal plates in a vacuum. The two plates when brought close together limit the vacuum fluctuations in between them. Outside the plates vacuum fluctuations can have any wavelength they choose. With more waves outside than inside there is a “ Vacuum Pressure “ pushing the plates together.
- The two plates were only 10 nanometers apart. Measuring his force was an extremely difficult thing. Electrostatic attraction between charges in the plates could have the same effect.
- To over come problems measuring the force between parallel plates in 1996 scientists made vacuum pressure measurements using a metal plate and a spherical lens. this geometry had tougher math but avoided the difficulty of keeping 2 plates perfectly parallel. Again , they found a tiny residual force pulling them together, the Casmir Effect.
- February , 2011 scientists confirmed that the size of the vacuum fluctuations grew with rising temperatures.
- In 2012 nanoscale research is considering building nanoscale machines of switches, gears, bearing, motors that could take advantage of the vacuum forces. These machines are on the scales of 1,000 atoms. At these scales surfaces are not smooth, their crystal-like surface confine vacuum fluctuations in very different ways.
- In 2009 the repulsive (versus attractive) Casimir Force was measured on a gold cantilever suspended in bombazine liquid over a silicon surface. The force measured was 10 piconewtons. ( 10^-11 Newtons). The gravitational pull of the Earth of a nickel coin is 5.1 *10^-2 Newtons. The force between an electron and the proton in a hydrogen atom is 8 *10^-8 Newtons. This force is 1,000 times smaller, unbelievable.
- Many scientists want to account for the Casimir Effect as quantum interactions of charges. The debate goes on! It gets especially energized when science attempts to describe “ Dark Energy” as vacuum energy, a mysterious anti-gravity force that is expanding the Universe at 47,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears of vacuum space.
- The embarrassing calculations made is that the Vacuum Energy in space would have to be 10^120 times smaller than we measure in order to explain the Expansion of the Universe. ( Vacuum energy is 120 orders of magnitude too great ) The Casimir Effect to Dark Energy has a long way to go to make up that much ground.
- Truth be known, science still needs to prove the reality of vacuum fluctuations creating a force in space. But, exactly what do these observed effects come from? Is there really a Dark Energy responsible for the expanding Universe? We are using the very small to explain the very big and the gap leaves a lot for us to learn in between. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
----------------------------------------------
(1) To learn more about the Casimir Effect request Review #1237 1-8-11
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 23, 2012
- Attachments : Nanocantilever.
- The “Uncertainty Principle in Particle Physics” says that pairs of parameters are connected. The more you know about one the less you can know about the other. Time and Energy are such a pair. Position and Velocity are another pair. According to this theory even a perfect vacuum is filled with wave-like fields that fluctuate constantly. These wave-particles pop in and out of existence constantly creating a “ zero-point energy” that is non - zero.
- Zero-Point Energy comes from the idea of the lowest temperature being - 273 C, or Absolute Zero, does not bring the atom’s vibrations completely to rest. Atom’s still vibrate at the quantum level, which is the lowest energy level. From the Uncertainty Principle with paired position and momentum(velocity) the momentum can not be zero unless the position is infinite. Therefore, some momentum must always remain.
- Close study of atoms shows that vacuum fluctuations is jostling orbiting electrons thus altering their energy levels. In some cases electrons can spontaneously jump between orbital levels emitting a photon of light of the exact frequency as the energy gap.
- Hendrik Casimir in 1948 experimented with two metal plates in a vacuum. The two plates when brought close together limit the vacuum fluctuations in between them. Outside the plates vacuum fluctuations can have any wavelength they choose. With more waves outside than inside there is a “ Vacuum Pressure “ pushing the plates together.
- The two plates were only 10 nanometers apart. Measuring his force was an extremely difficult thing. Electrostatic attraction between charges in the plates could have the same effect.
- To over come problems measuring the force between parallel plates in 1996 scientists made vacuum pressure measurements using a metal plate and a spherical lens. this geometry had tougher math but avoided the difficulty of keeping 2 plates perfectly parallel. Again , they found a tiny residual force pulling them together, the Casmir Effect.
- February , 2011 scientists confirmed that the size of the vacuum fluctuations grew with rising temperatures.
- In 2012 nanoscale research is considering building nanoscale machines of switches, gears, bearing, motors that could take advantage of the vacuum forces. These machines are on the scales of 1,000 atoms. At these scales surfaces are not smooth, their crystal-like surface confine vacuum fluctuations in very different ways.
- In 2009 the repulsive (versus attractive) Casimir Force was measured on a gold cantilever suspended in bombazine liquid over a silicon surface. The force measured was 10 piconewtons. ( 10^-11 Newtons). The gravitational pull of the Earth of a nickel coin is 5.1 *10^-2 Newtons. The force between an electron and the proton in a hydrogen atom is 8 *10^-8 Newtons. This force is 1,000 times smaller, unbelievable.
- Many scientists want to account for the Casimir Effect as quantum interactions of charges. The debate goes on! It gets especially energized when science attempts to describe “ Dark Energy” as vacuum energy, a mysterious anti-gravity force that is expanding the Universe at 47,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears of vacuum space.
- The embarrassing calculations made is that the Vacuum Energy in space would have to be 10^120 times smaller than we measure in order to explain the Expansion of the Universe. ( Vacuum energy is 120 orders of magnitude too great ) The Casimir Effect to Dark Energy has a long way to go to make up that much ground.
- Truth be known, science still needs to prove the reality of vacuum fluctuations creating a force in space. But, exactly what do these observed effects come from? Is there really a Dark Energy responsible for the expanding Universe? We are using the very small to explain the very big and the gap leaves a lot for us to learn in between. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
----------------------------------------------
(1) To learn more about the Casimir Effect request Review #1237 1-8-11
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 23, 2012
How to make measurement standards better?
--------- #1412 - Measurement Accuracy as Good as your Standards?
- Attachments : cantilever force measurement
- Any measurement is only as good as the standard used Measurement is a comparison with something and you want that something to be as stable, and consistent, and as accurate as possible. The International Standards (SI) are kept in Paris, France. There seven (7) of them that all of science depends on. Metrologists would like to make today’s standards even better by tying them to nature’s constants.
- The length of the meter , the duration of a second and the mass of kilogram are tied to SI standards. The ratios of two of these is the speed of light which is one of the natural constants. The speed of light is 299,792,458 meters per second. But, what is a meter and what is a second?
-------------- (1) A second is 9,192,631,770 oscillations of a vibrating Cesium atom
-------------- (2) A meter is the distance light travels in 1/ 299,792,458th of a second.
- The measurement of the speed of a falling object by Galileo was the start of the modern science of measurement. Later a metal rod in a vault in Paris became the standard for the meter. A refinement made later was to scribe two marks on a metal rod which were less likely to get damaged. Today we measure length by the distance light travels at its constant speed.
- -------------- (3) A kilogram is a platinum-iridium cylinder kept in a vault in Paris. Science would like to improve this standard. There is too much uncertainty in its weight. It could have some dust on it. Could its surface oxidize. Science would like to see the kilogram measured in Planck Constants. That is a natural constant = 6.6260755 * 10^-34 Joule- seconds.
-------------- A Joule is a unit of energy = 1 Newton * meter.
--------------- Energy = Force * distance
-------------- A Newton is a unit of force = kilogram * meter / second / second
--------------- Force = Mass * acceleration.
-------------- (4) An Ampere is a unit of electric current = a current in 2 parallel conductors 1 meter apart producing a force of 10^-7 Newtons. Science would like to see the Ampere defined in terms of the elementary electron charge.
------------- (5) A Kelvin is a unit of temperature = 1 / 273.16 to the triple point of freezing of water. Science would like to see the Kelvin defined in terms of Boltzman’s constant. Boltzman’s Constant is another natural constant = 1.380658 * 10^-23 Joules / Kelvin.
-------------- (6) A Mole is he amount of a substance counting atoms or molecules. It is Avogadro’s Number of 6.0221367 * 10^23 atoms per mole.
------------ (7) A Candela is a unit of measurement of luminous intensity. It is 1 / 600,000th of the light produced by a square meter cavity of freezing platinum ( 2,032 Kelvin) Science would like to see the Candela defined by a luminosity of monochromatic radiation at a specific frequency.
-------------- A watt is a unit of power = 1 Joule / second
--------------- Power is Energy consumed per second.
-------------- A Coulomb of electricity = flow of 6.25*10^18 electrons
- A of these recommended changes in the standards of measurement are designed to improve the accuracy of measurements. Technology is getting so precise in can tolerate the uncertainty of measurement . For example: If you raise a clock one meter off the floor , it experiences less gravity, it will run faster. How much will it speed up = 1 part in 10,000,000,000,000,000 ( 1 part in 10^16) . If you could measure time that accurately you could measure your altitude using the Theory of Relativity.
- We have come a long way since 1892 when Albert Abraham Michelson made the first measurements of the speed of light. 300,000 kilometers per second has been refined many times since. Today it is 299,792,458 meters per second. And, Science would even like to see it measured in centimeters per second. When it comes to accuracy we are never satisfied. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-------------------------------------------
(1) See Review #784 - Spacetime, Energy and Calculus
(2) See http:www.onlineconversion.com where all of these units are easily converted between other units of measurement.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 23, 2012
- Attachments : cantilever force measurement
- The length of the meter , the duration of a second and the mass of kilogram are tied to SI standards. The ratios of two of these is the speed of light which is one of the natural constants. The speed of light is 299,792,458 meters per second. But, what is a meter and what is a second?
-------------- (1) A second is 9,192,631,770 oscillations of a vibrating Cesium atom
-------------- (2) A meter is the distance light travels in 1/ 299,792,458th of a second.
- The measurement of the speed of a falling object by Galileo was the start of the modern science of measurement. Later a metal rod in a vault in Paris became the standard for the meter. A refinement made later was to scribe two marks on a metal rod which were less likely to get damaged. Today we measure length by the distance light travels at its constant speed.
- -------------- (3) A kilogram is a platinum-iridium cylinder kept in a vault in Paris. Science would like to improve this standard. There is too much uncertainty in its weight. It could have some dust on it. Could its surface oxidize. Science would like to see the kilogram measured in Planck Constants. That is a natural constant = 6.6260755 * 10^-34 Joule- seconds.
-------------- A Joule is a unit of energy = 1 Newton * meter.
--------------- Energy = Force * distance
-------------- A Newton is a unit of force = kilogram * meter / second / second
--------------- Force = Mass * acceleration.
-------------- (4) An Ampere is a unit of electric current = a current in 2 parallel conductors 1 meter apart producing a force of 10^-7 Newtons. Science would like to see the Ampere defined in terms of the elementary electron charge.
------------- (5) A Kelvin is a unit of temperature = 1 / 273.16 to the triple point of freezing of water. Science would like to see the Kelvin defined in terms of Boltzman’s constant. Boltzman’s Constant is another natural constant = 1.380658 * 10^-23 Joules / Kelvin.
-------------- (6) A Mole is he amount of a substance counting atoms or molecules. It is Avogadro’s Number of 6.0221367 * 10^23 atoms per mole.
------------ (7) A Candela is a unit of measurement of luminous intensity. It is 1 / 600,000th of the light produced by a square meter cavity of freezing platinum ( 2,032 Kelvin) Science would like to see the Candela defined by a luminosity of monochromatic radiation at a specific frequency.
-------------- A watt is a unit of power = 1 Joule / second
--------------- Power is Energy consumed per second.
-------------- A Coulomb of electricity = flow of 6.25*10^18 electrons
- A of these recommended changes in the standards of measurement are designed to improve the accuracy of measurements. Technology is getting so precise in can tolerate the uncertainty of measurement . For example: If you raise a clock one meter off the floor , it experiences less gravity, it will run faster. How much will it speed up = 1 part in 10,000,000,000,000,000 ( 1 part in 10^16) . If you could measure time that accurately you could measure your altitude using the Theory of Relativity.
- We have come a long way since 1892 when Albert Abraham Michelson made the first measurements of the speed of light. 300,000 kilometers per second has been refined many times since. Today it is 299,792,458 meters per second. And, Science would even like to see it measured in centimeters per second. When it comes to accuracy we are never satisfied. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-------------------------------------------
(1) See Review #784 - Spacetime, Energy and Calculus
(2) See http:www.onlineconversion.com where all of these units are easily converted between other units of measurement.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 23, 2012
Tuesday, February 21, 2012
What caused these supernova explosions?
--------- #1411 - What Caused These Supernovae Explosions?
- Attachments : supernova remnant
- Space is full of explosions and we are just getting the technology that allows us to begin seeing them. This picture is of a supernova remnant is the debris left after a star exploded some 400 years ago. After much study it was decided that this is a beautiful example of two White Dwarf stars in a binary system that went supernova. One exploded obliterating the other. It is called a type 1a supernova when one star steals mass from another and reaches that 1.4 Solar Mass threshold that collapses atoms into the nuclei. The rebound is a supernova explosion.
- The theory has existed for decades that these type explosions come from carbon-oxygen White Dwarf stars. But the companion star can be anything from a red giant, to a main-sequence star like our Sun, or to another White Dwarf star.
- The single White Dwarf is the dead star left after the explosion. It has burned all of its nuclear fuel and is now a dense hot rock. It is so hot that heat and light will continue to glow for billions of years. But, it no longer shines from thermonuclear fusion. It will simply take a long time for it to slowly cool down.
(1) Supernova 2011fe:
- Last August 24, 2011 at 9:00 P.M. a supernova became visible in the Pinwheel Galaxy. It is 21,000,000 lightyears away. So that is how long ago the explosion happened. The light just reached us at 9:00 P.M. Actually, the astronomers estimated the explosion occurred 11 hours earlier when we were not looking. It is the youngest supernova ever discovered.
- The evidence from this explosion confirms that it was a White Dwarf star that was fed by a companion star. The White Dwarf was stealing gas and dust from the companion until it reached 1.4 Solar Mass, that much gravity collapses the atoms into the core, the rebound when the mass hit’s the center creates a thermonuclear explosion so bright it out shines the entire galaxy that is its home.
- The star went from being 1,000,000 times too dim to see with the naked eye, to 10,000 times to dim, to 6 times too dim. But, it could be seen with a small backyard telescope.
(2) Supernova SNR0509-67.5 :
- The supernova in the picture occurred 400 years ago in the Large Magellanic Cloud Galaxy, 160,000 lightyears away. Today the debris is 23 lightyears in diameter and expanding at 11,000,000 miles per hour. The debris was searched for evidence of the companion star but none could be found. Suggesting that the companion was also a White Dwarf and both stars were destroyed.
(3) Supernova G3501-0.3 :
- This supernova explosion was detected in X-ray images. It occurred 600 to 1,200 years ago about 14,700 light years away towards the center of our Milky Way Galaxy. (The radius of the Milky Way is about 60,000 lightyears.)
- In this case the supernova explosion provided a powerful kick to a companion star sending it packing at 3,000,000 miles per hour. The debris remnants are asymmetrical shape because the debris field of the supernova expanded in to a cloud of cold molecular gas.
(4) GRB 101225A Gamma Ray Burst:
- Last Christmas, December 25, 2010, astronomers detected Gamma Ray Burst in the Constellation Andromeda that lasted for 1,088 seconds. Astronomers have 2 theories of how such a large explosion could occur. The calculations made state that ½ the mass of the Dwarf Star Ceres would have to be shredded to trigger the amount of Gamma Ray radiation detected. The unusual characteristics of the afterglow led astronomers to generate novel hypotheses to explain the observations. They were unable to ascertain the burst’s distance and the two alternative hypotheses of the event are radically different.
-------------(1) An asteroid got too close to a Neutron Star and burst into a blaze of Gamma Rays as gravity ripped it apart. The explosion was only 10,000 lightyears away. The Neutron Star’s gravity is so intense the tidal forces ripped it apart. Hard X-ray emissions ( the burst ) results from the first matter falling onto the Neutron Star. X-ray emission variations occurred as clumps of material struck the star and an accretion disk formed around it. The disk cooled down and emits ultraviolet radiation and optical wavelengths.
------------- (2) Two stars merged and created a dim supernova explosion. A Neutron Star slowly spiraled into a massive helium star. This was a binary system where the Neutron Star orbited a normal helium star that had entered the Red Giant phase engulfing the Neutron Star. The Red Giant’s atmosphere was ejected as the Neutron Star spiraled in. The two stars became wrapped in a common envelope of gas. The Neutron Star merged with the Giant’s core in 5 orbits taking only 18 months. The merger created a Blackhole and a Magnetar with oppositely directed jets of particles moving at nearly the speed of light, followed by a weak supernova explosion. The particle jets produced gamma rays. The event occurred with a of redshift 0.33 in a faint galaxy that was 5.5 billion lightyears away
- The reason astronomers are so interested in these type supernovae is that because they theoretically collapse at the consistent 1.4 Solar Mass the resulting illumination should be a uniform brightness, a “Standard Candle” that can by used to calculate distances.
- The brightness also depends of the proportion metals in the star. “ Metal” to astronomers are any element with an atomic number >3. Anything heavier than hydrogen, helium, and lithium that were created in the Big Bang. All heavier elements were created in these supernovae explosions. Once distances are well defined astronomers can gather the evidence to explain Dark Energy and the expansion of the Universe.
- Things in the Universe go Boom! Then, astronomers try to figure out what happened. An announcement will be made shortly , stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Tuesday, February 21, 2012
- Attachments : supernova remnant
- The theory has existed for decades that these type explosions come from carbon-oxygen White Dwarf stars. But the companion star can be anything from a red giant, to a main-sequence star like our Sun, or to another White Dwarf star.
- The single White Dwarf is the dead star left after the explosion. It has burned all of its nuclear fuel and is now a dense hot rock. It is so hot that heat and light will continue to glow for billions of years. But, it no longer shines from thermonuclear fusion. It will simply take a long time for it to slowly cool down.
(1) Supernova 2011fe:
- Last August 24, 2011 at 9:00 P.M. a supernova became visible in the Pinwheel Galaxy. It is 21,000,000 lightyears away. So that is how long ago the explosion happened. The light just reached us at 9:00 P.M. Actually, the astronomers estimated the explosion occurred 11 hours earlier when we were not looking. It is the youngest supernova ever discovered.
- The evidence from this explosion confirms that it was a White Dwarf star that was fed by a companion star. The White Dwarf was stealing gas and dust from the companion until it reached 1.4 Solar Mass, that much gravity collapses the atoms into the core, the rebound when the mass hit’s the center creates a thermonuclear explosion so bright it out shines the entire galaxy that is its home.
- The star went from being 1,000,000 times too dim to see with the naked eye, to 10,000 times to dim, to 6 times too dim. But, it could be seen with a small backyard telescope.
(2) Supernova SNR0509-67.5 :
- The supernova in the picture occurred 400 years ago in the Large Magellanic Cloud Galaxy, 160,000 lightyears away. Today the debris is 23 lightyears in diameter and expanding at 11,000,000 miles per hour. The debris was searched for evidence of the companion star but none could be found. Suggesting that the companion was also a White Dwarf and both stars were destroyed.
(3) Supernova G3501-0.3 :
- This supernova explosion was detected in X-ray images. It occurred 600 to 1,200 years ago about 14,700 light years away towards the center of our Milky Way Galaxy. (The radius of the Milky Way is about 60,000 lightyears.)
- In this case the supernova explosion provided a powerful kick to a companion star sending it packing at 3,000,000 miles per hour. The debris remnants are asymmetrical shape because the debris field of the supernova expanded in to a cloud of cold molecular gas.
(4) GRB 101225A Gamma Ray Burst:
- Last Christmas, December 25, 2010, astronomers detected Gamma Ray Burst in the Constellation Andromeda that lasted for 1,088 seconds. Astronomers have 2 theories of how such a large explosion could occur. The calculations made state that ½ the mass of the Dwarf Star Ceres would have to be shredded to trigger the amount of Gamma Ray radiation detected. The unusual characteristics of the afterglow led astronomers to generate novel hypotheses to explain the observations. They were unable to ascertain the burst’s distance and the two alternative hypotheses of the event are radically different.
-------------(1) An asteroid got too close to a Neutron Star and burst into a blaze of Gamma Rays as gravity ripped it apart. The explosion was only 10,000 lightyears away. The Neutron Star’s gravity is so intense the tidal forces ripped it apart. Hard X-ray emissions ( the burst ) results from the first matter falling onto the Neutron Star. X-ray emission variations occurred as clumps of material struck the star and an accretion disk formed around it. The disk cooled down and emits ultraviolet radiation and optical wavelengths.
------------- (2) Two stars merged and created a dim supernova explosion. A Neutron Star slowly spiraled into a massive helium star. This was a binary system where the Neutron Star orbited a normal helium star that had entered the Red Giant phase engulfing the Neutron Star. The Red Giant’s atmosphere was ejected as the Neutron Star spiraled in. The two stars became wrapped in a common envelope of gas. The Neutron Star merged with the Giant’s core in 5 orbits taking only 18 months. The merger created a Blackhole and a Magnetar with oppositely directed jets of particles moving at nearly the speed of light, followed by a weak supernova explosion. The particle jets produced gamma rays. The event occurred with a of redshift 0.33 in a faint galaxy that was 5.5 billion lightyears away
- The reason astronomers are so interested in these type supernovae is that because they theoretically collapse at the consistent 1.4 Solar Mass the resulting illumination should be a uniform brightness, a “Standard Candle” that can by used to calculate distances.
- The brightness also depends of the proportion metals in the star. “ Metal” to astronomers are any element with an atomic number >3. Anything heavier than hydrogen, helium, and lithium that were created in the Big Bang. All heavier elements were created in these supernovae explosions. Once distances are well defined astronomers can gather the evidence to explain Dark Energy and the expansion of the Universe.
- Things in the Universe go Boom! Then, astronomers try to figure out what happened. An announcement will be made shortly , stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Tuesday, February 21, 2012
Sunday, February 19, 2012
Math exercise for Space Shuttle Launch
--------- #1410 - The Space Shuttle Gas Tank
- Attachments : Launch
- The Space Shuttle is retired so we will miss those launches from Kennedy Space Center. The Shuttle itself carries 55,000 pounds of fuel At 8 pounds per gallon that is 6,900 gallons of fuel taken aloft. It is not quite enough fuel to carry it to the Moon. It would need 65,000 pounds o fuel to make a one way trip to the Moon. See Review #1270 for a review of “ The Space Shuttle’s Last Flight”.
- The Shuttle is not designed to make a trip to the Moon. It is designed for a low Earth orbit of 236 miles high traveling at 17,180 miles per hour. #1270 Review explains how this orbit is achieved by obtaining a velocity that balances Kinetic Energy ( the energy of motion) with the Gravitational Potential Energy of elevation. Do the math.
- The Shuttle jettisons the main fuel tank used at launch. It gets the Shuttle off the launch pad and to 50 miles altitude. The Launch Fuel Tank is a cylinder 8.4 meters in diameter and 29.6 meters long.
- How many gallons of fuel does the launch tank carry?
-------------- Volume = area of the cylinder cross section * height
-------------- V = pi * r^2 * h
------------- V = 3.14 * ( 4.2)^2 * 29.6
------------ V = 1,600 meters^3
------------ one liter = 1000 cm^3
----------- V = 1,000,000,000 centimeters^3
----------- V = 1,000,000 liters
----------- one liter = 0.26 gallons
--------------- V = 420,000 gallons
- You are part of the launch crew and the flight controllers would like to know after launch when there is only 1/8 of a tank of fuel left. Your job is to place a detector fuel gauge in the tank to give his reading. Where do you put the gauge?
--------------- 1/8 volume left = 1/8 ( 1,600 meters^3) = 200 m^3
--------------- V = pi* r^2 * h
-------------- 200 = 3.14 * (4.2)^2 * height
-------------- height = 3.6 meters.
- You install the fuel gauge 3.6 meters above the bottom of the tank.
- The launch vehicle burns 1000 gallons of fuel per second. How long do we wait to get the fuel gauge to send the signal after blast off?
- The tank will have burned through 7/8th of the volume of fuel.
---------------------- 7/8 * 420,000 gallons = 367,500 gallons
--------------------- 367,500 gallons / 1000 gallons / second = 367.5 seconds.
- The fuel gauge signal should arrive in 6.1 minutes after launch. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Sunday, February 19, 2012
- The Space Shuttle is retired so we will miss those launches from Kennedy Space Center. The Shuttle itself carries 55,000 pounds of fuel At 8 pounds per gallon that is 6,900 gallons of fuel taken aloft. It is not quite enough fuel to carry it to the Moon. It would need 65,000 pounds o fuel to make a one way trip to the Moon. See Review #1270 for a review of “ The Space Shuttle’s Last Flight”.
- The Shuttle is not designed to make a trip to the Moon. It is designed for a low Earth orbit of 236 miles high traveling at 17,180 miles per hour. #1270 Review explains how this orbit is achieved by obtaining a velocity that balances Kinetic Energy ( the energy of motion) with the Gravitational Potential Energy of elevation. Do the math.
- The Shuttle jettisons the main fuel tank used at launch. It gets the Shuttle off the launch pad and to 50 miles altitude. The Launch Fuel Tank is a cylinder 8.4 meters in diameter and 29.6 meters long.
- How many gallons of fuel does the launch tank carry?
-------------- Volume = area of the cylinder cross section * height
-------------- V = pi * r^2 * h
------------- V = 3.14 * ( 4.2)^2 * 29.6
------------ V = 1,600 meters^3
------------ one liter = 1000 cm^3
----------- V = 1,000,000,000 centimeters^3
----------- V = 1,000,000 liters
----------- one liter = 0.26 gallons
--------------- V = 420,000 gallons
- You are part of the launch crew and the flight controllers would like to know after launch when there is only 1/8 of a tank of fuel left. Your job is to place a detector fuel gauge in the tank to give his reading. Where do you put the gauge?
--------------- 1/8 volume left = 1/8 ( 1,600 meters^3) = 200 m^3
--------------- V = pi* r^2 * h
-------------- 200 = 3.14 * (4.2)^2 * height
-------------- height = 3.6 meters.
- You install the fuel gauge 3.6 meters above the bottom of the tank.
- The launch vehicle burns 1000 gallons of fuel per second. How long do we wait to get the fuel gauge to send the signal after blast off?
- The tank will have burned through 7/8th of the volume of fuel.
---------------------- 7/8 * 420,000 gallons = 367,500 gallons
--------------------- 367,500 gallons / 1000 gallons / second = 367.5 seconds.
- The fuel gauge signal should arrive in 6.1 minutes after launch. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Sunday, February 19, 2012
Thursday, February 16, 2012
How equations turn observations into predictions?
--------- #1409 - Equations that Affect Your World ?
- Attachments : E = mc^2
- Equations are observations that are put in mathematical terms. Equations are discoveries. Math is an invention, a powerful invention. Equations allow you to predict accurately future results. Equations are used in the design of most all the technology around you from GPS, computers, cell phones, earthquakes studies, satellites, telescopes, radar, ….. etc.
- It all starts with a mathematical derivation of an observation. The ancient Greeks were fascinated by observing a violin string. They discovered that the string’s vibrations up and down varies with the strengths length and tension. When two strings have lengths equal to the simple ratios, like 2:1 , 3:2, they produced a harmonious tone together.
- In 1727 a mathematical discovery was made that the simplest shape for a vibrating string was the sine wave. If a sine curve fits in the length of the string it produces a harmonious tone.
- In 1747 an elegant equation was discovered that describes how the shape of the vibrating string changes over time. It is called the WAVE EQUATION. It defines the acceleration of any small segment of the string to be proportional to the tension on the strength.
- Today the same wave equations are used to analyze complex waves such as earthquakes. Using these equations seismologists can map the Earth’s tectonic plates far beneath the ground.
- In 1850 Maxwell took the wave equations a step further and applied them to electromagnetic waves.
- In 1830 Faraday established the basics physics of electromagnetism. In 1850 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS formulated the math for Faraday’s theories. Faraday had postulated that electricity and magnetism were not “forces” like gravity was thought to be, but, were “fields” . Fields pervade space and change over time and can be detected by the forces they in turn produce. Maxwell took Faraday’s magnetic field lines and treated them as mathematical fluid flow. In 1914 he published his 4 equations that defined electromagnetic wave behavior. His equations stated that an electric field created by a moving charge created a magnetic field and a magnetic field in turn created an electric field.
- One amazing result fell out of his equations He recognized that one of the terms was the speed of light squared. The reciprocal of magnetic permeability and electric permittivity of free space was the speed of light squared, 9 * 10^16 meters^2 / second^2. He therefore concluded that light was an electromagnetic wave. ( The velocity of light is 3*10^8 meters / second. Squared it is 9*10^16)
- A further discovery from his equations was that there was no limit to the length of wavelengths. There must be electromagnetic radiation with longer and shorter wavelengths than light. The colors were wavelengths from 400 nanometers to 700 nanometers, blue to red. Longer wavelengths were soon discovered to be radio waves. Maxwell predicted the whole electromagnetic spectrum existed long before it was discovered.
- In 1887 the first radio transmission was demonstrated. Tesla and Marconi discovered how to put a signal on the wave and introduced modern radio communications. The same equations are used to design the cell phones of today.
- Maxwell’s equations for waves ran into conflict with photoelectric effect experiments. Equations to describe how a light shines on a metal and create an electric current required the light to act as a particle , not as a wave.
- In 1927 SCHRODINGER’S EQUATIONS wrote down the concept of particle - wave duality and he called them Quantum Waves. Schrodinger’s equations required fundamental particles such as an electron to be a “ probability cloud”., both a particle and a wave at the same time. In his concept an electron had a clockwise spin and a counter-clockwise spin at the same time until it hit something or was detected when it became one or the other. But, you did not know which it was until it was detected. This generated weirdness in which cats were both dead and alive at the same time. Or, there existed a parallel Universe where Hitler won the second world war.
- Modern technology today relies on this weirdness in order to predict behavior and to design new technology that works in the real world. It is called Quantum Mechanics. It is math equations that are used in designing computers, cell phones, memory chips, even memory dots called Quantum Dots that are used in biological imaging. ( See a future review on this topic). New applications are busy creating reality out of Quantum Mechanic’s weirdness. Lasers and Quantum Computing are today using wave equations and probability clouds in order to progress their designs.
- Another aspect of wave analysis started in 1807 when Fourier derived an equation for heat flow. How temperature changes over along thin rod. FOURIER EQUATIONS solved this behavior by representing a complex heat wave as a combination of simple sine waves with different wavelengths. He proved that “any” continuous wave cold be written as a infinite series of sine waves. Fourier did not get much recognition in mathematical circles because his equations involved and “infinite series“. Math does not like infinity. He finally got recognition with his FOURIER TRANSFORM. An equation that transforms a time- varying signal into a sine wave of specific amplitude and frequencies. It allowed a transformation from the time domain to the frequency domain, and vice versa.
- Today these same equations are used to earthquake-proof buildings. Engineers make sure the resonant frequencies of the building’s oscillations are different that the earthquakes wave frequencies. You do not want harmonics. Harmonics can bring down buildings and bridges. Another use of Fourier transforms is how your cell phone crams 10 times as much data into your digital camera memory card. ( JPEG data compression).
- There two equations in our world we would really like to unify. RELATIVITY EQUATIONS and QUANTUM MECHANICS EQUATIONS Relativity works on the macro world and Quantum Mechanics works in the micro world. But, neither works in the other’s world. We are missing something? I will bet it ends up being another equation. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 16, 2012
- Attachments : E = mc^2
- Equations are observations that are put in mathematical terms. Equations are discoveries. Math is an invention, a powerful invention. Equations allow you to predict accurately future results. Equations are used in the design of most all the technology around you from GPS, computers, cell phones, earthquakes studies, satellites, telescopes, radar, ….. etc.
- It all starts with a mathematical derivation of an observation. The ancient Greeks were fascinated by observing a violin string. They discovered that the string’s vibrations up and down varies with the strengths length and tension. When two strings have lengths equal to the simple ratios, like 2:1 , 3:2, they produced a harmonious tone together.
- In 1727 a mathematical discovery was made that the simplest shape for a vibrating string was the sine wave. If a sine curve fits in the length of the string it produces a harmonious tone.
- In 1747 an elegant equation was discovered that describes how the shape of the vibrating string changes over time. It is called the WAVE EQUATION. It defines the acceleration of any small segment of the string to be proportional to the tension on the strength.
- Today the same wave equations are used to analyze complex waves such as earthquakes. Using these equations seismologists can map the Earth’s tectonic plates far beneath the ground.
- In 1850 Maxwell took the wave equations a step further and applied them to electromagnetic waves.
- In 1830 Faraday established the basics physics of electromagnetism. In 1850 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS formulated the math for Faraday’s theories. Faraday had postulated that electricity and magnetism were not “forces” like gravity was thought to be, but, were “fields” . Fields pervade space and change over time and can be detected by the forces they in turn produce. Maxwell took Faraday’s magnetic field lines and treated them as mathematical fluid flow. In 1914 he published his 4 equations that defined electromagnetic wave behavior. His equations stated that an electric field created by a moving charge created a magnetic field and a magnetic field in turn created an electric field.
- One amazing result fell out of his equations He recognized that one of the terms was the speed of light squared. The reciprocal of magnetic permeability and electric permittivity of free space was the speed of light squared, 9 * 10^16 meters^2 / second^2. He therefore concluded that light was an electromagnetic wave. ( The velocity of light is 3*10^8 meters / second. Squared it is 9*10^16)
- A further discovery from his equations was that there was no limit to the length of wavelengths. There must be electromagnetic radiation with longer and shorter wavelengths than light. The colors were wavelengths from 400 nanometers to 700 nanometers, blue to red. Longer wavelengths were soon discovered to be radio waves. Maxwell predicted the whole electromagnetic spectrum existed long before it was discovered.
- In 1887 the first radio transmission was demonstrated. Tesla and Marconi discovered how to put a signal on the wave and introduced modern radio communications. The same equations are used to design the cell phones of today.
- Maxwell’s equations for waves ran into conflict with photoelectric effect experiments. Equations to describe how a light shines on a metal and create an electric current required the light to act as a particle , not as a wave.
- In 1927 SCHRODINGER’S EQUATIONS wrote down the concept of particle - wave duality and he called them Quantum Waves. Schrodinger’s equations required fundamental particles such as an electron to be a “ probability cloud”., both a particle and a wave at the same time. In his concept an electron had a clockwise spin and a counter-clockwise spin at the same time until it hit something or was detected when it became one or the other. But, you did not know which it was until it was detected. This generated weirdness in which cats were both dead and alive at the same time. Or, there existed a parallel Universe where Hitler won the second world war.
- Modern technology today relies on this weirdness in order to predict behavior and to design new technology that works in the real world. It is called Quantum Mechanics. It is math equations that are used in designing computers, cell phones, memory chips, even memory dots called Quantum Dots that are used in biological imaging. ( See a future review on this topic). New applications are busy creating reality out of Quantum Mechanic’s weirdness. Lasers and Quantum Computing are today using wave equations and probability clouds in order to progress their designs.
- Another aspect of wave analysis started in 1807 when Fourier derived an equation for heat flow. How temperature changes over along thin rod. FOURIER EQUATIONS solved this behavior by representing a complex heat wave as a combination of simple sine waves with different wavelengths. He proved that “any” continuous wave cold be written as a infinite series of sine waves. Fourier did not get much recognition in mathematical circles because his equations involved and “infinite series“. Math does not like infinity. He finally got recognition with his FOURIER TRANSFORM. An equation that transforms a time- varying signal into a sine wave of specific amplitude and frequencies. It allowed a transformation from the time domain to the frequency domain, and vice versa.
- Today these same equations are used to earthquake-proof buildings. Engineers make sure the resonant frequencies of the building’s oscillations are different that the earthquakes wave frequencies. You do not want harmonics. Harmonics can bring down buildings and bridges. Another use of Fourier transforms is how your cell phone crams 10 times as much data into your digital camera memory card. ( JPEG data compression).
- There two equations in our world we would really like to unify. RELATIVITY EQUATIONS and QUANTUM MECHANICS EQUATIONS Relativity works on the macro world and Quantum Mechanics works in the micro world. But, neither works in the other’s world. We are missing something? I will bet it ends up being another equation. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 16, 2012
Tuesday, February 14, 2012
Learn the stuff that is in space?
--------- #1407 - Space is Anything But Empty?
- Attachments :
- The whole Universe is mostly “space”. We tend to say “ empty space” But, the Universe is anything but empty.
- The stars use their nuclear furnaces to produce all of the 90 natural elements. When the star dies it goes either supernova or planetary nebula, depending on the size of the star, and the explosions spread the elements all over space.
- The nuclear fusion starts with the element hydrogen which is one proton and one electron. The hydrogen fuses into helium, the helium fuses into oxygen, the oxygen in to carbon and so on right up the Periodic Table of Elements. Gold has 80 protons and 80 electrons. Uranium has 92 protons and 92 electrons.
- Whenever an atom is short an electron it has a net positive charge. Whenever an atom has an extra electron it has a negative charge. Free electrons are negative charges and free atomic nuclei carry a positive charge. We call the positive nuclei ions.
- Whenever an electric charge is in motion it creates an electric field. Whenever an charge is in motion it also creates a magnetic field. Everything in the Universe is in constant motion. Space is full of electric charges in motion therefore it is full of electric fields and magnetic fields. Light is electromagnetic radiation. Its motion has only one speed, 300,000,000 meters per second.
- Motion itself is energy. It is called Kinetic Energy. Space itself is in motion, but, a different kind of motion, it is expanding at 74,200 meters per second per 3.26 million lightyears. We call this anti-gravity energy of expansion Dark Energy. Dark Energy makes up 73% of all the mass-energy in the Universe. We don’t know what it is? Most of the 27% of matter is Dark Matter. We don’t know what that is either? The 4% of Ordinary Matter that we understand is mass that has lots of energy. E=m*c^2. The energy in mass is equal to mass times 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters^2 / second^2. Energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared.
- Ordinary mass and energy and Dark Matter create gravitational fields that collapse space. Dark Energy creates anti-gravitational fields that expand space. So, space is full of this stuff. Kinetic energy, electric energy, magnetic energy, thermal energy, nuclear energy, gravitational potential energy, electromagnetic energy, and mass which is also energy.
- The world we know and love occupies only 4% of this stuff. We call it Ordinary Matter. It is made of protons and electrons and electromagnetic energy. This Ordinary stuff creates chemistry out of the 90 elements. It also creates the biology, but, how we get from chemistry to biology is still a mystery. The 90 elements get together to form molecules, compounds, gases, liquids, and solids that we do know.
- Astronomy to me is really the study of the Universe. The big picture. There is a lot to learn. There is chemistry in space. Elements binding together. H2O is hydrogen and oxygen binding together. It is called a covalent bond when two atoms share the same electrons. Ionic bonds are when positive ions connect with negative ions. Sodium connects with chlorine to become salt. Metallic bonds like iron collect atoms in a bond that lets their outer electrons roam freely between the bonds. Electrons in motion is electricity. All this is chemistry
- Hot gas leaving the surface of the star cools down. Atomic nuclei combine with free electrons to form ions and atoms. Atoms begin combining with molecules which eventually become the dust that is in space.
- Here are the most abundant elements in space gas and dust: hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, and iron.
- Particles of dust in an interstellar gas cloud are in very low density. A near perfect vacuum on Earth would have one particle per cubic centimeter. Interstellar gas might have one particle in 40 cubic miles. This would be space gas that is not influenced by gravity. Gravity starts pulling stuff together. Density increases. Pressure and temperature increases. This can reverse the chemistry process turning the atoms back into ions and free electrons. When gravity collapses things further atoms enter the state of plasma where they are no longer atoms. This gets past chemistry and into the realm of particle physics. We won’t go there.
- The accretion disks that surround stars contain planets, comets, asteroids, and again the process can be reversed. Atoms form, elements form, dust forms. Chemistry again takes hold of the environment. Planets in other solar systems have been found to possess water, carbon dioxide, and organic molecules. So it is not just here that chemistry is happening it is happening all over the Universe. The fun question remains. How about biology? Is that happening all over the Universe as well. Space is full of this stuff. You can not say it is empty. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Tuesday, February 14, 2012
- Attachments :
- The whole Universe is mostly “space”. We tend to say “ empty space” But, the Universe is anything but empty.
- The stars use their nuclear furnaces to produce all of the 90 natural elements. When the star dies it goes either supernova or planetary nebula, depending on the size of the star, and the explosions spread the elements all over space.
- The nuclear fusion starts with the element hydrogen which is one proton and one electron. The hydrogen fuses into helium, the helium fuses into oxygen, the oxygen in to carbon and so on right up the Periodic Table of Elements. Gold has 80 protons and 80 electrons. Uranium has 92 protons and 92 electrons.
- Whenever an atom is short an electron it has a net positive charge. Whenever an atom has an extra electron it has a negative charge. Free electrons are negative charges and free atomic nuclei carry a positive charge. We call the positive nuclei ions.
- Whenever an electric charge is in motion it creates an electric field. Whenever an charge is in motion it also creates a magnetic field. Everything in the Universe is in constant motion. Space is full of electric charges in motion therefore it is full of electric fields and magnetic fields. Light is electromagnetic radiation. Its motion has only one speed, 300,000,000 meters per second.
- Motion itself is energy. It is called Kinetic Energy. Space itself is in motion, but, a different kind of motion, it is expanding at 74,200 meters per second per 3.26 million lightyears. We call this anti-gravity energy of expansion Dark Energy. Dark Energy makes up 73% of all the mass-energy in the Universe. We don’t know what it is? Most of the 27% of matter is Dark Matter. We don’t know what that is either? The 4% of Ordinary Matter that we understand is mass that has lots of energy. E=m*c^2. The energy in mass is equal to mass times 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters^2 / second^2. Energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared.
- Ordinary mass and energy and Dark Matter create gravitational fields that collapse space. Dark Energy creates anti-gravitational fields that expand space. So, space is full of this stuff. Kinetic energy, electric energy, magnetic energy, thermal energy, nuclear energy, gravitational potential energy, electromagnetic energy, and mass which is also energy.
- The world we know and love occupies only 4% of this stuff. We call it Ordinary Matter. It is made of protons and electrons and electromagnetic energy. This Ordinary stuff creates chemistry out of the 90 elements. It also creates the biology, but, how we get from chemistry to biology is still a mystery. The 90 elements get together to form molecules, compounds, gases, liquids, and solids that we do know.
- Astronomy to me is really the study of the Universe. The big picture. There is a lot to learn. There is chemistry in space. Elements binding together. H2O is hydrogen and oxygen binding together. It is called a covalent bond when two atoms share the same electrons. Ionic bonds are when positive ions connect with negative ions. Sodium connects with chlorine to become salt. Metallic bonds like iron collect atoms in a bond that lets their outer electrons roam freely between the bonds. Electrons in motion is electricity. All this is chemistry
- Hot gas leaving the surface of the star cools down. Atomic nuclei combine with free electrons to form ions and atoms. Atoms begin combining with molecules which eventually become the dust that is in space.
- Here are the most abundant elements in space gas and dust: hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, and iron.
- Particles of dust in an interstellar gas cloud are in very low density. A near perfect vacuum on Earth would have one particle per cubic centimeter. Interstellar gas might have one particle in 40 cubic miles. This would be space gas that is not influenced by gravity. Gravity starts pulling stuff together. Density increases. Pressure and temperature increases. This can reverse the chemistry process turning the atoms back into ions and free electrons. When gravity collapses things further atoms enter the state of plasma where they are no longer atoms. This gets past chemistry and into the realm of particle physics. We won’t go there.
- The accretion disks that surround stars contain planets, comets, asteroids, and again the process can be reversed. Atoms form, elements form, dust forms. Chemistry again takes hold of the environment. Planets in other solar systems have been found to possess water, carbon dioxide, and organic molecules. So it is not just here that chemistry is happening it is happening all over the Universe. The fun question remains. How about biology? Is that happening all over the Universe as well. Space is full of this stuff. You can not say it is empty. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Tuesday, February 14, 2012
Sunday, February 12, 2012
When does a brain become a mind?
--------- #1405 - What Makes Your Brain Conscious?
- Human brains have figured out how the Sun shines, how life evolved from a single cell, why apples fall. Our brains have built telescopes that see the galaxies as far back as the beginning of time. We have built microscopes that see the contours of a single atom. but, we have not figured our how the brain can possible do these things. How are we even conscious that we are doing them?
- How does a brain transform itself into a “mind”? When does a brain become “conscious”. We are not conscious when we are asleep. What changes to wake us up? If it is just neurons firing in a network could the internet computing power ever reach consciousness? Science is trying very hard to answer these questions. Today, much is still a mystery, but, science is learning.
- One tool science is using is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. A magnetic jolt is sent into a part of the brain and electrodes around the brain monitor the signals as the brain responds to the jolt. The signals are compared between a fully awake person, a person in REM sleep and a person sleeping but not in full REM sleep.
- REM sleep is typically 2 hours per night when most dreaming occurs, the eyes move under the eyelids, and muscles are deeply relaxed.
- When alert a person’s brain responds with a widely spread pattern of signals lasting about 300 milliseconds.
- When a person is asleep the signal stays put where it started and it fades away in about 150 milliseconds.
- People under anesthetics or in the vegetative state have the same brief, stagnant signal. Doctors have learned that as clinical signs improve the brains connectivity signals improved.
- The central hub of connectivity appears to be the thalamus. This hub of nerve cells at the top of the spinal cord is constantly sending and receiving nerve signals.
- A heart attack victim went into a vegetative state. She died of natural causes. Study revealed that her cerebral cortex outer layer of the brain where thoughts are formed was fine. It was the thalamus that was destroyed.
- The thalamus receives signals from the eyes, ears, tongue and skin. It then sends these signals along specific nerve fibers to the right part of the wrinkly cerebral cortex.
- The thalamus must be the seat of “ consciousness”. But, there is always chit chat going on between the thalamus and the cortex. These brain waves run at about 40 cycles per second. Other brain waves associated with concentration and attention run slower than 40 cps.
- These brain waves actually increased while people were anesthetized with Propofol Propofol was the drug Michael Jackson used to sleep. He overdid it. In the anesthetized and vegetative states there appear to be interruptions in the brain interconnections. There is a slow down in the flow of information. Maybe consciousness is not some “thing” in the brain but the “process” itself. Maybe the constant flow of information is what produces consciousness.
- It gets complicated.
- We can understand how it got complicated since consciousness is the outcome of eons of ever growing complexity in biochemical information processing over the course of evolution. Consciousness is self-referential awareness. It has become the self’s sense of its own existence.
- On theory is that it is works like mathematics. The brain assigns symbols to be patterns. The signals become recognized. A mosquito would only see dots on a TV screen. A person will turn those patterns of dots into a football game. The brain creates a vast repertoire of these symbols. Consciousness is the symbol for the ability to create these symbols. We call this symbol, “self”.
- Consciousness only operates on the level of symbols. It has no access to the workings going on in nerve cells or neurobiology. A humans self-identity remains stable over a lifetime despite constant changes in proteins and cells.
- Self-referentialism is a strange loop!
- A paradox!
- Like: “ This sentence can not be true.”
- Which is it? It says it is not true, But, then it mush be true if it is not true If it is not true than it is true. I’m confused. It is a strange loop.
- The atom is not a thing but more an idea, a symbol. Consciousness is representing information in symbols and putting the symbols together to make sense of the world. The brain uses information processing to symbolize itself.
- If the information processing is the key to consciousness could the internet ever create consciousness? Do we perceive, then invent our own reality? An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
----------------------------------------------------------------
(1) Reference: www.sussex.ac.uk/sackler
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Sunday, February 12, 2012
- Human brains have figured out how the Sun shines, how life evolved from a single cell, why apples fall. Our brains have built telescopes that see the galaxies as far back as the beginning of time. We have built microscopes that see the contours of a single atom. but, we have not figured our how the brain can possible do these things. How are we even conscious that we are doing them?
- How does a brain transform itself into a “mind”? When does a brain become “conscious”. We are not conscious when we are asleep. What changes to wake us up? If it is just neurons firing in a network could the internet computing power ever reach consciousness? Science is trying very hard to answer these questions. Today, much is still a mystery, but, science is learning.
- One tool science is using is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. A magnetic jolt is sent into a part of the brain and electrodes around the brain monitor the signals as the brain responds to the jolt. The signals are compared between a fully awake person, a person in REM sleep and a person sleeping but not in full REM sleep.
- REM sleep is typically 2 hours per night when most dreaming occurs, the eyes move under the eyelids, and muscles are deeply relaxed.
- When alert a person’s brain responds with a widely spread pattern of signals lasting about 300 milliseconds.
- When a person is asleep the signal stays put where it started and it fades away in about 150 milliseconds.
- People under anesthetics or in the vegetative state have the same brief, stagnant signal. Doctors have learned that as clinical signs improve the brains connectivity signals improved.
- The central hub of connectivity appears to be the thalamus. This hub of nerve cells at the top of the spinal cord is constantly sending and receiving nerve signals.
- A heart attack victim went into a vegetative state. She died of natural causes. Study revealed that her cerebral cortex outer layer of the brain where thoughts are formed was fine. It was the thalamus that was destroyed.
- The thalamus receives signals from the eyes, ears, tongue and skin. It then sends these signals along specific nerve fibers to the right part of the wrinkly cerebral cortex.
- The thalamus must be the seat of “ consciousness”. But, there is always chit chat going on between the thalamus and the cortex. These brain waves run at about 40 cycles per second. Other brain waves associated with concentration and attention run slower than 40 cps.
- These brain waves actually increased while people were anesthetized with Propofol Propofol was the drug Michael Jackson used to sleep. He overdid it. In the anesthetized and vegetative states there appear to be interruptions in the brain interconnections. There is a slow down in the flow of information. Maybe consciousness is not some “thing” in the brain but the “process” itself. Maybe the constant flow of information is what produces consciousness.
- It gets complicated.
- We can understand how it got complicated since consciousness is the outcome of eons of ever growing complexity in biochemical information processing over the course of evolution. Consciousness is self-referential awareness. It has become the self’s sense of its own existence.
- On theory is that it is works like mathematics. The brain assigns symbols to be patterns. The signals become recognized. A mosquito would only see dots on a TV screen. A person will turn those patterns of dots into a football game. The brain creates a vast repertoire of these symbols. Consciousness is the symbol for the ability to create these symbols. We call this symbol, “self”.
- Consciousness only operates on the level of symbols. It has no access to the workings going on in nerve cells or neurobiology. A humans self-identity remains stable over a lifetime despite constant changes in proteins and cells.
- Self-referentialism is a strange loop!
- A paradox!
- Like: “ This sentence can not be true.”
- Which is it? It says it is not true, But, then it mush be true if it is not true If it is not true than it is true. I’m confused. It is a strange loop.
- The atom is not a thing but more an idea, a symbol. Consciousness is representing information in symbols and putting the symbols together to make sense of the world. The brain uses information processing to symbolize itself.
- If the information processing is the key to consciousness could the internet ever create consciousness? Do we perceive, then invent our own reality? An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
----------------------------------------------------------------
(1) Reference: www.sussex.ac.uk/sackler
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Sunday, February 12, 2012
Saturday, February 11, 2012
How Gravith creates 2 images of a Quasar?
--------- #1404 - Gravitational Lensing creates Multiple Images
- Attachments : Gravitational lensing
- Quasars are the extremely bright cores of distant galaxies. Their intense light takes billions of years to get to us. Quasars are unique to the evolution of the early Universe. They don’t occur in today’s expanded Universe. Their light travels for a long time and a long way. What happens when their light somehow takes a different path to reach us? What happens when it takes longer for light to travel a longer path? Does one image arrive before the other? Could we see two images of the same thing?
- Yes, that is exactly what happens with gravitational lensing. When light travels through a gravity lens it takes different paths and creates multiple images. If it was a perfect lens the image would be a ring. If it is a distorted lens it could be an arc, or multiple images of the same object.
- A double image of a Quasar can be seen with a large telescope in the Constellation Ursa Major, the Big Bear; we call it the Big Dipper. The upper-right bowl star is Phad. The lower-right bowl star is Merak. ( In the spring the Big Dipper is upside down relative to the North Star). Now from these 2 stars extend an equal distance into the dark sky. There resides a 17 Magnitude pair of “ stars”. actually the pair are the same Quasar, QSO 0957+561. You are seeing double.
- The Quasar is 7.8 billion lightyears away . It is created by a massive Black hole at the center of a young galaxy. The center is filled with intense starbursts that are brighter than the rest of the galaxy. That light travels 2/3rds of the distance to the edge of the Observable Universe.
- We see two images of the same Quasar because a massive foreground galaxy has bent the light. A similar effect can be seen by looking at a candle through the bottom of a wine glass. You will see multiple images of the flame because the light is bent in different paths traveling through the glass.
- In the case of the Quasar images it is gravity that is bending the light. Light travels in different paths. One path takes 417 days longer to reach us than light form the other path.
- The gravity lens is a massive elliptical galaxy in front of the Quasar ( YGKOW G1). As the light beam passes by near the galaxy it gets bent. Some light gets bent one way and some another way. The beam is focused but takes different paths to reach our telescope.
- Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity explains this as the mass bending the fabric of space-time. The mass warps space-time to appear like the bottom of a wine-glass. Light beams pass through the lens taking the lowest energy, quickest path. To the light beam it all appears as a straight line. To an outside observer , us, it appears as a bent path.
- The Double Quasar image was discovered in 1979. The two images are separated by 6 arc-seconds which is about the width of the planet Uranus in the sky. The light spectrum of both images are identical. That is how we know it is the same object. A flicker in light from one image shows up 417 days later in the other image.
- Amazing, an announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Saturday, February 11, 2012
- Attachments : Gravitational lensing
- Yes, that is exactly what happens with gravitational lensing. When light travels through a gravity lens it takes different paths and creates multiple images. If it was a perfect lens the image would be a ring. If it is a distorted lens it could be an arc, or multiple images of the same object.
- A double image of a Quasar can be seen with a large telescope in the Constellation Ursa Major, the Big Bear; we call it the Big Dipper. The upper-right bowl star is Phad. The lower-right bowl star is Merak. ( In the spring the Big Dipper is upside down relative to the North Star). Now from these 2 stars extend an equal distance into the dark sky. There resides a 17 Magnitude pair of “ stars”. actually the pair are the same Quasar, QSO 0957+561. You are seeing double.
- The Quasar is 7.8 billion lightyears away . It is created by a massive Black hole at the center of a young galaxy. The center is filled with intense starbursts that are brighter than the rest of the galaxy. That light travels 2/3rds of the distance to the edge of the Observable Universe.
- We see two images of the same Quasar because a massive foreground galaxy has bent the light. A similar effect can be seen by looking at a candle through the bottom of a wine glass. You will see multiple images of the flame because the light is bent in different paths traveling through the glass.
- In the case of the Quasar images it is gravity that is bending the light. Light travels in different paths. One path takes 417 days longer to reach us than light form the other path.
- The gravity lens is a massive elliptical galaxy in front of the Quasar ( YGKOW G1). As the light beam passes by near the galaxy it gets bent. Some light gets bent one way and some another way. The beam is focused but takes different paths to reach our telescope.
- Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity explains this as the mass bending the fabric of space-time. The mass warps space-time to appear like the bottom of a wine-glass. Light beams pass through the lens taking the lowest energy, quickest path. To the light beam it all appears as a straight line. To an outside observer , us, it appears as a bent path.
- The Double Quasar image was discovered in 1979. The two images are separated by 6 arc-seconds which is about the width of the planet Uranus in the sky. The light spectrum of both images are identical. That is how we know it is the same object. A flicker in light from one image shows up 417 days later in the other image.
- Amazing, an announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Saturday, February 11, 2012
Friday, February 10, 2012
How Pressure Alone Can Change Matter?
--------- #1402 - How Pressure Alone Can Change Matter?
- Attachments : National Ignition Facility
- We are more familiar with temperature changing the states of matter. Water vapor, into liquid, into solid ice. But, pressure also changes the states of matter. Water vapor can turn into a liquid if pressure is increased and temperature is held constant. Hydrogen gas can change into a “metal” under the extreme gravitational pressures found at the core of the planet Jupiter.
- The center of the Earth experiences 1,000,000 times greater pressure than the surface. The rocks at the center are feeling 10^6 more pressure. How have they changed? At the center of a Neutron Star the pressure could be 10^27 times greater. Under this much pressure atoms themselves collapse. The core of a Neutron Star is one giant atomic nucleus of neutrons and protons. The electrons are crushed out of their shells and into the nucleus.
- Science has tried to duplicate some of these immense pressures in the laboratory. They have taken hydrogen gas, a single proton with a single electron and put it under immense pressure. It changes into a dense fluid. The electrons flow in this fluid like you would expect to occur in a metal conducting electricity. H2 becomes a metal. The pressure needed to obtain this state is 2,600,000 atmospheres.
- This immense pressure was created in a device called a “ diamond anvil cell.” Science is experimenting trying to learn what happens to matter under high pressure. When hydrogen is mixed with silicon it becomes a superconductor under pressures of 960,000 atmospheres. If they mix hydrogen with platinum it becomes a superconductor at 700,000 atmospheres.
- Iron is the 4th most abundant element in Earth’s crust. Under high pressure it can form an entirely new molecule, Fe4O5. The pressure is 100,000 atmospheres and the temperature is 1,500 C when this new compound forms.
- The device that is really going to break the pressure barrier is the National Ignition Facility at Lawrence Livermore Labs in Berkeley. This giant machine the size of a football field uses 192 powerful lasers focused on a tiny pellet of target material. The goal is to get enough pressure and temperature to cause fusion of hydrogen into helium. Accomplishing this would bring fusion power to our electrical power grid. NIF is still ramping up to reach fusion power
- As NIF is progressing many experiments with high pressures and high temperatures are being conducted. Diamonds and tantalum samples have been put under50,000,000 atmospheric pressure. Later his year the plans are to double this pressure to 100,000,000 atmospheres. The plan is to reach temperatures of 100,000,000 C and pressures of 100,000,000,000 atmospheres. The center of the Sun is only 15,000,000 C. If controlled fusion can be created, the temperatures could operate steam turbines and run a 1,000 megawatt power plant. Fusion reactions have little radioactivity and safe for the environment. See review #1170 for more info. on NIF. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Friday, February 10, 2012
- Attachments : National Ignition Facility
- We are more familiar with temperature changing the states of matter. Water vapor, into liquid, into solid ice. But, pressure also changes the states of matter. Water vapor can turn into a liquid if pressure is increased and temperature is held constant. Hydrogen gas can change into a “metal” under the extreme gravitational pressures found at the core of the planet Jupiter.
- The center of the Earth experiences 1,000,000 times greater pressure than the surface. The rocks at the center are feeling 10^6 more pressure. How have they changed? At the center of a Neutron Star the pressure could be 10^27 times greater. Under this much pressure atoms themselves collapse. The core of a Neutron Star is one giant atomic nucleus of neutrons and protons. The electrons are crushed out of their shells and into the nucleus.
- Science has tried to duplicate some of these immense pressures in the laboratory. They have taken hydrogen gas, a single proton with a single electron and put it under immense pressure. It changes into a dense fluid. The electrons flow in this fluid like you would expect to occur in a metal conducting electricity. H2 becomes a metal. The pressure needed to obtain this state is 2,600,000 atmospheres.
- This immense pressure was created in a device called a “ diamond anvil cell.” Science is experimenting trying to learn what happens to matter under high pressure. When hydrogen is mixed with silicon it becomes a superconductor under pressures of 960,000 atmospheres. If they mix hydrogen with platinum it becomes a superconductor at 700,000 atmospheres.
- Iron is the 4th most abundant element in Earth’s crust. Under high pressure it can form an entirely new molecule, Fe4O5. The pressure is 100,000 atmospheres and the temperature is 1,500 C when this new compound forms.
- The device that is really going to break the pressure barrier is the National Ignition Facility at Lawrence Livermore Labs in Berkeley. This giant machine the size of a football field uses 192 powerful lasers focused on a tiny pellet of target material. The goal is to get enough pressure and temperature to cause fusion of hydrogen into helium. Accomplishing this would bring fusion power to our electrical power grid. NIF is still ramping up to reach fusion power
- As NIF is progressing many experiments with high pressures and high temperatures are being conducted. Diamonds and tantalum samples have been put under50,000,000 atmospheric pressure. Later his year the plans are to double this pressure to 100,000,000 atmospheres. The plan is to reach temperatures of 100,000,000 C and pressures of 100,000,000,000 atmospheres. The center of the Sun is only 15,000,000 C. If controlled fusion can be created, the temperatures could operate steam turbines and run a 1,000 megawatt power plant. Fusion reactions have little radioactivity and safe for the environment. See review #1170 for more info. on NIF. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Friday, February 10, 2012
Thursday, February 9, 2012
Satellites map the gravity around the Earth
--------- #1401 - Gravity Map Sees Loss of Groundwater?
- Attachments : GRACE satellites, gravity map
- 9 years of data collection measuring minor variations in Earth’s gravity as the satellites circle the Earth has lead to thousands of discoveries. From lakes under the Antarctic to a dropping water table around the globe, to measuring the pressure at the bottom of the oceans. Called the “ Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment”, GRACE it provides an accurate gravity of the globe. The satellites circle the Earth 15 times a day.
- Gravity is determined by mass when distance is held constant.
------------------------- F = G * M * m / r^2
---------Force of Gravity = Gravitational Constant * Masses / distance between centers.
- As the satellites pass over different areas of the globe they respond to the pull of gravity directly below. As the 1st satellite passes over a mountain range, more mass means more gravity, the satellite gets pulled forward increasing the distance between it and the tandem 2nd satellite 140 miles following behind. The 2nd satellite will decelerate later passing over the same area.
- By measuring the constantly changing distances between the 2 satellites combined with GPS data on their positioning science can construct a detailed map of Earth’s gravity. One of the thousands of new discoveries made from this experiment is that “ farmers are pumping too much water out of the ground.” Water moves around over time creating small gravity fluctuations that the satellite orbital motions respond to. Science can detect a centimeter rise or fall of groundwater over an area the size of Indiana.
- In China water levels have been dropping 6 to 7 centimeters each year beneath the plains in the northeast.
- California’s Central Valley is loosing 4 cubic kilometers of water every year. The ground has been sinking for decades as 1/6th of the nation’s irrigated land is producing food using ground water. California is using groundwater faster than rainfall can keep up. GRACE satellites can only measure changes in groundwater. They can not tell how much water is left.
- Like our National Debt, our water use has become “ unsustainable”. Policy makers and leaders need to take charge today and not let these problems be passed on to our kids and grandkids. We need to educate and provide incentives for farmers to use better irrigation systems. We need innovative ways to channel water during wet seasons into aquifers rather the letting it run off in to the ocean. Remember there are always 2 decisions to be made, what to do, and how to do it. The how should be education and bottoms up and not tops down mandates from Sacramento.
- Gravity mapping discovered over 280 liquid water lakes under the Antarctic. Recently a Russian team drilled a 12,366 foot well into the ice and penetrated the lake that was 2 miles below. This freshwater lake is the size of Lake Ontario only it is fossilized water 15,000,000 to 34,000,000 years old.
- The Russians have been drilling this hole for over 10 years. The hole is 5 inches in diameter and filled with kerosene to keep it from freezing. When the drill punched through into the lake pristine water rushed upward and froze a plug that prevented contamination of the fossil water.
- Lake Vostok has been sealed off. Science will next recover samples of the water to see if life forms exist there. If they find life it is a great boon to astronomy. Many belief that life could exist below the frozen surface of the moon, Europa, that is orbiting the planet Jupiter. ( See Reviews #1361, and #1152, and # 812 to learn more about Europa.) An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-----------------------------------------
(1) Other reviews on gravity
#974 Gravity- What is it really?
#816 Why is gravity so small?
#1399 Earth’s gravity warps space-time?
#917 Gravity waves.
#1155 What are gravity waves?
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 9, 2012
Tuesday, February 7, 2012
Earth Warps Space-Time?
--------- #1399 - Earth’s Gravity Warps Space-Time?
- Attachments : Geodetic Effect
- In 1916 Albert Einstein published his General Theory of Relativity which stated that gravity is created because a mass bends the fabric of space-time. That mass changes the behavior of its surroundings as a result of these space-time changes. It is the warped space-time that causes objects to fall towards the larger mass. If the mass is rotating it will drag the object along as space-time rotates.
- This process, called frame-dragging, drags the fabric of space-time along with the rotation. It is like a rotating ball in a pool of honey. The honey rotates too.
- Newton’s law states that the force of gravity is dependent on the mass of the two objects. Newton’s law has no effect for the masses rotating. Newton’s equation is correct but it is incomplete. With Einstein’s equations for General Relativity a mass’s space-time does have an effect if the mass is rotating. The effect is very small, 1 part in 10^12, one part in a trillion. To measure the effect you need a very large mass or very sensitive and precise instruments.
- The Earth is the largest mass we have access to. The technology to design the most sensitive gyroscope is available. The plan was to put the gyroscopes in orbit around the Earth. The spinning axis of the gyros would point to a guide star and any shift in the direction of the axis due to passing through the bent space-time created by the Earth’s mass would be measured.
- There were two separate effects that needed to be measured:
--------------- (1) The “ geodetic effect” is a shift solely resulting from the curvature of space time. Einstein’s calculations were for the satellite to be shifted 6,606 milli-arc seconds per year due to the geodetic effect.
-------------- (2) The “ frame dragging effect” is due solely to the rotation of space-time would result in a 39 milli- arc second per year shift. The measurement were made over a period of 5 years.
- The satellite was orbiting 399 miles high taking 97.5 minutes to complete each orbit. The satellite contained 4 gyros, two spinning clockwise and two spinning counterclockwise. Each gyro was spinning 4,000 revolutions per minute. These gyroscopes were the most precise every made. The spheres used in the gyros were perfectly smooth to 1 part in 10^17.
- Each sphere was made of niobium, 1 ½ inches in diameter. Each sphere was a super conductor encased in 645 gallons of liquid helium at - 271 C. The spin axis of each gyro was pointed to the guide star 1M Pegasis. The spinning spheres created a magnetic moment that allowed precise measurements of the direction of the spin axis of each gyro.
- After 5 years data measured for the geodetic effect was 6,602 milli-arc seconds per year with a + or - ½ percent uncertainty in the measurement. Remember the calculation was for 6,606 milli-arc seconds.
- The measurement of the frame-dragging effect was 37.2 milli-arc seconds with a + or -7.2 milli-arc second uncertainty in the measurement. This 19% accuracy was not what the scientists wanted. The calculation expected a 39 milli-arc second shift.
- The problem in the measurement accuracy had to do with the spheres not be perfectly electrically spherical. They were perfectly mechanically spherical, but, electrical distortions caused magnetic distortions that caused measurement uncertainty the scientists had not bargained for. It took years to unravel the real data out of these distortions. The results were not released until May, 2011.
- The project to verify Einstein’s predictions for the bending of space-time started in 1976 with the launch of Gravity Probe A. It showed that atomic clocks ran slower as their velocity increased in orbit. The atomic clocks in orbit controlled microwave signals of 1.42*10^9 cycles per second frequency. The clocks on the ground were compared to the ones in the rocket. The increases velocity made the clock run slower, but, the decreased gravity made the clock run faster. The clock’s ran faster 1.4 parts per 10,000 consistent with the Theory’s calculations.
- The Gravity Probe B experiment took 50 years to complete. The satellite was finally launched April 20, 2005. 5 years of data and 2 years of analysis later and the results still confirm that Einstein’s calculations nearly 100 years ago were correct. Using the Earth mass the effects are small and science needs more precision. But, the effects around a mass of a Blackhole are significant.
- The Blackhole’s mass actually bends space-time back on itself so nothing can escape. To an outside observer time stops. Space is frozen at the Event Horizon of the Blackhole. The effect of a rotating Blackhole’s frame dragging is to observe light traveling in the direction of rotation to travel faster the light traveling against the direction of rotation. This effect actually makes it very difficult for an object to fall directly in to a Blackhole. Instead the dragging of space-time accelerated the in falling object in to an orbit in the direction of rotation.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Tuesday, February 7, 2012
- In 1916 Albert Einstein published his General Theory of Relativity which stated that gravity is created because a mass bends the fabric of space-time. That mass changes the behavior of its surroundings as a result of these space-time changes. It is the warped space-time that causes objects to fall towards the larger mass. If the mass is rotating it will drag the object along as space-time rotates.
- This process, called frame-dragging, drags the fabric of space-time along with the rotation. It is like a rotating ball in a pool of honey. The honey rotates too.
- Newton’s law states that the force of gravity is dependent on the mass of the two objects. Newton’s law has no effect for the masses rotating. Newton’s equation is correct but it is incomplete. With Einstein’s equations for General Relativity a mass’s space-time does have an effect if the mass is rotating. The effect is very small, 1 part in 10^12, one part in a trillion. To measure the effect you need a very large mass or very sensitive and precise instruments.
- The Earth is the largest mass we have access to. The technology to design the most sensitive gyroscope is available. The plan was to put the gyroscopes in orbit around the Earth. The spinning axis of the gyros would point to a guide star and any shift in the direction of the axis due to passing through the bent space-time created by the Earth’s mass would be measured.
- There were two separate effects that needed to be measured:
--------------- (1) The “ geodetic effect” is a shift solely resulting from the curvature of space time. Einstein’s calculations were for the satellite to be shifted 6,606 milli-arc seconds per year due to the geodetic effect.
-------------- (2) The “ frame dragging effect” is due solely to the rotation of space-time would result in a 39 milli- arc second per year shift. The measurement were made over a period of 5 years.
- The satellite was orbiting 399 miles high taking 97.5 minutes to complete each orbit. The satellite contained 4 gyros, two spinning clockwise and two spinning counterclockwise. Each gyro was spinning 4,000 revolutions per minute. These gyroscopes were the most precise every made. The spheres used in the gyros were perfectly smooth to 1 part in 10^17.
- Each sphere was made of niobium, 1 ½ inches in diameter. Each sphere was a super conductor encased in 645 gallons of liquid helium at - 271 C. The spin axis of each gyro was pointed to the guide star 1M Pegasis. The spinning spheres created a magnetic moment that allowed precise measurements of the direction of the spin axis of each gyro.
- After 5 years data measured for the geodetic effect was 6,602 milli-arc seconds per year with a + or - ½ percent uncertainty in the measurement. Remember the calculation was for 6,606 milli-arc seconds.
- The measurement of the frame-dragging effect was 37.2 milli-arc seconds with a + or -7.2 milli-arc second uncertainty in the measurement. This 19% accuracy was not what the scientists wanted. The calculation expected a 39 milli-arc second shift.
- The problem in the measurement accuracy had to do with the spheres not be perfectly electrically spherical. They were perfectly mechanically spherical, but, electrical distortions caused magnetic distortions that caused measurement uncertainty the scientists had not bargained for. It took years to unravel the real data out of these distortions. The results were not released until May, 2011.
- The project to verify Einstein’s predictions for the bending of space-time started in 1976 with the launch of Gravity Probe A. It showed that atomic clocks ran slower as their velocity increased in orbit. The atomic clocks in orbit controlled microwave signals of 1.42*10^9 cycles per second frequency. The clocks on the ground were compared to the ones in the rocket. The increases velocity made the clock run slower, but, the decreased gravity made the clock run faster. The clock’s ran faster 1.4 parts per 10,000 consistent with the Theory’s calculations.
- The Gravity Probe B experiment took 50 years to complete. The satellite was finally launched April 20, 2005. 5 years of data and 2 years of analysis later and the results still confirm that Einstein’s calculations nearly 100 years ago were correct. Using the Earth mass the effects are small and science needs more precision. But, the effects around a mass of a Blackhole are significant.
- The Blackhole’s mass actually bends space-time back on itself so nothing can escape. To an outside observer time stops. Space is frozen at the Event Horizon of the Blackhole. The effect of a rotating Blackhole’s frame dragging is to observe light traveling in the direction of rotation to travel faster the light traveling against the direction of rotation. This effect actually makes it very difficult for an object to fall directly in to a Blackhole. Instead the dragging of space-time accelerated the in falling object in to an orbit in the direction of rotation.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Tuesday, February 7, 2012
Sunday, February 5, 2012
Wrapping your mind around the Universe?
--------- #1398 - Wrap Your Mind Around the Universe?
- Attachments : Thinking
- Light coming from the stars is traveling very fast, 670,633,500 miles per hour. But space is very, very big. The nearest star is 4.4 lightyears away.
------------ There are 25,280,000,000,000 miles in a single lightyear
------------ Alpha Centauri is 5,880,000,000,000 miles away
------------- Time = Distance / Velocity
------------- Time light has traveled = 25.28 *10^12 miles / 6.7 * 10^8 miles / hour
------------- Time = 37,000 hours for light to reach us
------------ There are 8,760 hours in a year
------------ Time light has traveled = 3.7*10^4 hours / 8.7*10^3 hours / year = 4.4 lightyears
- That is how far the closest starlight has to travel and how long it takes to reach us even when traveling at 670 million miles per hour.
- When we are looking at the star Alpha Centauri we are viewing what it looked like nearly 4 ½ years ago. It is 4 ½ years older now. It could have blown up and disappeared and we would not know about it for another 4 ½ years. ( although this explosion is unlikely) It turns out the Universe is always giving us old information.
- You hear that expression that the stars of the heaven could have gone supernova and not even be there anymore. This is unlikely. The stars we can see with the naked eye are likely within 3,000 lightyears distance. These are the stars in our neighborhood of the Milky Way Galaxy. So, all these stars could not have lived more than 3,000 additional years. Stars live for millions and billions of years so 3 thousand is merely a blink of the eye in star time.
- You can only see about 6,000 stars in the night sky. But, who’s counting? It is very unlikely that one of these will have gone supernova exactly 3,000 years ago, or whatever fewer lightyears it is away from us. The most likely supernova we are likely to have in our Galaxy is Eta Carinae ( just guessing) and it is 250,000,000 lightyears away. It would have had to have exploded 250,000,000 years ago in order for us to see it now. ( See Reiews #1346, #775, #49, and #832 to learn more about Eta Carinae.)
- Astronomers have discovered over 1,000 Quasars that are billions of lightyears away. They are extremely bright lights created by active Blackholes at the cores of massive galaxies. These astronomers are most assuredly looking at ghosts. Quasars only occurred in the early Universe. The Universe has since expanded so much that more recent Quasars don not exist anymore. The light we are seeing is information about a long bygone Universe.
- We have read about massive stars collapsing into a Blackhole. We visualize it happening in our minds. Artist depict renderings and computer simulations of what it would look like. Our imagination can see it but in fact we could never see such an event. A Blackhole is so dense with so much gravity that light never escapes. Its gravity bends space-time back on itself. If somehow we were viewing this event from outside it would simply look like time was slowing to a stop. The event becomes frozen in time. It just stops. There is nothing more ever to be seen.
- The Universe is expanding at 47,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears distance. Therefore the galaxies are no longer located where we see them. And, of course, by now they may look much different. There may even have been mergers and collisions by now. They may even be so far away by now that the light will never reach us. We may never know what these galaxies look like today.
- We create the Universe in our heads. It is similar to how we create “ rainbows’ in our heads. Rainbows are not objects that really exist. They are not actually there. If some sees a rainbow from a different location, she is seeing a different rainbow from the one you are seeing. Your eyes witness a specific light beam that gets bent in the rain drops and enters only your eyes. If no one was looking the rainbow would not be there. In fact, throughout history rainbows did not exist until animals evolved with color vision. Your eyes and your eyes alone personally create the colors you see. Each rainbow is personally yours.
- Rainbows do not have shadows or reflections. If you see a rainbow reflected of the still surface of a lake it is a different rainbow because it is being created by different beams of light. Rainbows are not real, we make them real in our heads.
- So it is with much of the Universe. It is as we perceive it. The finite speed of light requires that we use the laws of physics to learn what “is”. For sure, it “ is” not what we “ see”. A good student will be able to “ see” with “ understanding”. You have to learn to see what is. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
----------------------------------------------------------------
(1) material from http//skymanbob.com
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Sunday, February 5, 2012
- Attachments : Thinking
------------ There are 25,280,000,000,000 miles in a single lightyear
------------ Alpha Centauri is 5,880,000,000,000 miles away
------------- Time = Distance / Velocity
------------- Time light has traveled = 25.28 *10^12 miles / 6.7 * 10^8 miles / hour
------------- Time = 37,000 hours for light to reach us
------------ There are 8,760 hours in a year
------------ Time light has traveled = 3.7*10^4 hours / 8.7*10^3 hours / year = 4.4 lightyears
- That is how far the closest starlight has to travel and how long it takes to reach us even when traveling at 670 million miles per hour.
- When we are looking at the star Alpha Centauri we are viewing what it looked like nearly 4 ½ years ago. It is 4 ½ years older now. It could have blown up and disappeared and we would not know about it for another 4 ½ years. ( although this explosion is unlikely) It turns out the Universe is always giving us old information.
- You hear that expression that the stars of the heaven could have gone supernova and not even be there anymore. This is unlikely. The stars we can see with the naked eye are likely within 3,000 lightyears distance. These are the stars in our neighborhood of the Milky Way Galaxy. So, all these stars could not have lived more than 3,000 additional years. Stars live for millions and billions of years so 3 thousand is merely a blink of the eye in star time.
- You can only see about 6,000 stars in the night sky. But, who’s counting? It is very unlikely that one of these will have gone supernova exactly 3,000 years ago, or whatever fewer lightyears it is away from us. The most likely supernova we are likely to have in our Galaxy is Eta Carinae ( just guessing) and it is 250,000,000 lightyears away. It would have had to have exploded 250,000,000 years ago in order for us to see it now. ( See Reiews #1346, #775, #49, and #832 to learn more about Eta Carinae.)
- Astronomers have discovered over 1,000 Quasars that are billions of lightyears away. They are extremely bright lights created by active Blackholes at the cores of massive galaxies. These astronomers are most assuredly looking at ghosts. Quasars only occurred in the early Universe. The Universe has since expanded so much that more recent Quasars don not exist anymore. The light we are seeing is information about a long bygone Universe.
- We have read about massive stars collapsing into a Blackhole. We visualize it happening in our minds. Artist depict renderings and computer simulations of what it would look like. Our imagination can see it but in fact we could never see such an event. A Blackhole is so dense with so much gravity that light never escapes. Its gravity bends space-time back on itself. If somehow we were viewing this event from outside it would simply look like time was slowing to a stop. The event becomes frozen in time. It just stops. There is nothing more ever to be seen.
- The Universe is expanding at 47,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears distance. Therefore the galaxies are no longer located where we see them. And, of course, by now they may look much different. There may even have been mergers and collisions by now. They may even be so far away by now that the light will never reach us. We may never know what these galaxies look like today.
- We create the Universe in our heads. It is similar to how we create “ rainbows’ in our heads. Rainbows are not objects that really exist. They are not actually there. If some sees a rainbow from a different location, she is seeing a different rainbow from the one you are seeing. Your eyes witness a specific light beam that gets bent in the rain drops and enters only your eyes. If no one was looking the rainbow would not be there. In fact, throughout history rainbows did not exist until animals evolved with color vision. Your eyes and your eyes alone personally create the colors you see. Each rainbow is personally yours.
- Rainbows do not have shadows or reflections. If you see a rainbow reflected of the still surface of a lake it is a different rainbow because it is being created by different beams of light. Rainbows are not real, we make them real in our heads.
- So it is with much of the Universe. It is as we perceive it. The finite speed of light requires that we use the laws of physics to learn what “is”. For sure, it “ is” not what we “ see”. A good student will be able to “ see” with “ understanding”. You have to learn to see what is. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
----------------------------------------------------------------
(1) material from http//skymanbob.com
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Sunday, February 5, 2012
Friday, February 3, 2012
Neutron Stars amazing study for astronomers?
--------- #1397 - Neutron Star Powers the Crab Nebula
- Attachments : Neutron star and Crab Nebula
- Ordinary Matter should be called Ordinary Space. The matter part is almost negligible. 99.999,999,999,999,9 % of solid matter is empty space. It is not solid at all. What makes it feel solid is the electromagnetic force.
- Because all Ordinary Matter is made of atoms, Atoms are clouds of electrons orbiting around a tiny nucleus composed of protons and neutrons. It is the electromagnetic force that keeps them separated and that force is what you feel.
- The diameter of the nucleus is 1/100,000th the size of the electron cloud. It is the cloud that defines the size of the atom. The electron itself is 1/1860th the size of a single proton. An atom is a small nucleus and an even smaller electron and all the rest is empty space.
- When you sit down in your chair it is that whirling electron cloud traveling at a fraction of the speed of light that is holding you up. The Ordinary Matter that is in the chair is invisibly small. If it were squeezed down to be one kernel of matter it would be the size of a bunch of atomic nuclei. The kernel would still weigh the same as chair. The mass would be the same, but, that would be nearly nothing and the rest would be space.
- Now put this scenario on the scale of a massive star. A star of 10 Solar Mass would be squeezed down to a Neutron Star about 12 miles in diameter. The gravity of the massive star that runs out of nuclear fuel has no opposing force. The electromagnetic force that holds the electrons in orbit collapses into a single, giant atomic nucleus composed of neutrons. The mass is still the same but it has been squeezed into a ball 12 miles in diameter. The rest of the massive star was empty space.
- Being only 12 miles in diameter you would be tempted to get close to the Neutron Star. That would be a mistake. The magnetic fields around the star are extremely strong. All the atoms in your body would be distorted to cigar-shaped. A lethal situation. It is not only the intense gravity and the intense magnetic field that you have to avoid. The rotating magnetic field also produces an electric field with potential of a quadrillion volts. There would be a blizzard of high-energy charged particles like lightning bolts only 30,000,000 times stronger.
- Let’s back away from this Neutron Star.
- We still get the radiation of X-rays and Gamma Rays. The high-energy particles produce beams of energy emitting everything in the electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves through Gamma Rays. If the beam happens to be pointing at us we detect a pulse of this radiation. If the rotation of the beam is off center the beam will flash by us like a lighthouse. We detect a pulse every complete rotation. Some high school students discovered one of these Pulsars in January that was rotating 324 times per second. ( 19,000 rpm). ( See Review # 1396 for details.)
- Astronomers have discovered over 1,000 of these Pulsars. The most famous Pulsar is at the center of the Crab Nebula, in the attached picture. The Crab pulses cover the entire spectrum of wavelengths. Only 24 of these Pulsars are detected in X-rays. And, only 6 of these are detected in Gamma Rays.
- Some of the Pulsars produce extreme magnetic fields. Some magnetic forces are so strong they cause “Star quakes” on the surface of the Neutron Star. When the surface cracks powerful bursts of X-rays are produced. If the star quake is strong enough these flashes can be in Gamma Rays.
- Sometimes a Neutron Star is close in orbit to a companion star in a binary system. The intense gravity of the Neutron Star can pull gas and material from the companion star. This in falling material spirals into the Neutron Star creating an accretion disk that accelerates around the star, Enormous energies are created in the acceleration of this material and it radiates powerful X-rays.
- When the rotating material enters the rotational poles it gets ejected in a concentrated beam of material that is hurled into interstellar space. When this beam strikes material in the interstellar medium it generates more X-ray radiation. Between Accretion-powered Pulsars and Rotation-powered Pulsars the accretion powered is more powerful as long as an abundant flow of gas is coming from the companion star.
- How do you know the accretion-powered Pulsar is a Neutron Star and not a Blackhole?
- Blackholes do not have a normal solid surface or a normal rotating magnetic field. The X-rays from Blackholes flicker. Those from a Neutron Star produce a steady rate of X-ray pulses.
- To learn more about Neutron Stars see:
----------- Review #1334 “ Unusual Light from the Crab Nebula?”
------------ Review #1261 “ What is Making the Crab Nebula So Active?”
------------ Reviews #1100, #862, # 720
- The Crab Nebula is in the Constellation Taurus the Bull. The end of the southern horn of the bull is the star, Zeta. Next to Zeta is the Crab Nebula.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Friday, February 3, 2012
- Attachments : Neutron star and Crab Nebula
- Because all Ordinary Matter is made of atoms, Atoms are clouds of electrons orbiting around a tiny nucleus composed of protons and neutrons. It is the electromagnetic force that keeps them separated and that force is what you feel.
- The diameter of the nucleus is 1/100,000th the size of the electron cloud. It is the cloud that defines the size of the atom. The electron itself is 1/1860th the size of a single proton. An atom is a small nucleus and an even smaller electron and all the rest is empty space.
- When you sit down in your chair it is that whirling electron cloud traveling at a fraction of the speed of light that is holding you up. The Ordinary Matter that is in the chair is invisibly small. If it were squeezed down to be one kernel of matter it would be the size of a bunch of atomic nuclei. The kernel would still weigh the same as chair. The mass would be the same, but, that would be nearly nothing and the rest would be space.
- Now put this scenario on the scale of a massive star. A star of 10 Solar Mass would be squeezed down to a Neutron Star about 12 miles in diameter. The gravity of the massive star that runs out of nuclear fuel has no opposing force. The electromagnetic force that holds the electrons in orbit collapses into a single, giant atomic nucleus composed of neutrons. The mass is still the same but it has been squeezed into a ball 12 miles in diameter. The rest of the massive star was empty space.
- Being only 12 miles in diameter you would be tempted to get close to the Neutron Star. That would be a mistake. The magnetic fields around the star are extremely strong. All the atoms in your body would be distorted to cigar-shaped. A lethal situation. It is not only the intense gravity and the intense magnetic field that you have to avoid. The rotating magnetic field also produces an electric field with potential of a quadrillion volts. There would be a blizzard of high-energy charged particles like lightning bolts only 30,000,000 times stronger.
- Let’s back away from this Neutron Star.
- We still get the radiation of X-rays and Gamma Rays. The high-energy particles produce beams of energy emitting everything in the electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves through Gamma Rays. If the beam happens to be pointing at us we detect a pulse of this radiation. If the rotation of the beam is off center the beam will flash by us like a lighthouse. We detect a pulse every complete rotation. Some high school students discovered one of these Pulsars in January that was rotating 324 times per second. ( 19,000 rpm). ( See Review # 1396 for details.)
- Astronomers have discovered over 1,000 of these Pulsars. The most famous Pulsar is at the center of the Crab Nebula, in the attached picture. The Crab pulses cover the entire spectrum of wavelengths. Only 24 of these Pulsars are detected in X-rays. And, only 6 of these are detected in Gamma Rays.
- Some of the Pulsars produce extreme magnetic fields. Some magnetic forces are so strong they cause “Star quakes” on the surface of the Neutron Star. When the surface cracks powerful bursts of X-rays are produced. If the star quake is strong enough these flashes can be in Gamma Rays.
- Sometimes a Neutron Star is close in orbit to a companion star in a binary system. The intense gravity of the Neutron Star can pull gas and material from the companion star. This in falling material spirals into the Neutron Star creating an accretion disk that accelerates around the star, Enormous energies are created in the acceleration of this material and it radiates powerful X-rays.
- When the rotating material enters the rotational poles it gets ejected in a concentrated beam of material that is hurled into interstellar space. When this beam strikes material in the interstellar medium it generates more X-ray radiation. Between Accretion-powered Pulsars and Rotation-powered Pulsars the accretion powered is more powerful as long as an abundant flow of gas is coming from the companion star.
- How do you know the accretion-powered Pulsar is a Neutron Star and not a Blackhole?
- Blackholes do not have a normal solid surface or a normal rotating magnetic field. The X-rays from Blackholes flicker. Those from a Neutron Star produce a steady rate of X-ray pulses.
- To learn more about Neutron Stars see:
----------- Review #1334 “ Unusual Light from the Crab Nebula?”
------------ Review #1261 “ What is Making the Crab Nebula So Active?”
------------ Reviews #1100, #862, # 720
- The Crab Nebula is in the Constellation Taurus the Bull. The end of the southern horn of the bull is the star, Zeta. Next to Zeta is the Crab Nebula.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Friday, February 3, 2012
Thursday, February 2, 2012
Students Discover Millisecond Pulsar?
--------- #1396 - High School Students Discover Pulsar
- Attachments : Pulsar
- Some high school students in Kentucky and Virginia discovered a Millisecond Pulsar. They were part of project called the Pulsar Search Collaboratory. The students were trained by astronomers on how to use the Green Bank Telescope. After 300 hours of observing data the students discovered 4 Pulsars and one Millisecond Pulsar
- The Millisecond Pulsar is a very important discovery because its spin is so accurate it is more accurate than any atomic clock. It is hoped that by timing several of these Millisecond Pulsars across the sky astronomers can detect Gravity Waves. They would act like buoys bobbing up and down as the gravity waves pass by. The wave disturbance would be detected as very small changes in the pulse arrival times as the waves pass by.
- Pulsars are spinning neutron stars that rotate a beam of radio waves around as they spin like a lighthouse rotates a beam of light. A Neutron Star is what is left after a massive star explodes as a supernova. The central star core is left with no nuclear fuel to prevent the crushing force of gravity collapsing the very elements that are left. The electrons collapse into the nuclei creating neutrons. The core is so dense that one tablespoon would weigh 10 million tons.
- There is a special class of Pulsars that spin very fast. This one the students discovered on January 17, 2012, is spinning at 324 rotations per second. The rotation rate is so accurate the passing beam can be used as a metronome of an atomic clock.
- Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in the fabric of space time in the early 1900’s. But, they have never been detected. Millisecond Pulsars may be the key to determine if Einstein was right, again.
- To learn more about the PSC project :
http://www.gb.nrao,edu/epo/psc.shtml
- Attachments : Pulsar
- The Millisecond Pulsar is a very important discovery because its spin is so accurate it is more accurate than any atomic clock. It is hoped that by timing several of these Millisecond Pulsars across the sky astronomers can detect Gravity Waves. They would act like buoys bobbing up and down as the gravity waves pass by. The wave disturbance would be detected as very small changes in the pulse arrival times as the waves pass by.
- Pulsars are spinning neutron stars that rotate a beam of radio waves around as they spin like a lighthouse rotates a beam of light. A Neutron Star is what is left after a massive star explodes as a supernova. The central star core is left with no nuclear fuel to prevent the crushing force of gravity collapsing the very elements that are left. The electrons collapse into the nuclei creating neutrons. The core is so dense that one tablespoon would weigh 10 million tons.
- There is a special class of Pulsars that spin very fast. This one the students discovered on January 17, 2012, is spinning at 324 rotations per second. The rotation rate is so accurate the passing beam can be used as a metronome of an atomic clock.
- Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in the fabric of space time in the early 1900’s. But, they have never been detected. Millisecond Pulsars may be the key to determine if Einstein was right, again.
- To learn more about the PSC project :
http://www.gb.nrao,edu/epo/psc.shtml
The Biggest Star in the Heavens
--------- #1395 - The Most Massive Star in the Heavens?
- Attachments : Tarantula Nebula
- I have 2 astronomy textbooks and each states that the theoretical maximum size that a star can get without exploding is 150 Solar Mass. That is 150 times the mass of our Sun.
- The bigger the star, the more intense the compression of gravity, the brighter the luminosity, the faster the star burns all its fuel, the shorter its lifetime before it explodes as a supernova.
- The life expectancy of our Sun is 10 billion years. Here is the formula used to calculate the lifetime of a star:
----------------------- Lifetime = 10 billion years / ( mass ) ^2.5
----------------------- 1 Solar Mass = 10^10 / 1 = 10 billion years
---------------------- 10 Solar Mass = 10^10 / (10)^2.5 = 32 million years
--------------------- 150 Solar Mass = 10^10 / (150)^2.5 = 36,000 years
- A 150 Solar Mass star would only live 36,000 years. Therefore over 1,000,000 of these massive stars would come and go during our Sun’s lifetime.
- Astronomers are astonished to find a 350 Solar Mass star in the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Megellanic Cloud Galaxy. It is named R136a1 and it is 165,000 lightyears away. The star is 9,000,000 times brighter that our Sun and has a surface temperature of 95,000 Fahrenheit ( 53,000 Kelvin). If that were our Sun the Earth would be vaporized at 15,000 Kelvin. Thankfully R136 is 165,000 lightyears away.
- Here is a table of the most massive stars found to date:
---------------------------------------------Times ------------Times ----------Times
---------------------------------------------Solar ------------ Sun’s ---------- Sun’s
------------------------------------------- Mass ----------- Diameter -------Luminosity
--------------- R136a1 ------------------ 350 ------------- 35 ------------10,000,000
--------------- Eta Carina -------------- 250 ------------- 195 ------------5,000,000
--------------- Peony Nebula ---------- 175 ------------- 100 ------------3,200,000
--------------- Piatol Star -------------- 150 ------------- 340 ------------6,300,000
-------------- HD269810 -------------- 150 ------------- 19 --------------2,200,000
--------------- LBV1806 -------------- 130 ------------- 200 ------------10,000,000
--------------- HD93129a ----------------- 120 ------------- 25 ------------5,500,000
--------------- HD93250 ------------------ 118 ------------- 18 ------------5,000,000
--------------- S Doradus ------------------ 100 ------------ 380 ------------600,000
- Eta Carina is the second most massive star and it is the next supernova expected to go Booom! ( see Review #1346 and #775 and #49 to learn about this binary star system). This 2 star system has a primary Luminous Blue Variable Star that is 250 Solar mass. Its companion star is a Main Sequence Secondary Star that is 80 Solar Mass. the Blue Variable s 5,000,000 times more luminous that our Sun.
- There is some debate about R136 mass, still 265 Solar Mass is the minimum, because the mass has not been measured directly. It calculated based on its temperature and the solar wind it is ejecting. The star is loosing one Solar Mass every 20,000 years.
- The reason a star is not expected get this big before exploding is that the calculations tell us that over 150 Solar Mass anti-matter would be created at the core. Electrons and anti-electron pairs would be created. This would cause the star to explode sooner and to completely vaporize sending 10 Solar Mass of iron into interstellar space.
- Iron is the last element to be fused in a star because it is the heaviest element in the Periodic Table that requires adding energy to continue the fusion process. All the lighter elements than iron actually release energy when they fuse. That is what opposes gravity and keeps the star from collapsing. Once iron is created there is no release of energy and the star collapses to the core, rebounds into a supernova explosion.
- Our Sun will die differently. It will not fuse elements above carbon and when it runs out of fuel it will expand into a Red Giant. This Red Giant will pulsate creating a Planetary Nebula with a White Dwarf star left at its core. That will happen 5 billion years from now. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 2, 2012
- Attachments : Tarantula Nebula
- The bigger the star, the more intense the compression of gravity, the brighter the luminosity, the faster the star burns all its fuel, the shorter its lifetime before it explodes as a supernova.
- The life expectancy of our Sun is 10 billion years. Here is the formula used to calculate the lifetime of a star:
----------------------- Lifetime = 10 billion years / ( mass ) ^2.5
----------------------- 1 Solar Mass = 10^10 / 1 = 10 billion years
---------------------- 10 Solar Mass = 10^10 / (10)^2.5 = 32 million years
--------------------- 150 Solar Mass = 10^10 / (150)^2.5 = 36,000 years
- A 150 Solar Mass star would only live 36,000 years. Therefore over 1,000,000 of these massive stars would come and go during our Sun’s lifetime.
- Astronomers are astonished to find a 350 Solar Mass star in the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Megellanic Cloud Galaxy. It is named R136a1 and it is 165,000 lightyears away. The star is 9,000,000 times brighter that our Sun and has a surface temperature of 95,000 Fahrenheit ( 53,000 Kelvin). If that were our Sun the Earth would be vaporized at 15,000 Kelvin. Thankfully R136 is 165,000 lightyears away.
- Here is a table of the most massive stars found to date:
---------------------------------------------Times ------------Times ----------Times
---------------------------------------------Solar ------------ Sun’s ---------- Sun’s
------------------------------------------- Mass ----------- Diameter -------Luminosity
--------------- R136a1 ------------------ 350 ------------- 35 ------------10,000,000
--------------- Eta Carina -------------- 250 ------------- 195 ------------5,000,000
--------------- Peony Nebula ---------- 175 ------------- 100 ------------3,200,000
--------------- Piatol Star -------------- 150 ------------- 340 ------------6,300,000
-------------- HD269810 -------------- 150 ------------- 19 --------------2,200,000
--------------- LBV1806 -------------- 130 ------------- 200 ------------10,000,000
--------------- HD93129a ----------------- 120 ------------- 25 ------------5,500,000
--------------- HD93250 ------------------ 118 ------------- 18 ------------5,000,000
--------------- S Doradus ------------------ 100 ------------ 380 ------------600,000
- Eta Carina is the second most massive star and it is the next supernova expected to go Booom! ( see Review #1346 and #775 and #49 to learn about this binary star system). This 2 star system has a primary Luminous Blue Variable Star that is 250 Solar mass. Its companion star is a Main Sequence Secondary Star that is 80 Solar Mass. the Blue Variable s 5,000,000 times more luminous that our Sun.
- There is some debate about R136 mass, still 265 Solar Mass is the minimum, because the mass has not been measured directly. It calculated based on its temperature and the solar wind it is ejecting. The star is loosing one Solar Mass every 20,000 years.
- The reason a star is not expected get this big before exploding is that the calculations tell us that over 150 Solar Mass anti-matter would be created at the core. Electrons and anti-electron pairs would be created. This would cause the star to explode sooner and to completely vaporize sending 10 Solar Mass of iron into interstellar space.
- Iron is the last element to be fused in a star because it is the heaviest element in the Periodic Table that requires adding energy to continue the fusion process. All the lighter elements than iron actually release energy when they fuse. That is what opposes gravity and keeps the star from collapsing. Once iron is created there is no release of energy and the star collapses to the core, rebounds into a supernova explosion.
- Our Sun will die differently. It will not fuse elements above carbon and when it runs out of fuel it will expand into a Red Giant. This Red Giant will pulsate creating a Planetary Nebula with a White Dwarf star left at its core. That will happen 5 billion years from now. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, please reply with a number to rate this review: #1- learned something new. #2 - Didn’t read it. #3- very interesting. #4- Send another review #___ from the index. #5- Keep em coming. #6- I forwarded copies to some friends. #7- Don‘t send me these anymore! #8- I am forwarding you some questions? Index is available with email and with requested reviews at http://jdetrick.blogspot.com/ Please send feedback, corrections, or recommended improvements to: jamesdetrick@comcast.net.
or, use: “Jim Detrick” www.facebook.com, or , www.twitter.com.
707-536-3272, Thursday, February 2, 2012
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