Space Dust, what does it tell us?

-  1679  -  Space Dust , what does it tell us?  The Earth travels through tons of space dust that mostly originated in comets and asteroids.  Astronomers are collecting this dust and studying every grain.  We see this dust entering the atmosphere as “ shooting stars”.
----------

---------------------  1679  -  Space Dust , what does it tell us?
-
- Space is full of dust.  Even outer space is full of dust.  This dust mostly comes from comets and asteroids that are circling the Sun along with us.  Earth passes through this space dust every day.  Amazingly, between 50 to 100 tons of space dust falls on us each day.
-
-.  In the night sky you can see these as “shooting stars“.  These are bright streaks of light shooting across the sky at 28,000 miles per hour.  The glowing hot dust particles are the size of a grain of sand, or smaller.
-
-.  Thousands of tons of these extraterrestrial particles fall to the surface as cosmic dust very year.  Typically they measure less than 100 microns, about the width of a human hair.
-
-.  Astronomers are trying to collect and study this cosmic dust to learn more of the evolution of our solar system.  They have used 12 mile high-flying aircraft with sticky surface Lexon plates, coated with silicone, beneath the wings.   They study these dust particles under scanning electron microscopes analyzing and cataloging each piece of dust.
-
-.  Astronomers have learned that a large portion of this cosmic dust is not the same as meteorites that we find on the surface of Earth.  Meteorites mostly originated from asteroids.  Some of the particles are the least altered material in the solar system.  Most likely coming from comets.  Some are the dusts originating from the interstellar medium.  Some of the dust grains contain organic material that may have seeded early Earth with the raw materials necessary for life.
-
-.  Two spacecraft have been launched to attempt to collect cosmic dust before it enters Earth's atmosphere:
-
-----------------  Stardust
-----------------  Hayabusa
-.
-.  Stardust was launched February, 1999, arriving at the 81P/WILD comet in January, 2004.  The spacecraft was equipped with 124 silicone aerogel blocks that collected dust from the comet’s tail 149 miles from its surface.  The samples were returned to Earth January, 2006, parachuting into the Utah desert.
-
-.  The tracks in the aerogel stopped the dust particles that hit the surface of the gel at 13,000 miles per hour.  Studies of each particle revealed its composition.  One surprise was that some of the minerals had to be formed at high temperatures found in the inner solar system.  Comets are formed in the far outer solar system.  This dichotomy suggested that the early solar system was a turbulent environment that result in mixing of both of these regions.
-
-  Suggestions were made that asteroids are the cores of comets.  Comets that ended up too close to the Sun.  All their lighter elements have evaporated away from heat and solar winds.  What is left is a rocky surface with a heavy mineral core.
-
-.  The Hayabusa mission launched in 2003 to the near-earth asteroid “Itokawa“,.  It arrived September, 2005.  The mission was to fire a projectile into the surface and to collect the debris.  The spacecraft returned June ,2010 landing in the Australian desert.
-
-.  We learned that meteorites most commonly found on Earth contain chondrite minerals which were similar to those found on this asteroid.  The iron content told astronomers that Itokawa was once much larger and likely broke apart as result of impacts.
-
-.  Studying cosmic dust as a way to learn more about the origin of our solar system and possibly how life developed on our planet.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Friday, May 2, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Moon History from the Beginning

-  1678  -  Moon History from the Beginning.  Evolution of the surface of the Moon was much different than that on Earth.  Meteor impacts and volcanism took different forms.  Here is what we have learned about Moon History.
---------------------

---------------------  1678  -  Moon History from the Beginning
-
- When asked my age I sometimes say, “I'm older than dirt“.  Even at my age that is a bit of an exaggeration.  The average age of the Earth's surface dirt and rocks is 500,000,000 years.
-
-.  That is an average.  Some of the oldest rocks found were 3,800,000,000 years old.  The reason for new rocks being formed is the result of erosion and plate tectonics that erased  most all the planets earliest landforms.
-
-.  However, there is a place where erosion and plate tectonics have not changed things in the same way.  That is on the Moon.  The Moon is Earth's crust that was splashed into orbit 4,500,000,000years ago.
-
-.  The changes on the Moon's surface were totally different than what happened on the Earth.  The Earth had an atmosphere that had wind and rain erosion.  At the same time an atmosphere protected it from small meteor impacts.
-
-.  Moon had almost no atmosphere.  It had hot and cold but no weather that resulted.  No atmosphere meant the moon was not protected from meteor impacts and cratering.  Its surface did have volcanism and ground faulting.  In fact, the earliest surface of the Moon saw so many impacts that the immense energy transfer melted the surface forming a global magna ocean.
-
-.  Low-density elements like aluminum floated to the surface.  High density elements like iron sank deeper below the surface.
-
-.  To get an idea of Moon’s impact history analysis of crater ages is shown in the table below:   This is for craters 1 kilometer in diameter or greater, some were hundreds even thousands of miles in diameter. Impacts are shown per each square kilometer of surface.
-
---------------------------  Billion years ago  -----------------  Impacts per km^2
-
-------------------------------  4.5  -------------------------------  1 per 1 km^2
-------------------------------  4.0  -------------------------------  5 per 100 km^2
-------------------------------  3.5  -------------------------------  4 per 1,000 km^2
-------------------------------  3.0  -------------------------------  2 per 1,000 km^2
-------------------------------  3.0  -------------------------------  1 per 1,000 km^2
-------------------------------  1.0  -------------------------------  1 per 1,000 km^2
-------------------------------  0.25  -----------------------------  1 per 10,000 km^2
-------------------------------  today  ----------------------------  1 per 100,000 km^2
-
--.  You can see that the early Moon was seriously pelted by meteors.  The Earth was as well at that time.  Every square kilometer of the moon had a one kilometer or greater diameter meteor impact on its surface.  Today this is less than one impact per 100,000 square kilometers of moon surface.

-  Meteor impacts were not the only erosion on the Moon.  volcanism was caused by heating due to the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium that melted parts of the mantle.  This fresh magna rose up through fractures under the crater basins, erupting cased vast expanses of lava on the surface.  Rapidly flowing lava cut winding channels and a flowing magnetic caused basins to sink.
-
-.  Most of the volcanic eruptions occurred between 4,000,000,000 and 3,000,000,000 years ago with 50 to 60 eruptions occurring each year.  Most all these eruptions ceased 1,000,000,000 years ago.  Also, 3,800,000,000 years ago impact cratering had rapidly declined by a factor of a thousand.
-.
-.  You can count the cratering yourself on the website “ NASA Lunar Reconnaissance 0rbiter”  images at www.moonzoo.org.  The Moon will orbit Earth 250,000 miles away but these images will be form less than 400 miles above the surface of the Moon.
-
-.  Dozens of missions to the Moon have uncovered a lot of Moon history and evolution.  But, what we have learned has also generated many more questions.  The next major goal in lunar science is another moon landing.  When will we go back?  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Sunday, April 27, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dinosaurs in Utah?

-  1677  -   Dinosaurs in Utah.  Evolution there lasted for 20,000,000 years with diversity of species.  Many species were lost with the asteroid hit the Yucatan Peninsula.  Evolution got a re-start.
---------------------

---------------------  1677  -   Dinosaurs in Utah
-
-  90,000,000 years ago the central part of United States east of the Sierras and west of the Rockies was a swamp land.  Utah was more like Louisiana than the deserts we see today.
-
-.  Of course, the California coast was located in Baja ,Mexico at that time.  The drifting continents had a different name and the era was called the Crustacean Period.  The drifting continent was called “Laramidia“.
-
-.  In the Utah desert today scientists are unearthing fossils of plants and animals that are 75,000,000 years old.  The continent Laramidia  existed for 20,000,000 years.   During that time the Earth was warmer and the oceans were higher.
-
-.  Plants and dinosaurs thrived in this once, swampy, lush, jungle like environment.  Not just dinosaurs but,  turtles and crocodiles lived along with the horned and duckbilled herbivores.
-
-.  There were birdlike Teropods.
-
-.  There were 30 foot Hadrosaurs with jaws containing 800 teeth.
-
-.  There were rhino-size Triceratops that had 15 horns on their heads.
-
-   Many of the dinosaurs had horns, spikes, and frills that were not much use against predators.  Or, more likely, these adornments were used to impress the opposite sex.
-
-.  All through Laramidia  there was a divergence among the species.  Not just due to natural selection, but, more specifically divergence due to sexual selection.  Natural selection is concerned with limbs and teeth.  Sexual selection is more concerned with peacock tails and moose antlers.
-
-.  In Laramidia  the vegetation was so thick and jungle-like dinosaurs did not need to wander.  The result was many species sharing the same small spaces.  As divergence occurred two species evolved in different places out of a single species.
-
-.  Left to themselves each community of animals evolve differently.  Plants and animals adapted to different climate zones and different vegetation.  When the differences met and no longer recognized each other for mating then two populations have become to species.
-
-.  Like it or not life got a fresh start.
-
-.  60,00,000 years ago this evolution ended with the event of the asteroid smashing into the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico.  The Earth was encircled by firestorms and dust storms that blocked the Sun for decades killing off the dinosaurs and much of the life in the oceans.  Turtles, crocodiles, and a few, small warm-blooded animals survived.  After another 50,000,000 years thousands of new species again occupied  the Earth.  The same evolution of a diversity of species repeated itself.
-
-.  The human species started out in Africa 1,500,000 thousand years ago.  And, some hiked out of Africa into Asia and Australia some 130,000 years ago.  Some 50,000 years ago these same wanderers choose a northern route and got into Europe and the Mediterranean seashores.
-
-.  During this entire time the California coast was creeping north along the San Andreas fault.  Rocks that adorn the shorelines of Baja ,Mexico, were now in Bodega, California, just 20 miles from my house.  Tectonic plates moving just a few inches per year can cover thousands of miles over tens of millions of years.  You may not realize it but these tectonic plates are still inching  north in California.   An announcement will be made shortly stay tuned.
-
-  2 inches per year.  1,000 miles * 5,280 feet per mile * 12 inches per foot  =  66,360,000 inches.  To mover 1,000 miles takes 31,680,000 years.  Come back in 30,000,000 years and Bodega’s rocks will be in Alaska.
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Thursday, April 24, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dogs can smell.

-  1676  -  Dogs can Smell.
-
---------------------  -  1676  -  Dogs can Smell
-
- We are having a drought in California, so, I had to train the dog to clean the dishes.  It wasn’t hard.
-
-------------------------

-
-  Holly and Molly both amaze me with their sense of smell.  We'll be walking a single track and Holly would pull me off the trail 20 to 30 yards and sure enough there was a half eaten deer carcass.
-
-.  Molly will start digging the ground, sure enough, at the bottom of the hole is a squirrel tunnel.
-
-.  Of course, my walks take longer because they both had their noses to the ground.  And, often it took several minutes waiting while we collected all the information that was around there.  I like it when Molly will be on a trail, then, stop and sit straight up, searching the horizon for visual evidence which she knew just passed that ground.
-
-.  Dogs are amazing.  Bloodhounds find escaped felons and missing children.
-
-.  Golden Retrievers find squirrels and birds that have fallen into the bush.  I can throw a tennis ball to the far corners of our backyard, Molly will zig -zag  back and forth with persistence until she finds it and proudly brings it back.
-
-.  Poodles will find truffles buried in the ground.
-
-.  Dogs are trained to find drugs in airports and school lockers.
-
-.  Dogs have been trained to detect insects and diseases in plants in luggage or foodstuff coming through customs.  They can even find invasive weeds in open fields.
-
-.  Dogs are used to detect termites, even bedbugs in the big city hotels.
-
-.  Dogs can detect mold in homes or even in vineyards where wineries are at risk of losing a good harvest.
-
-.  Dogs detect explosives.
-
-.  Dogs are even used to tell if cows are in heat.  Bulls can too, but, in this case the need is good timing for “artificial” insemination.
-
-.  Dogs have even been known to detect cancer.  Often better than today's lab tests a Labrador Retriever can detect the malignancy sooner.
-
-.  Dogs have even been used to detect mercury and potentially pirated DVDs.
-
-.  You all know the shell game.  Try putting a treat under one of three cups.  Moving the cups around as fast as you like.  Then train the dog to always tip over the right one.  Fun is a happy dog.  You have a Happy Easter.  Take your dog on an Easter egg hunt but don't let her eat the chocolate.   Chocolate is not good for dogs.
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Sunday, April 20, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Life around Red Giant Stars?

-  1675 -  Red Giant Stars are smaller than our Sun but have habitable zones where life could have evolved.  They live 10 times longer and there are 200 times more of them.  Why are we not looking here?
-------------------------

---------------------  -  1675  -  Red Giant Stars
-
-  Are astronomers always looking for their keys under the lamppost?  Are we looking for life in environments where is it is easy to see and familiar to our own situation?  Maybe if we get outside the lighted circle we will find other habitable zones where life could exist?  “Habitable” in this context means a temperate zone orbit where liquid water can exist on the surface of the planet.  For our solar system this includes the orbits between 0.8 astronomical units and 2  A.U.  This zone contains the planets Venus, Earth, and Mars.
-
-.  So, if we look beyond earthlike planets we might find life on planets around stars much smaller than our sun.  Smaller stars are Red Dwarfs Stars.  The smaller stars are 200 times more abundant than the bright yellow stars like our Sun.  However, smaller stars are dimmer and red in color.  To get enough warming radiation the planets would need to orbit much closer to the star, equivalent to inside the orbit of Mercury.
-
-.  Then, another outside the circle likelihood for life exists on moons, not just planets.  This review explores the moon Titan orbiting the planet Saturn.
-
-.  Titan is Saturn’s largest moon.  We have landed a space probe on Titan’s surface, January 15, 2005.  (Cassini mission, Huygens Space Probe ).  The space probe saw dark drainage channels.  Are these channels created by methane rivers that flow like water?
-
-.  On later fly-bys  the Cassini spacecraft discovered rainstorms in the atmosphere and lakes on the surface, all liquid methane.  Titan has a diameter of 3,200 miles and is larger than the planet Mercury.  If it were orbiting the Sun instead of Saturn it would be a planet.
-
-.  Another moon of Saturn is Ganymede that is even larger, having a diameter of 3,270 miles.
-
-  Titans crust is made of water ice with temperatures of -290 degrees Fahrenheit ,and, with 150 % atmosphere pressure,  the ice is as solid as granite.  Methane does not mix with water.  It flows over the ice surface slowly eroding the rock hard ice.
-
-.  Titan flybys have occurred over 100 times.  Measurements of thunderstorms have calculated that 100 inches of methane rainfall can occur in only two hours.  An earthly record might be 12 inches in one hour.  Such a deluge would create horrendous  flash floods on Titan's surface.
-
-.  Most of Titan’s mysteries remain hidden , or fuzzy at best.  Radar is the only measurements that have been made over time.   Until we can launch another mission with better instruments Titan’s true nature will remain fuzzy.
-
-.  Finding life on a moon now seems just as likely as finding life on the planet.  Most of the naked eye stars we see our giants and supergiants because of their intensive brightness.  Increase a stars mass by 10 and its brightness increases by 3,000.  At the same time the supergiants that we can see are fewer than 0.2 % of all the stars.  99.8 % of the stars are too dim to see with the naked eye.
-
-.  If a stars 10 % the mass of the Sun its brightness is only 0.08 percent as bright as our Sun.  It is a Red Dwarf Star and hard to see.  Bernard Starr, only six light-years away has a Magnitude of 9.5 and is a Red Dwarf star.  The larger the brightness magnitude number the dimmer the star.  A brightness magnitude of 6.0 is considered a brightness able to be seen by the naked eye.  Proxima Centuri, another Red Dwarf Star, is closer at 4.23 light-years but only a magnitude 11.0.
-
-.  Of all the stars in our neighborhood of the galaxy 74 %  are Red Dwarf Stars.  These are dim stars, with low power outputs,.  If their planets and moons are to have a chance for life there orbits must be very close to the stars.  For planets to have a liquid water on the surface they would have to have orbits inside Mercury’s  orbit, and they would have to be tightly locked like our Moon, always one side facing the star.
-
-  Without enough solar power photosynthesis  can not occur.  With one side of the planet always facing the sun, one side would be hot and the other side would be cold.  This temperature difference would create wild winds and ocean currents between the two hemispheres.  What astronomers envision is a strip of land with mild temperatures straddling these two hemispheres.
-
-.  This oasis would be in perpetual daylight.  Plants could point their leaves in one direction and get all day sunshine.
-
-.  When astronomers crank the numbers, after studying 3,897 Red Dwarf Stars, 16 % have habitable zones, orbits where liquid water can exist.  For our Solar System that is 0.8  to  2 astronomical units, orbits of Venus, Earth, and Mars.  Extrapolating this out to the 200,000,000,000 Red Dwarf Stars in our galaxy, 24,000,000,000 have habitable earthlike planets.
-
-.  When stars like our Sun, larger than Red Dwarfs Stars, add another 9,000,000,000 habitable planets.
-
-.  Most plants are green because they absorbed red light at 670 nanometers and reflect green light.  However , some bacteria absorbed 900 nanometer wavelength light for their energy.  That near infrared light may be a perfect match for Red Dwarf Stars to support life.
-
-.  Our Sun and all the sun -size stars have a lifetime of 10 billion years.  Red Dwarf  Stars have a lifetime of 10 times larger 100,000,000,000 years,  and ,  they hardly age over their entire lifetime.
-
-.  The Earth took 3,000,000,000 years of aging to go from microscopic life to intelligent life.  The total time life could exist is only twice this length of time for our Sun.  Red Dwarf Stars would allow tens of billions of years longer for a chance for life to evolve.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
.-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Saturday, April 19, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

When the Sun becomes a Red Giant Star and swallows the Earth.??

-  1674  -  When the Sun becomes a Red Giant Star and swallows the Earth.
-------------------

---------------------  -  1674  -  When the Sun becomes a Red Giant Star.
-
- That Lucky Old Sun got nothing to do, but, roam around heaven all day.
-
-.  How long before the Sun expands and swallows up the Earth?
-
-.  Someday in the far future, 5 billion years from now, the Earth will be inside the Sun.  Not that the distance of 93 million miles will shorten between the Earth and the Sun, but, the Sun will expand into a Red Giant Star.  If we think of the size of the Sun as a soccer ball, when it grows into a Red Giant Star it will be the size of a soccer field.
-
-.  When the Sun later goes through the planetary nebula stage and a White Dwarf Star is left at the center it will be the size of an ant on the soccer field.
-
-.  This theory of the Sun's evolution sprang out of the Herzberg Russell Diagram in 1913.  The diagram plots star’s brightness on the vertical axis and a star’s color on the horizontal axis.
-
-.  The diagram showed a correlation between the star’s mass its luminosity, and, also, its lifetime.  The star’s mass controls its life.   The mass the star is born with determines the evolution that follows.
-
-.  When stars are born with enough mass there is enough gravity present to bring the core temperature up to tens of millions of degrees.  Hot enough to fuse hydrogen into helium.  This is a stable part of the star’s life.  It is the Sun we know today which is halfway into its stellar evolution.
-
-.  What causes a star to evolve into a Red Giant Star?
-
-.  When the core of the star runs out of hydrogen it can no longer convert hydrogen into helium at its center.  So, it begins burning hydrogen in the outer shell surrounding the interior.  This causes the outer layers of the star to diffuse and expand.  This expansion is called the Red Giant stage.
-
-.  Stars can lose ther mass as the expanding gas can disperse into interstellar space as solar winds.  How much mass the star loses greatly affects its future.  Our Sun is expected to lose 46 % of its mass and become an oxygen- carbon cinder 6,500,000,000 years from now.
-
-.  After the Red Giant phase the Sun begins burning helium into oxygen, eventually shrieking into a White Dwarf Star.  This phase of the star’s life is sketchy at best.  To learn what really happens astronomers are studying star clusters where thousands of stars are grouped together all the same age, but, all different sizes.  All the stars should be the same composition as well because they coalesced from the same interstellar cloud of gas and dust.
-
-.  Astronomers measure the brightness and colors of all these different stars.  The data is plotted in the Herztsprung- Russell diagram.  The 47 TUC star cluster’s age is 10,500,000,000 years.
-
-.  A normal White Dwarf Star on this cluster diagram has a temperature of 25,000 degrees Kelvin.  This temperature along with the extreme density of the White Dwarf Star and the resulting pressure on its surface causes hydrogen absorption lines to blur.  The lines blur to 5 to 10 times greater line width than those in normal stars.  In this way the White Dwarf stars are identified.
-
-.  By studying the data astronomers have calculated that the star of 5 Solar Mass will lose 80 % of its mass before becoming a White Dwarf Star.  The stars may fuse even heavier elements that oxygen and carbon, maybe neon and magnesium.
-
-  .A star of 3 Solar Mass would lose 75 %of its mass.
-
-.  They star of 2 Solar Mass would lose 67 % of its mass.
-
-.  A star 1 Solar Mass, our Sun, will expand to 200 times its present radius.   Its surface temperature would drop from 6,000 degrees Kelvin to 3,000 Kelvin.  Thus its red color.  Yet it will become 1,000 times more luminous due to its enormous size.
-
-.  The intense luminosity will disperse the outer layers leaving behind a White Dwarf core that will quickly cool.  Our Sun will be 54 % of its present weight but will be the same size as the Earth.
-
-.  This sounds like in an unusual evolution, but, 90 percent of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy will end up as the same cool, dim, White Dwarf Stars.  In 6,000,000,000 years our Sun will be an oxygen- carbon cinder.  We'll need to move before that happens.  An announcement will be made, but, you'll have to wait.
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Thursday, April 17, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

beginning with a Universe?

-  1672  -  Beginning with a Universe.  Really, how did it all start?  Where did we come from?  How long will it last?  Astronomy looks back in time to get the answers.
------------------

---------------------  -  1672  -  Beginning with a Universe.
-
- Everyone knows now about the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation that has a temperature of  2.75 degrees Kelvin everywhere and in all directions.  It is a release of photon radiation from the charged plasma of the Big Bang.  After 370,000 years of expansion and cooling  the radiation could finally escape the charged plasma.  A picture of the CMB is literally a picture of the birth of the Universe.  The hot and cold patches across the CMB are the galaxy clusters and the voids in space we see today, 3,725,000,000 years later.
-
-.  Prior to the CMB release the charged plasma of positive protons and negative electrons scattered the photons to such a great extent they bounced around without escaping.  When the plasma cool down to 3,000 degrees Kelvin the protons captured electrons forming neutral hydrogen.  Now the photons could escape the opaque expanding cloud leaving the pattern, the CMB, that existed at that time
-
-.  Going back even further in time, earlier than one microsecond, protons and neutrons could not exist because the temperature was so hot that only the fundamental particles Quarks, leptons, photons, V and Z  bosons, and gluons made up the plasma of charged particles..
-
-.  Today, thanks to the Planck Telescope, launched in May, 2009, the resolution of this picture has increased to 50 million pixels.  This radiation is 13,725,000 000years old.
-
-.  The CMB picture appears as uniform radiation.  But, the high-resolution uncovers tiny, millionths of degrees changes from cooler to hotter spots.  The angular separation of these spots are the result of sound waves that existed in the plasma.  The cold spots eventually collected under gravity’s attractive force and became galaxies.  The spot’s cycle today have a wavelength of 450 million light-years.
-
-.  By decoding this soundwave into its fundamental and harmonic components astronomers are able to conclude that the expansion force is 68.3 % of the Cosmos in total mass-energy.  And , that matter, the attractive gravity force, makes up the other 26.8 %.  Most of this is Dark Matter because Ordinary Matter that makes up our world is only 4.9 % of this total mass- energy.  The density of Deuterium implies that Ordinary Matter amounts to only 4.9 percent of the total mass-energy density in the Universe.
-
-.  100,000,000 years after the Big Bang the universe was 5 parts Dark Matter and 1 part Ordinary Matter, almost entirely hydrogen and helium.   When the first stars formed they were giant stars, > 100 Solar Mass.  At a Redshift of 1,100 we see the Universe when it was 380,000 years old and had a temperature of 3,000 Kelvin.
-
-.  Today the Dark Energy is pulling the Universe apart at an ever accelerating rate.  Eventually all matter and energy will be so diluted the Cosmos will end up cold and dark.  But, that will be several billion years from now.
-
-.  The radiation has been traveling over billions of light-years.  Gravity bends light.  By analyzing  gravitational lensing effects astronomers can map the distribution of matter in the Universe over this time span.
-
-.  The radiation does not oscillate in random directions.  The light is polarized.  When the polarized radiation strikes electrons it scatters in the” E-mode” of the polarized light.  The “B-mode” polarized orientation is more difficult to detect.  New telescopes are attempting to use these polarization parameters to learn more about the Cosmic Background and Cosmic Inflation.
-
-   Light is electromagnetic radiation.  E-mode is the electric half of the wave and at right angles to it is the B-mode, magnetic wave.  Together they make one electromagnetic wavelength.  The shorter this wavelength the more energy it carries.  The longer this wavelength the less energy it carries.  The spectrum runs from Gamma-Rays, to X-rays, to Ultraviolet rays, to Blue light, to Red light, to Microwaves, to Radio waves.
-
-.  Gravity is a property of space and time and not only a force described by Newton’s equation and not only a force described by Newton's equation:
-
------------------  F  =  M * m * G  /  r^2
-
-  The force of gravity is directly proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them.
-
-.  Gravity according to Einstein is created by space being curved by the presence of mass.  Falling objects are simply following the path of least resistance in curved space-time.
-
-.  The above law for gravity works for a very good first approximation.  It uses a gravitational constant of “G” which should be the same everywhere the Universe.
-
---------------------- .  G = 6.674215  * 10^-11 meters^3 per kilogram second^2
-
-.  On Earth’s surface, where the distance to the center is everywhere the same, the acceleration of gravity is always and everywhere 32 feet per second per second.  Newton's equation almost always works.  You have to get down to the details to find the exception.
-
-.  The planet Mercury seemed to be such an exception.  The planet’s orbit around the Sun was in the form of daisy petals instead of a simple circles.  The irregular movements were very small, 43 arc seconds per hundred years.  In 4,000 years the change would only amount to the width of a full moon.  But all the equations astronomers had to use at the time could not explain this small change.
-
-.  Einstein had a new equation, the General Theory of Relativity, it worked to explain the perihelion of revolving bodies.  The perihelion is the point of orbit of a planet when it is nearest to the Sun.  His equations calculated the shift of this point to perfect accuracy.
-
-.  In 1925 Einstein’s  equations were able to explain the gravitational Redshift of light leaving a massive body like a White Dwarf star.  And again his equations worked when the light from a star passed an eclipse Sun bending by 1.75 seconds of arc.
-
-.  Today, astronomers measure this effect all the time as gravitational lensing.  When one star is directly behind another star, the light from the farther star is bent around the near star magnifying the image as if the light were traveling through a lens.
-
-.  The equations have been proven to work over and over again in dozens of experiments.  Some more examples:
-
-.  Measuring gamma rays that are Redshifted and Blue shifted with gravity.  Called the Mossbauer Effect and the Doppler-Fizeau Effect.
-
-.  Measuring radar beams passing a planet.
-
-.  Measuring binary pulsars revolving a mutual center of gravity.
-
-.  The Special Theory of Relativity has been proven hundreds of times.  This General Theory of Relativity concerning gravity is still being contested.  We still don't understand gravity.  But , so far, Einstein’s equations remain, because they work, even though we are not sure why.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-  (1)  Other Reviews on Relativity:  1662, 1663,  1582,  874,  768,  766,  648,  550.
-
-.  (2)  Calculus is math to measure anything that changes.  That is most everything.  Derivatives are calculus math to calculate how fast things change.  Integration  calculus  are mathematical ways to accumulate a sum of these changes.
-
-. (3)  Any plane is an infinite number of parallel lines.  Any solid is an infinite number planes.  Mathematics must systematically evolve from deductive reasoning using simple postulates to derive complex theories.  Calculus is like a cloth of woven thread and a book of completed pages.
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Saturday, April 12, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Truth about Energy and the Economy?

-  1671  -  Truth about Energy and the Economy?  Where does our energy come from, were does in go?  How about dollars?  Who pays?  Who benefits?
----------------

---------------------  -  1671  -  Truth about Energy and the Economy?
-
- The U.S. consumed 97.5 quadrillion BTUs of energy in the year 2013.  In 1988 we consumed 80 quadrillion BTUs.  A” BTU” is a British Thermal Unit.  It is 1,055 Joules of energy.  It is the amount of heat needed to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.  A quadrillion is 10^15.
-
------------------------  97,500,000,000,000,000  BTU’s per year.
-
-.  Energy, where does this energy come from, where does it go?
-
-U.S. energy  in 2013 came from:
-
----------------------  1988  ----------------  2013
-------------------------------------------------  4.7%    “Green”  Energy
----------------------  8.6%  ------------------  8.3%    Nuclear
-------------------------------------------------  84.0%   Fossil fuels
-
--------------------------------------------------  97%   of  US energy produced in in 2013
-
-.  4.7 %  Green, what is this?
-
-----------------------  1988  ----------------  2013
-------------------------------------------------  0.32%    Solar
------------------------  3.5%  ----------------  2.56%    Hydro
-------------------------------------------------  1.6%      Wind
-------------------------------------------------  0.2%      Geothermal
-
-  55% of this is “ old “Green” energy”.  Hydro from water reservoirs.

-.  Where does the solar energy go?  73% goes into Residential, but, it is only 0.32 percent of the total energy we consume, a very small number.
-
-.  Fossil fuels are 84% of our energy source:
-
------------------------  1988  ------------------  2013
------------------------  29.5%  -----------------  27%     Natural Gas
------------------------  31.8%  -----------------  18%     Coal is declining rapidly.
-----------------------------------------------------  4.5%   Biomass
------------------------  26.2%  -----------------  35%     Oil, Petroleum , fracking is the new oil renaissance.
-
-.  71% of the oil is used in Transportation, cars and trucks
-   24% is used in Industry
-
-.  The five categories for were our energy goes are:
-
---------------     11.4%     Residential with 54 % wasted
----------------      8.6%     Commercial with 35 % wasted
----------------    24.7%     Industry with 20 % wasted
----------------    27.0%    Transportation with 79 %  wasted
-
-.  59 % of all energy is wasted.  Most of it simply goes up as heat into the atmosphere.
-
-  38% is consumed in production output
-
-.  How do Electric Generator,  Power Companies”  get their energy?
-
---------------    22%    Nuclear
----------------    6%     Hydro
----------------    22%   Natural Gas
----------------    43%   Coal
----------------    .004%  Geothermal.
-
-.  So that is U.S. consumption of Energy.  What is he is consumption of Dollars.  Turns out , if you add up federal, state, and local government expenditures you get $6 trillion per year.  That makes US government the 3rd largest economy in the world, just government.
-
-   The total U.S. economy including the private sector produces $16 trillion per year.  But, we have a $17 trillion mortgage outstanding that still needs to be paid.  Good luck kids.
-
-.  China's economy is about $8 trillion, 1/2 the U.S.’s.
-
-.  Japan is $5 trillion ,  1/3 the U.S.’s.
-
-.  The U.S. government alone consumed $6.2 trillion which is the same as the total economies of France plus Germany.
-
-.  Taken together the U.S. government consumes 40% of the total U.S. economy.
-
-.  People receiving “benefits” from the government average $32,748 per year, in 2010.
-  The average taxpayer had $32,446 in disposable income.
-  It is better off being on welfare.
-
-   67,300,000 Americans collected food stamps, retirement income, health care, job training,,,, “government benefits“.  The total cost was $2.5 trillion in 2010.
-
-.  Where does the money come from?
-
-.  49.5 % of adult Americans paid zero federal income tax.  The other 50 percent paid all the taxes.
-
-.  What happens to the US government when more people depend on “government benefits” than those that pay taxes into it?
-
-.  The Great Society started in the 1960’s with 21.7 million people on the government dole.  In 2010 it's over 67.3 million people on the government dole.
-
-  As Margaret Thatcher  once said "Eventually socialism runs out of Other People's Money".  Then what?
-
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Monday, April 7, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Super massive stars and super massive blackholes?

-  1670  -  Super Massive Stars and Super Massive Blackholes.  How big can stars get?  When will they become a Blackhole?  How do we calculate the mass of these giants?
-------------------

---------------------  -  1670  -  Super Massive Stars and Super Massive Blackholes
-
-  M87 is a giant elliptical galaxy at the center of the Virgo Cluster of galaxies.  At its center is a 6,000,000,000 Solar Mass Blackhole.  It is 50, 000,000 light-years away from us.
-
-.  The Chandra Space Telescope can see in X-rays.  It measures temperatures at 1 to  2 million degrees Kelvin near the center of  M87.  The Virgo Cluster contains more than 1,000 galaxies.  It is the nearest cluster of galaxies to us.
-
-.  M87 is populated by older, low mass stars, giving it a reddish color.  It has a surprising low amount of new star formation?  How does the cluster keep the gas so hot that star formations cannot coalesce.  For stars to coalesce the temperature must cool down so gravity can start bringing material together.  There must be a secret energy source?  Maybe it is a Blackhole that creates periodic outbursts preventing surrounding gas from cooling.
-
-.  A small matter falling into the blackhole fuels periodic explosions, creating powerful jets that shine in radio wavelengths.  These jets extend out thousands of light years.   Most of their energy being kinetic energy.    Kinetic energy is the energy of motion,
-
-------------------------   K.E. =  ½ mass * ( velocity )^2.
-
-.  When these jets encounter interstellar gas they cause the gas to move, to heat up, and to create shockwaves.  The shockwaves pileup about 42,000 light years from the Blackhole traveling 120 % the speed of sound.
-
-  These periodic outbursts are occurring roughly every 10 million years.  Chandra X-ray surveys are revealing the same thing is occurring in many other galaxies and galaxy clusters.  Super massive black holes at the center of galaxies appear to be able to regulate themselves.  Each provides just the right amount of energy to keep activities relativity stable.
-
-.  We weigh super massive black holes the same way we weigh almost everything else in the Universe.  We measure orbital velocities and orbital radius.  And , we use the math coming from Isaac Newton.  The mass encompassed by a radius equals:
-
---------------------------------  M  =  r * v^2  /  G
-.
-.  Ionize gas orbiting galaxy M87 orbits at a velocity of 800 kilometers per second,   1,800,000 miles per hour.  The radius is 60 light-years, 5.6 * 10^17 meters.  The gravitational constant, G = 6.67 *10^-11  m^3 / ( kg* sec^2)
----------------------------------  M  =  5.6*10^17 * (8*10^5)^2  /  6.67 * 10^-11
-
----------------------------------  M  =  5.4*10^39 kilograms
-
---------------------------------  1 Solar Mass  =  2 * 10^30 kilograms
-
------------------------------     M  =  2.7 *10^9  Solar Mass
-
-.  Current calculations have determine this number to be 6 billion Solar Mass for the mass of the black hole at the center of  M87.  (  Much more than the 2.7 billion calculated above).
-
-  There is a star, “R136a1“, that is believed to be the most massive star at 215 Solar Mass.  This star  is part of the 30 Dorado Cluster, inside the Tarantula Nebula, inside the Large Megellanic Cloud.  Supernova 1987A occurred in this region, one of the few supernovae ever witnessed near our galaxy.
-
-.  There are other super massive stars in in the running.  R144 is a binary star.  A binary system is critical to being able to measure the mass of a star.   Kepler's laws of motion states that the square of the orbital period is equal to the cube of the orbital radius.  Isaac  Newton added the math needed to complete the  calculation for a binary star system.
-
--------------------------------  p^2   4 * pi^2  a^3  /  G * ( M + m )
-
--------------------------------    4 * pi^2    /  G    =  5.9 ^10^11
-
--------------------------------  “m” is much, much smaller than “M”
-
-------------------------------  M  =   (5.9*10^11)  a^3  /  p^2

-.  Applying his equation to R144 results in a combined mass of 200 to 300 Solar Mass inside the radius of orbit.
-
-.  Super massive stars die at a young age.   R136a1 has an estimated age of 1,500,000 years, and,  has already lost 20 % of its mass, 50 Solar Mass.
-
-.  A star of 8 Solar Mass will shed its outer layers and remain White Dwarf star.  A star greater than 8 Solar Mass will explode as a supernova.
-
-.  When a super massive star collapses into a blackhole an enormous Gamma Ray Burst of energy explodes with the collapse.  (Action equals reaction and, all energy is conserved, energy simply converts from one form to another.)  Astronomers have detected Gamma Ray Bursts that are 13.2 billion light-years away.  That light arrived Earth in 2009 but it lasted only 30 seconds.
-
-.  Astronomers believe the very first stars were super massive stars.  The composition would be 75 % hydrogen and 25 % helium because the heavier elements were not created until later when supernovae explosions  were around to create them.  Virtually every element on Earth today was fused in a star’s supernova core ,  a long time ago.
-
-.  A White Dwarf star reflects the products of the star’s final nuclear burning stage.  A
1 Solar Mass White Dwarf star will be mostly carbon, as a Sun size star fuses helium into carbon in its final stage of life.  A White Dwarf star of 1 Solar Mass would collapse to the size of the Earth.  Which is the size of a typical sunspot.  A teaspoon of this dense material would weigh as much as a truck.
-
-.  A more massive White Dwarf star would actually be smaller and more dense.  A 1.3 Solar Mass White Dwarf star would be one half the size of the Earth.  The limit on White Dwarf mass is 1.4 Solar Mass.  At this point gravity overpowers electrons and smashes them into the nuclei creating neutrons, a Neutron Star is born.
-
-  A star of 20 Solar Mass would explode and leave behind a Neutron Star.  A star more massive than 20 Solar Mass would collapse into a Blackhole.
-
-.  The Neutron star of 1.4 solar mass is only 10 kilometers in radius.  It's density is immense.  It is essentially a giant atomic nuclei made almost entirely of neutrons.  The gravity is so immense the escape velocity at its surface is one half the speed of light.  A paperclip would weigh as much as Mount Everest.  Neutron stars have been found that are spinning 625 revolutions per second.
-
-.  When a burned-out star’s mass exceeds 20 Solar Mass it collapses into a Blackhole, a bottomless pit in space-time.  The space-time grows infinitely curved until it enters a point called the Singularity. The Event Horizon is a radius around the Blackhole where the gravity is so strong it bend  light beams back on themselves.  No light can escape.  Nothing escapes.  The radius is:
-
----------------------------------  r  =  2 * G * M  /  c^2
-
------------------------------------  G  =  6.67*10^-11
------------------------------------  c^2  -  9 * 10^18
-------------------------------------  Ms  =  2*10^30
-
-------------------------------------  r =  3 * M  /  Ms
-
-.  If we change the units to  “Solar Mass” instead of kilograms and “r” is in kilometers  this equation simplifies.
-
-  So,  10 Solar Mass Blackhole would have Event Horizon radius of 30 kilometers, 18 miles,
-
-.  There are super massive Blackholes and there are super massive stars that are not yet blackholes.  Our Milky Way galaxy has  200,000,000,000 stars.  Only a few dozen are believed to exist as super massive, that is over 100 times more massive than our Sun, millions of times more luminous, and  a lifetime of only a few million years, because they burn through their fuel so rapidly.
-
-.  A star the size of our Sun takes 50,000,000 years to form out of interstellar gas and dust. The super massive star might take only 100,000 years to form.
-
-.  Eta Carinae is a super massive star just 7,500 light-years away, with a mass of 100 Solar Mass.  It is a dumbbell in shape because in the year1843 it threw off 10 Solar Mass of material.  Maybe in 2014 it will explode again.  In announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Thursday, April 3, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

How many planets are out there?

-  1669  -  How many planets are there?  We have found over 3,000 candidates.  What’s next in planet discoveries outside our Solar System?
------------------

---------------------  -  1669  -  How many planets are there?
-
-  Just over 20 some years ago astronomers discovered the first solar system outside our own.  The stars were out there but were there any planets?  This first planet discovered outside our solar system had the mass of Jupiter and circled its star closer than Mercury's orbit.  Not much chance of life be on that “exoplanet“.
-
-.  As of November 2013, 3,538 “planet candidates” have been observed.  The next step is to study these and determine if life might exist on any of them.
-
-----------------------------------.  Earth is 7,918 miles in diameter
-
----------------------------------  674 planets were 1.25 times Earth-size.
---------------------------------  1,076 planets were 1.25 to 2 times Earth-size.
---------------------------------- 1,457 planets were 2  to 6   times Earth-size.
----------------------------------  229 planets were 6  to  15   times Earth-size.
----------------------------------  102 planets were >  15 times Earth-size.
-
----------------------------------  3,538 planets discovered outside our Solar System.
-
-  Over 200 of these are solar systems with multiple planet systems like our own Solar System.  Some 100 planets are orbiting their stars in a habitable zone, the right distance from the star that would allow liquid water to exist on the planet’s surface.
-
-.  These “planet candidates” were detected by two different methods:
-
-.  (1)  The transient method detects light dimming slightly from the star as a planet passes in front, blocking our line of sight.
-
-.  (2).  The wobble method where the star shifts its position slightly as a gravitational tug of a planet orbits the star.  The detection occurs because of the Doppler shift of the light as it shifts from moving towards us, (blue shifts), to moving away from us, (redshifts).  By measuring the amount of these shifts astronomers can calculate the mass of the orbiting planet, using radial velocity measurements.  (See footnote 1.)
-
-.  Using the transit method astronomers can calculate the diameter of the planet by the amount of light it blocks.  Multiple transit's are needed to calculate the orbit.  (See footnote 2.)
-
-.  Over 150,000 stars were observed in finding the transiting planets.
-
-.  Once the mass is calculated and the diameter is known, the volume is calculated and  the density is calculated.  In this way we know if it a gaseous planet like Jupiter or a rocky planet like the Earth.
-
-.  When the planet passes in front of the star starlight passes through the atmosphere, if it has one.  When the planet passes behind the star the amount of light detection will drop because you see only the planet space not the light going through the atmosphere.  The difference in the light is measured with a spectrograph that can tell astronomers the elements that make up the atmosphere.
-
-.  For example: if 9,600  nanometer wavelength light is absorbed the element is Ozone.  If the 15,000 nanometer wavelength is absorbed the molecule is Carbon Dioxide.  Oxygen in the atmosphere gets absorbed by other elements very quickly. So, if there is a large amount of oxygen in the atmosphere something must be replacing it.  Maybe it is life forms living there?  Astronomers can calculate from this information determining the planets surface temperature, cloud cover, weather patterns, and even signatures of life.
-
-  When the Mars spacecraft turned its spectrometer towards Earth the relative radiance detected a unique bio-signature in the Earth's atmosphere.  The relative radiance of water, ozone, carbon dioxide, and  oxygen across a wavelengths from 100 to 25,000 nanometers.  Astronomers hope to find such a signature on another planet.
-
-.  Gravitational lensing is a new method designed to help in planet detecting.  Called “microlensing“, any body of mass bends space-time and the passing light from a background star will follow the warping to be magnified when telescopes are focused on astronomers can see farther.
-
-.  Earth is 10 billion times fainter than the Sun.  So, direct detection of an image of Earth is technically challenging.  A telescope with a “chronograph” would block the stars light and look for a direct image of an orbiting planet.
-
-.  As these techniques are perfected they will focus on a few earthlike worlds around nearby stars.  How many worlds like ours are there out there?  Could they be inhabited by living beings?  An announcement will be made shortly , stay tuned
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-.  Footnote (1): Determine the mass of an ex-oh planet using the law of conservation of momentum.
-----------------------------------  Momentum  =  mass  *  velocity
-
- ----------------  Mass of the star   *   velocity of the star   =   mass the planet   *  velocity of the planet.  Velocity is measured relative to the center of mass around which both are orbiting.
-
-----------------------------  Ms  *  V  =  Mp  *  v
-
-.  The planets orbital velocity is calculated by the circumference of the orbit, 2 * pi * r, divided by the period of the orbit.
-
----------------------------  v  =  2 * pi * r    /   p
-.
--------------------------  There is a planet orbiting the star, 51 Pegasi.
-
--------------------------  The period is measured to be,    p  =  3.65 * 10^5 seconds
-
-------------------------  The radius of orbit is measured to be,  r  =  7.82 * 10^9 meters
-
------------------------  The mass of the star is calculated to be,  Ms  =  2.12*10^30 kilograms
-
-The periodic Doppler Shift in the spectrum of the star 51 Pegasi shows a large planet with an orbital period of four days, 3.65 * 10^5 seconds, with a velocity of 57 meters / second
-
-----------------------------  v  =  2 * pi * 7.82 * 10^9 m    /   3.65 * 10^5 sec
-
-----------------------------  v  =  13.46 * 10^4 m/sec  =  301,000 miles per hour, see Footnote (3).
-
------------------------------  Ms  *  V  =  Mp  *  v

-
-----------------------------  2.12 * 10^30  *  57 m/sec  =  Mp  *  13.46 * 10^4 m/sec
-
---------------------------  Mp  =  9 * 10^26 kilograms.
-
-  The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 *10^27 kilograms.  The planet orbiting 51 Pegasi has a mass of 47% that of Jupiter.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-.  Footnote (2)   Fractional drop in light intensity when the planet transits in front of the star is equal to 1.7 %.
-
-------------------  Area of planet’s disk  /  area of the star’s disk  =   0.017
-
-.  The star HD 209458 has a radius 15 % larger than our Sun ,or,   800,000 kilometers.
-
---------------------------  rp^2  /  rs^2  =  0.017
-
-------------------------  rp  /  rs  =  0.13
-
--------------------------  rp  =  800,000  *  0.13
-
-------------------------  rp  =  104,000 kilometers.
-
-.  With a radius of the planet  =  104,000 kilometers.  We calculate the volume of the planet  and with the mass we can calculate the density.  Jupiter is 71,500 kilometers radius.  This newly discovered planet is about 46 percent larger than Jupiter.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-.  Footnote 3.  Mercury orbits our Sun in  88 days at 107,000 miles per hour.  Saturn takes 29.5 years to orbit traveling at 22,000 miles per hour.  This new planet is traveling at 300,000 miles per hour much faster than even the planet Mercury.
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Wednesday, April 2, 2014  ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------