Particle Physics, a history lesson. 100 years

-  1848  -  Particle Physics, a history lesson.  100 years of the search for how the sub-atomic beginning of the Universe ( Quantum Mechanics) evolved into the Universe of galaxies and the Theory of Gravity (General Relativity) is today still work in process.  Here are the crypt-notes
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--------------------- -  1848  -  Particle Physics, a history lesson.
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-  In 1900 Max Planck trying to explain the spectral characteristic of a hot glowing object came up with a relations between light and matter.  Why does a poker turn red when it is stuck into the fire?  He came up with the assumption atoms only emit ( and absorb) energy in discrete amounts called quanta ( later called photons).  This was the opposite of the electromagnetic wave theory at the time requiring spectral emissions to be “continuous waves”.
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-  25 years later (1925)  Quantum Mechanics was born and causes were no longer linked to effects.  Electrons could be at 2 places simultaneously.  Light could be a wave or a particle.  In 1905 Albert Einstein had proposed that light itself was composed of little energy bundles.
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-  In 1913 Neils Bohr proposed a model for the atom to be a miniature solar system with  the electrons maintaining specific orbits about the nucleus.  As electrons changed orbits they emitted ( or absorbed) light at characteristic wavelengths.
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-----------------------------  E  =  h * f
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-----------------------------  c  =  w * f
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-----------------------------  E  =  c * h  /  w
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---------------Energy  =  speed of light  *  Planck’s Constant of Action  /  wavelength
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-  The wavelengths were rings on an energy ladder.  The energy released or absorbed were at specific quanta represented the energy between each ring of the ladder.
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-  Werner Heisenberg in 1925 proposed the “Uncertainty Principle” claiming it was impossible to know both the position and velocity of a particle an any one instant.  The better you measured one the less you could know about the other.
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-  Louis de Broglie in 1923 proposed that if light could be a particle why not a particle could be a wave?  In 1925  Erin Schrodinger derived an equation for a wave function that extended through space and described the “probability” of a particle being in a likely place ( position).
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- The motion of particles follows probability laws but the probability itself propagates according to the law of “ causality”.
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-  In 1928 Paul Dirac married  Quantum mechanics math and Special Relativity math to predict the existence of “anti-matter”.  Carl Anderson discovered the positron, the anti-electron, in 1932, just 4 years later.
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-  In 1935 the idea surfaced that particles could be linked in their properties even while separated by enormous distances.   Called, “ Entanglement”.
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-  Erwin Schrodinger’s explanation was that the act of observation (exchanging a photon) collapsed the wave function freezing it into one particular state ( location and velocity).  Until that instant all possible states coexisted like overlapping waves ( called Quantum Superposition).
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-  Quantum effects are not confined to the sub-atomic.  The “Uncertainty Principle” dictates that the energy in a field, or an empty space, is not constant but continuously fluctuating  These quantum fluctuations during the Big Bang are the origin of today’s galaxies.  After, 13.8 billion years of expansion.
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-  When an observation is made it implies the exchange of photons which contain information that has been extracted from the object being observed.  It is this loss of information that collapses the wave function.
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-  Quantum Mechanics describes all the phenomena in nature save one, Gravity.  Gravity is described by the General Theory of Relativity relying on a smooth curving space-time continuum.  Quantum mechanics is described in math that is discontinuous and quantized.  The two mathematical models remain incompatible to this day.
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-  Theories to reconcile the two theories abound.  For 100 years no one has broke through the math.  Here are some theories:  There is space-time broken down in a space-time foam of Gravitons, particles that carry the force of gravity.  There is Super-String Theory vibrating in 10 dimensions of space.  To name just two theories.  Maybe God is the only game in town?
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-  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-  #1799  -  A primer on particle physics.
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-  #1693  -  Quarks are fundamental particles.
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-  #1512 and #1573 -  The standard model of particle physics.
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-  #1511  Sterile neutrinos
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-  #1136  -  The whole world in only 6 particles.
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-  #1097  -  Nature’s constants.
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-  Max Planck  -  (1858 - 1947)  At the age of 22 he joined the faculty in Munich, Germany.  His doctoral work was in thermodynamics.   He later worked on the problem of blackbody radiation.  In 1900 his equations assumed that light came in particles (quanta).  The quanta became “h”, Planck’s Constant of Action  =  6.625 joule-seconds.  Max was rescued by American forces from Nazism in 1945.
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-  Neils Bohr  - (1885 - 1962)  At age 18 he entered the University of Copenhagen.  Got his doctorate at age 26.  Bohr studied spectral lines in order to explain how substances emitted and absorbed radiant energy.  Radiation was emitted when an electron changed its orbit to a lower energy level.  His model explained the internal structure of the atom.  He came to the U.S. in 1945 after escaping Nazi, Germany and worked on the atomic bomb at Los Alamos.  He organized the Atoms of Peach Conference in 1955.  He died at age 77.
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-  Weiner Heisenberg  -  (1901  -  1976)  In 1923 he got his PhD at University of Munich.  In 1927 he used matrix algebra to calculate the wavelengths of spectral lines.  He proposed the “Uncertainty Principle” in 1927.  The multiplication of the uncertainties of position and velocity equal Planck’s Constant, “h”.  He became director of Max Planck Institute for Physics after WWII.
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-  Louis De Broglie  -  (1892  -  ?)  He entered the French army in WWI working with radio communications.  In 1923 he proposed particle-wave dualism for the electron.  He received the Nobel Prize in 1929.  In 1945 he became an adviser to the French atomic energy commission.
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-  Erin Schrodinger  -  (1887 - 1961)  In 1910 he got his PhD at the University of Vienna.  He proposed that the electron orbits were in standing waves, explaining why the electron did not loose acceleration through radiation while orbiting the nucleus.  This accounted for the discrete orbits.  In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his wave mechanics theories.  He left Germany in 1933 for Austria to avoid Hitler.  In 1938 he escaped to England.
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-  Paul Dirac - ( 1902  - ?)  Got his PhD at Cambridge in 1926.  In 1930 he proposed the positive twin to the electron, the anti-electron.  Carl Anderson discovered the anti-electron 2 years later.  He got the Novel Prize in 1933.  He became a professor of physics at Florida State University.
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-  Carl Anderson  -  (1905 - ?)  Got his PhD at Cal in 1930.  Became a professor of physics in 1939 and Chairman in 1962.  He devised the cloud chamber to study cosmic rays.  He discovered the anti-electron.  He later discovered the meson.  He won the Nobel Prize in 1936
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Computer evolution, where will it lead?

-  1847  -  Computer evolution, where will it lead?  Computer power remains on an exponential growth path.  But, technologies will change as they reach new limits at each phase.
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---------------------  -  1847  -  Computer evolution, where will it lead?
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-  I can say , I was there.  There, with the birth of the computer age.  I learned vacuum tubes for my electrical engineering degree from Tri-State College, Angola, Indiana (1962).  But, when I came out of the service in 1968 I was 6 years behind.  I began studying transistors while working at Hewlett-Packard in Palo Alto, California.  They were still building vacuum tubes and I worked on Backward Wave Oscillators and Klystrons which were again vacuum tubes.
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-  Next door there was Xerox PARC, a Palo Alto Research Center where Apple and others introduced the personal computer.  HP even was building the printed circuit boards for Apple because Apple did not yet have that manufacturing capability.  I actually bought the Apple II serial number 200.  Soon the laser printer was introduced and Windows - graphic user interface.
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-  This was 1968, in 1965 Gordon Moore, founder of Intel, said the computer power would double every 18 months because of integrated circuits etching smaller and smaller circuits.  Today our cell phones have more computer power that all of NASA had back in 1969.  And, NASA used that computer to put 2 astronauts on the Moon.
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-  Sony Play Station costing $300 has more computer power than the military’s supercomputer of 1997 costing millions of dollars.
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-  Exponential growth in computer power:  Mother Nature uses the same exponential law in virus growth.  A cold virus can grow from 1 virus to 10 billion viruses in just 5 generations.
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-  In 1960s I took only one  college course on solid state transistors that were just beginning to replace vacuum tubes.  Mainframe computers using vacuum tubes were just entering the market place.
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-  In 1970’s  integrated circuit boards contained hundreds of transistors.  Mini-computers entered the market place.
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-  In 1980’s computer chips contained 10’s of millions of transistors.  Personal computers were the size of a briefcase.
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-  In 1990’s the internet connects 100’s of millions of computers in a global network.
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-  In 2000’s computer chips are dispersed into the environment:   Video games, clothing, greeting cards, appliances, cars, word processors, cell phones, cameras, drones, chips even replacing bar codes on plastic wrappers.  By 2020 the price of a computer chip will be about a penny.
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-  In the future the internet will not just be accessed by computers and cell phones.  It will be in the walls, furniture, billboards and even in contact lenses.  Many people will be wearing internet glasses.
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-  With internet contact lenses the computer would quickly warn a diabetic of a low glucose level.  You could have a complete entertainment system on you eyeballs projecting movies directly to your retinas.
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-  Students could cheat on exams by accessing the internet, need an answer just Google it.  Teachers would have to retrain themselves to teach thinking and reasoning instead of memorization and facts.
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-  The technology for contact lenses has to get to 3,000 pixels, each one only 10 micrometers thick.
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-  Using eye glasses to project images on the retina we need lasers that are only 100 atoms across.
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-  No worries about internet communications distracting your driving because cars will drive themselves.
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-  Military vehicles will all be driverless.
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-  Driverless cars need GPS, Global Positioning Systems, to know their positions to within feet , even inches.  These cars have radars in each of the fenders to avoid collisions.
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-  Wall screens with internet connections will allow business meetings or family gatherings to appear in your living room.
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-  3-D images will soon appear on all these devices.
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-  Flexible screens will use organic compounds on a polymer having Organic Light-Emitting Diodes, OLED’s.  Laptops and cell phones will have full size screens and keyboards that roll up.
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-  Once in the cyber world you can travel the world, visit museums, attend concerts, walk on the Moon, in ‘virtual reality”.
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-  Surgeons will be trained in virtual reality with haptic technology that simulates the sense of touch.
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-  Military will simulate training missions for soldiers using virtual reality.
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-  A doctor’s office will be a computer station that will diagnose common ailments with 95% accuracy.  Medicine will be prescribed knowing you unique genetic risk factors.  MRI’s will be the size of cell phones.
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-  All this need not be in a doctor’s office.  It could be in your toilet seat.
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-  Smart pills will contain TV cameras and radios to help the doctor as “ Intel Inside” takes on a whole new meaning.
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-  Stay tuned , more announcements will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-  #1420  -  Supercomputers in the hands of engineers.
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-  #1373  -  How computers will get faster.  Compared to the human brain.
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-  #1130  -  What will continue to make our computers smaller, faster, cheaper?
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Nanotechnology from Chemistry to Biology.

-  1846  -  Nanotechnology from Chemistry to Biology.  The computer technology is advancing into smaller and smaller architectures.  Where is the limit?  What are new alternatives that can extend past the limit?
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-------------------  1846  -  Nanotechnology from Chemistry to Biology.
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-  New technology will be designing machines so small they will be using individual atoms. Molecular manufacturing creates new materials with new and amazing properties.
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-  The potential of nanotechnology has convinced the government (2009) to allocate 1.5 billion dollars for research.
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-  The laws of physics do not remain the same as you go down to smaller and smaller scales.  Other forces dominate the atomic scale, ex:  atomic binding and Van Der Waals forces.
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-  An example is when water freezes.  Water molecules are “V” shaped, H2O.  The 2 hydrogen atoms on top have a slight negative charge.  The oxygen at the bottom has a slight positive charge.  When water freezes the molecules stack in a regular lattice.  Ice expands as water molecules arrange in these hexagon shapes.  Ice floats.  Snow flakes have 6 sides.
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-  Atoms are largely empty space between the nucleus and the cloud of electrons.  You can not walk through walls because the quantum forces between them stop you.  If the atom were a football stadium the nucleus would be a grain of sand.  It is not an empty vacuum inside the stadium.  Quantum forces fill the entire arena and these forces make things feel solid.
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-  These forces begin with the Pauli Exclusion Principle that prevents any two electrons from occupying the same state of orbit or spin.  If electrons approach each other they repel.  Matter is “solid” as an illusion  It is basically empty.
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-  Sitting in this chair I am basically floating a nanometer above it being repelled by the chair’s electromagnetic and quantum forces.
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-  The reason atoms can become molecules is that electrons can be shared by 2 adjacent  atoms.  The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that the electron is “smeared” between the 2 atoms, even being in 2 places at once.  This process stacks atoms all the way up the Periodic Table and across all the molecules in all of matter.
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---------------------  The new laws of the small include:
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---------------------  You can not know the exact velocity and position of any particle,  there is always uncertainty and a trade offs between the two.
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--------------------  Particles can be in 2 places at once.
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-------------------  Particles are a mixture of different states , simultaneously.
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-------------------  Particles can disappear and reappear somewhere else.
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-  This bizarre Quantum Theory has only one thing going for it.  It is correct.  Its accuracy has never been found to be wrong.  In the macro-scale with trillions and trillions of atoms these effects all average out and these quantum effects do not exist in our perceived reality.
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-  To make miniature machines out of atoms we need to move one atom at a time.  This is done today with a Scanning Tunneling Microscope.  It uses a fine needle.  The tip being a single atom that passes over the material.  The electric current in the tip changes slightly every time it passes over a single atom.  The microscope can print our the outline of all the atoms or even move them around.
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-  Another device is the Atomic Force Microscope which can record a 3-D image of an array of atoms.   Again the needle with the fine point is used except a laser records the jiggle of the needle.  Computers can convert these jiggles into an atomic 3-D image.
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-  Nanotechnology today is a booming business in spraying on chemical coatings on clothing, computer screens, cutting tools, and MEMS.
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-  MEMS are Micro Electromechanical Systems used in ink-jet cartridges, air bag sensors, gyroscopes , accelerometers, earth quake detectors, …
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-  Soon these tiny machines will be the size of a pill that can enter your body and be tracked electronically.  The tiny machines can deliver medicines to a precise location inside the body.  They can search out tumors and destroy them.  Chemotherapy drugs can be placed only on the cancer cells.
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-  The silicon-based computer improves in the ability using ultraviolet light (shortest wavelength, 10 nanometers) to etch smaller and smaller transistors on to a wafer of silicon.  Due to the Uncertainty Principle there is a limit to how small a silicon transistor can be.
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-  Parallel Processing is a way to solve this problem.  The human brain operates at 200 miles per hour.  A turtle’s speed compared to a computer’s light-neck speed, 186,000 miles per second.  But, the brain is doing billions of small calculations simultaneously in parallel than adding them together to get results.  Parallel Processing is a technique that can solve complex problems faster.
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-  Another way to solve the problem is to make the transistor itself smaller.  Electron beam etching on graphene can make a transistor one-atom thick and 10 atoms across.
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-  Another way to solve the problem is not use the transistor at all.  Use the single atom itself.  Atoms have binary spin, Spin-up  = “0”. Spin-down  =  “1”.  However, in the Quantum World the atom is spinning up and down at the same time and only collapses into one or the other when a photon observes it.
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-  To solve this problem use “qubits” rather than “bits” with say 25% spinning up and 75% spinning down.  The problem today with “ qubits” is that the slightest disturbance from the outside environment can destroy these delicate properties of the atoms.
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-  Quantum Dots are collections of about 100 atoms.  They may someday allow Quantum computing at room temperatures.
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-  Your body’s DNA encodes information on amino acids not in “1”  or “0” but in “A”, , “T”, “C”, “G”.  Maybe this is the way to design a DNA computer.
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-  Biology is getting closer to learning what each gene in a living cell is doing.  They are doing this by removing DNA codes in bacterium to learn the minimum needed to be “alive”.
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-  Biologists have got down to 531,000 DNA blocks containing just 473 genes.  For comparison we humans have 3,000,000,000 building blocks with more than 20,000 genes.
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-  The DNA code, the “genome”, contained in the simplest bacterium is still extremely complex.  The minimum genome an organism needs depends on the environment in which it is to live.
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-  Ultimately biologists hope by knowing what each gene is doing we can produce organisms that are medicines, fuels, nutrition, and other machines with endless applications.
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-  Stay tune, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-  #664  -  Nanotechnology  2006
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-  #574  - Nanotechnology  2005
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-  #1230  -  Nanotube weirdness of the very small.  
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-  #627  -  Nanowire solar cells.
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-  #851  -  The nanotube radio.
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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Why is the sky blue? 100 years of science.

-  1845   -  Why is the sky blue?  Starts with an attempt to explain it by Aristotle in 342 B.C.  Then it took 100 years to get the answer advancing physics and biology along the way.
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-------------------------------------  -  1845   -  Why is the sky blue?
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-  The child may ask you, “ Why is the sky blue?”  You  may have the answer but it took 100 years of science for the answer the first time.  This is a short cut to a century of learning and an introduction to the teachers who gave it to us.
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-  Aristotle wrote a treatise on the answer:  “ The air close at hand is clear and the deep air of the sky is blue in the same way that a thin layer of water is clear, but, a deep well of water looks black.”
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-  Aristotle’s ( 384 - 322 B.C.) parents died when he was a young age and he was raised by a family friend..  At 17 he went to Athens to Plato’s academy.  In 342 B.C. he became the tutor of Alexander the Great.  His writings accumulated to 150 volumes.  He became the founder of the systematic study of logic and the art of reasoning.
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-  Later Johan Kepler said, “the air merely looks colorless because the tint of its color is so faint when it is in a thin layer.  But, the idea of “ blueness” was not mentioned..
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-  Kepler (1571 - 1630)  a German astronomer at the age of 23 he was teaching science in a university in Austria.  Kepler’s book published in 1619 includes his 3rd law that the square of the period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of its distance from the Sun.  He corresponded with Galileo.  He had 13 children and was killed  by a medical bleeding operation designed to reduce his high fever.
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-  Leonardo da Vinci said, “ the blue which is seen in the atmosphere is not its own color, but, is caused by heated moisture having evaporated into the most minute imperceptible particles, which beams of the solar rays attract and cause to seem luminous against the deep, intense darkness of the region of fire that forms a covering above them.”
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-  -  Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452 - 1519)  born of illegitimate birth near Florence, Italy.  He became a military engineer he drew pictures of tanks, airplanes, parachutes and submarines.  He ws a vegetarian due to an aversion to killing animals.  Yet, he studied muscles and bones in order to enhance his drawings including the “ Mona Lisa” and “Last Supper”.
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-Isaac Newton tried to demonstrate the phenomena through painstaking experiments with refraction that white light could be decomposed into its constituent colors of the rainbow.
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-  Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) graduated from Cambridge  1665.  He worked out the binomial theorem while on his Mother’s farm where he stayed to avoid the Plague that was in London.  It was on the farm that he saw the apple fall to the ground and wondered why the Moon did not fall as well.  He concluded that the force of gravity fell off as the square of the distance from Earth’s center.  Newton discovered the prism to show that white light was a rainbow of colors combined.  At 27 he became a professor at Cambridge U.  He developed Calculus.  He theorized that light was a series of particles (photons).  In 1668 he invented the reflecting telescope using a parabolic mirror.  His book in 1687 codified Galileo’s 3 laws of motion, F=ma.  Then, the force of gravity F= G*m*M / r^2.  In 1727 he was buried in Westminster Abbey.
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-  In 1760 Leonhard Euler speculated that the wave theory of light might help to explain why the sky is blue
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Lenard Euler (1707 -1783) was a professor of math in St. Petersburg, Russia.  He lost the sight of his right eye observing the Sun.  With one eye and later in 1766 loosing sight in the that eye he published 800 papers on mathematics.
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-  Scientists in 1789 were making countless observations from different locations, altitudes and times, using cyanometers.  A cynanometer is a 53 section tool with varying shades of blue arranged in a circle.  The thinking that something suspended in the air must be responsible for the blue color.
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-  Eventually it was realized that gaseous molecules were that “something” that was making air appear blue.
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-  The blueness of the sky helped science discover the physical reality of atoms.  The color of the sky is deeply connected to atomic theory.
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-  The sky is blue because the incident light interacts with gas molecules in the air.  More of the light is in the blue part of the spectrum and is scattered because the wavelength is the size of the air molecules.  What reaches our eyes is scattered blue light.
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-  All the frequencies of the incident light can be scattered but the high frequency , short wavelength, blue is scattered more than the low-frequency, wide wavelength, red light.  This explanation won a Noble price in 1870.
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-  In 1904 Lord Rayleigh discovered the gas molecule argon when a wavelength of light is on the same order as the size of the molecule the intensity of the scattered light varies inversely with the 4th power of its wavelength.  (That is:  the shorter the wavelength the greater the intensity of scattering ).
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-  Lord Rayleigh (1842 - 1919) was an English physicists credited with mathematically confirming that light scattering accounts for the blueness of the sky.  He showed that all atomic weights are multiples of the hydrogen atom.
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-  But, violet is shorter wavelength then blue.  The sky should appear violet?  Now, we enter biology.  Our eyes are more sensitive to blue light than to violet light.  The ultraviolet light that burns your skin is invisible to your eyes.
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-  To explain “ Why is the sky blue” you need several sciences to understand the colors of the rainbow in the visual spectrum.
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---------------------------  The wave nature of light, being electromagnetic radiation.
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--------------------------  The geometry of which sunlight hit’s the atmosphere.  At the lowest angles of sunset the sky turns orange and red. Because the blue ligth has been scattered out of the spectrum in the deeper atmosphere viewed at the lower angles.
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--------------------------  The size of nitrogen and oxygen molecules.
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-------------------------  The way the human eyes perceive colors.
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--------------------------  How the curiosity of a child can lead to a century of science.
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-  Keep your curiosity as long and as childish as you can as you grow older and wiser.
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-  #1795  -  lists 12 reviews about light.  Light travels 1 foot in a nanosecond.  Time stops at the speed of light.  A telescope shows you the oldest thing, a young star that is 12 billion years old today.
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Saturday, March 26, 2016  -----
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Pascal’s Wager on Climate Change.

-  1844  -  Math  -  Pascal’s Wager on Climate Change.  This is a decision theory using mathematical and statistical inferences that works in day to day decision making.
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-------------------  1844  -  Math  -  Pascal’s Wager on Climate Change.
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-  In 1661  a Mathematician Blaise Pascal articulated “ Pascal’s Wager”  designed to determine whether or not to believe in God.  If you must choose it is best to use science and “ decision theory”.  It is an effective way to reason whether it is to believe in God or believe in Climate Change.
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-  We never need to be 100% sure in order to act , or to make a decision.  Simply weigh the odds and the consequences of being wrong.  What is the worst that can happen?
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-  We make major investment s in renewable energy knowing estimates that peak oil availability will happen by 2020.
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-  We have invested in new jobs and new technologies.
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-  We have improved national security with less oil dependence from unstable regions of the world.
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-  We have lessened pollution.
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-  We have lessened subsidizing fossil fuels.  We put environmental costs on the economic and business profit and loss statements.  We begin measuring the true long term costs of stuff.
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-  We separate the costs of protecting old industries and the costs in investing in new technologies and new industries.
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-  For example:
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-  If climate change skeptics are wrong, we face displacement of millions of people, droughts , floods and economic harm.
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-  On the reverse side we have built a more robust economy.  So, we are better to believe in climate change and still be better off if we are wrong.
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-  That is “Pascal’s Wager”  It is a useful tool in thinking through to a decision.  What is the best and worst that can happen with any two alternatives.
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-  How does you brain work in making decisions?
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-  Our brain’s decision process is relatively slow especially compared to a computer’s calculations.  Our decisions take nearly half a second, then, our response time is from 300 to 800 milliseconds after that  And, even then we make errors.
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-  Our brain makes decisions by “accumulating the available statistical evidence and committing to a decision whenever the total exceeds a threshold.”
-
-  The brain faces the problem of sifting the signal from the noise.  Photons hit our retinas at random times.  Neurons transmit signals with partial reliability.  Thee are neural discharges emitted by the brain as random noise.
-
-  The brain uses “ Bayes’ Law” with statistics noisy inputs sum up and down.  Wait until the accumulated statistics exceeds a threshold probability value.  The higher the probability threshold the longer we have to wait for a decision.  We also set a speed to accuracy tradeoff.
-
-  The brain accumulates evidence at each of several successive levels of processing.  It makes massively parallel inferences and micro-decision a t every stage.
-
-  On top of strict mathematically optimality we have a-priors, biases, time pressures, and value judgments that are  weighed in the mix. Maybe we also had too much to drink.  Regardless, the human brain is a near - optimal statistician and parallel processing computer as we accumulate evidence up to our threshold
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-
-  Pascal was only 39 years old when he died  ( 1623  -  1662).  He was a sickly child and his mother died when he was 3.  When he was 9 on his own he discovered the first 32 theorems in Euclid’s geometry.  At 16 he published a book on Geometry.  At 19 he invented a calculator with goggled wheels.  He founded the modern theory of Probabilities.   He did the math for building a hydraulic press.  Today we use Pascal’s Wager to make good decisions.
-
-  Thomas Bayes  ( 1701 -  1761)  devised the theory of Probabilities :
-
------------------------------  p ( A/B)  =  P(B/A) * P(A)  /  P(B)
-
-  Probability of an event based on conditions related to the event giving probability interpretations for statistical inferences.
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Great Walls in space with Blackholes.

-  1843  -  Great Walls in space with Blackholes.  Are there really holes in the Universe?  Are there complete voids of only empty space?  How to calculate and measure the rotation rate of Blackholes.
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---------------------  -  1843  -  Great Walls in space with Blackholes.
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-  The biggest “ thing” in the Universe ( so far ) is a Great Wall of galaxies 1 billion lightyears across.  The wall is called the “BOSS”.  It contains over 830 galaxies and is 10,000 times the mass of the Milky Way Galaxy.
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-  The Milky Way s 10 billion years old.  The Earth is 4.6 billion years old.  Our galaxy is rotating at 504,000 miles per hour with a radius of 5*10^21 meters.  ( There are 9.4605 *10^15 meters per lightyear).  Galaxy radius is 529,000 lightyears to its outermost reaches.
-
-  Galaxies group into “ clusters”.  Larger structures of clusters are called “ super clusters”.  Then the biggest is the “Wall of galaxies“.  The BOSS is 5 billion lightyears away.
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-  In between the fabric of galaxy clusters and threads of galaxies are VOIDS.  A vacuum of nothingness.
-
-  Astronomers discovered a large hole of this “ nothingness” that was 500 lightyears away.  Actually it is a dark cloud of gas and dust.  Called “ Bernard 68” , it is catalogued as “ Dark Nebula”  ,  a molecular cloud of neutral gas.
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-  Bernard 68 is 0.25 lightyears radius and 0.25 Solar Mass of neutral gas.  Neutral gas blocks visible light but is transparent to infrared.  Using Infrared Telescopes astronomers found the hole to contain 3,700 background stars becoming visible in the infrared.
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-  The interior of the gas cloud is extremely cold, 16 Kelvin.  It s cold but definitely not a “hole” in the Universe as it was so broadly mis-reported.  There are regions of space where there is far less matter-  stars, gas, dust, even Dark Matter, than average.  In fact these are only under-density regions within a larger volume of average space.
-
-  Social media has identified this hole in media photos widely communicated.  Millions of people now believe it.  The correct explanation is only communicated to a few thousand people.  The knowledge of the general populace is not ignorance but rather media misinformation posing as knowledge.
-
-Communicators need to be scrupulous and diligent, particularly in this political season.  “Truth” is not simply looking at the result you want to hear.  Communications takes more effort than that.  More integrity.
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-  Blackholes are” real” holes in the Universe.  We don’t know what “real” is yet.  A quasar Blackhole 3.5 billion lightyears away is rotating 33% the speed of light.  It weighs 18 billion Solar Mass.  It’s “ Black”.  How can we possible know how fast the hole is spinning ?
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-  This particular Quasar is in a region of sky that has been studied for over a century.  Called “OJ287” this Quasar emits periodic optical outbursts every 12 years since 1891.
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-  The bursts have double peaks.  A computer model developed to simulate this data comes up with 2 unequal mass Blackholes orbiting each other.  The smaller Blackhole passes through the Accretion Disk of the larger Blackhole during its elliptical orbit.
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-  The collisions cause the Disk material to heat up, radiating for weeks.  The elliptical orbit precesses at a rate that depends on the masses of the 2 Blackholes and precession rotation rate.  The model concluded that the elliptical orbit is tilted 39 degrees.  The 2 Blackholes are 100 million Solar Mass and 18,000 million Solar Mass.  The orbit radius is 10 light weeks.  The Quasar is 35 billion lightyears away.
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-  The model predicted the next outburst to occur November 25, 2015.  It actually occurred November 18, 2015 reaching a maximum brightness on December 4, 2015.
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-  Even more finely tuned calculations on this data predicted the loss of orbital energy due to the radiation of Gravitational Waves.  The hope is that these waves will be detected by LIGO,  the Laser Interferometer Gravity Wave Observatory.  ( See Review #  1795)
-
-  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  (1)  Reference Kerr Blackholes after Roy Kerr who calculated the maximum rotation rates of Blackholes with zero charges about a central axis.
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-  (2)  See also Gravity Probe B.  (Review # 1728, 1536)         .
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-  #1819  -  new discoveries that may close the gap between stellar and galaxy center Blackholes.  It is estimated that there are 100,000,000 Blackholes in our own galaxy.
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-  There are 21 more reviews available upon request about Blackholes.  Many discoveries are occurring with rapidly moving technology.
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Matter and Anti-Matter?

-  1839  -  Matter and Anti-Matter?  What can explain why matter outnumbers anti-matter.  They should have been equal in the beginning.  How particle accelerators are searching for the answers.
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-------------------------------------  1839  -  Matter and Anti-Matter?
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-  Most everyone has heard by now that astronomers and physicists believe that 95% of the Universe is composed of matter and energy that we have not yet discovered.  Called:  “ Dark Matter and Dark Energy”.
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-  Even in the 5% that is left as “ Ordinary Matter” there is still room for discovery.  There is the dilemma  of where is the anti-matter?  Theory requires that there had to be equal amounts of matter and anti-matter in order for the Big Bang to start from “nothing”.  Just like equal amounts of positive and negative charges needed to make the Universe neutral.  Just like equal numbers of north and south magnetic poles.
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-  The Big Bang was the creation of space and time that started the size of a proton and vastly expanded in the beginning, called “Cosmic Inflation“.  In order to start from ‘nothing” there had to be a balance , yet, today there is a currently a matter-anti-matter imbalance.
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-  Particle physics research s trying to discover  why?  They are using enormous “Particle Colliders” that mash together ions.  Ions are the positive charged nuclei of atoms, the negative charged electrons have been removed.
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-  The Collider is 2.4 miles long.  Ion beams start at opposite ends and are shot towards each other at nearly the speed of light.  The high speed collisions melt the protons and neutrons of the ions freeing the Quarks, Gluons,  and other particles to disperse in the explosion.
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-  This mini-explosion is not expected to be much different than the Big Bang itself.  The super hot and super dense Universe in the beginning was a hot soup of Quarks and Gluons.  There are 3 Quarks in every proton and every neutron.  The Gluons are massless particles that hold the positive charged Quarks together.  Just like photons are force carriers keeping protons and electrons from merging in the atom.
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-  The Quark soup  lasted only a few seconds.  The Universe quickly expanded and cooled forming nuclei and eventually neutral atoms of hydrogen and helium.  This process behaved like the phases of water transitioning from gas steam to liquid water to solid ice.
-
-  Particle Colliders are attempting to recreate these phase transitions that occurred in the first microseconds of the Big Bang.  The temperatures created in the collisions are 100,000 time hotter than the core of the Sun.
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-  The transitions appear as an “ onion” that transitions into “onion soup”.  The onion layers are separations of matter into its primordial elements.  There is so much more to earn in the soup.
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-  The electron is one of these fundamental particles.  A different particle collider is accelerating and colliding electrons and anti-electrons.  The Anti-electrons are the same particle with the opposite charge, called positrons.
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-  The accelerator rings are 2 miles in circumference.  Magnets are used to keep the charged electrons and anti-electrons into tight beams traveling at nearly the speed of light,  186,292 miles per second.  Radio frequencies are used to accelerate the beams abound the circle.
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-  The accelerator is also used to create pairs of Bottom-Quarks and Bottom-Anti-Quarks.
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-  One early interesting discovery is the way B-Mesons decay.  The asymmetry that occurs in the decay is called “ CP violation”.  Physicists today can not explain why this asymmetry happens, but, it may by why matter out creates anti-matter.
-
-  The speculation is that this same event occurred in the Big Bang causing the current imbalance we see in the matter-anti-matter today.
-
-  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  #1393  -  Does Anti-matter really exist?  It was first discovered mathematically in 1928 not in the lab until 1935.
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-  #1303    Why look for anti-matter in the Antarctic?
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-  #1272   -  Teaching the science of anti-matter
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-  #1746  -    The asymmetry of matter over anti-matter may have been produced as a result of the motion of the Higgs Field.
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Puzzles that astronomers find challenging.

-1493 -    Puzzles that astronomers find challenging.  The Universe is expanding at an ever accelerating rate due to a vacuum energy in space that we can not identify.  In order to have the effect of gravity everywhere the same,  there must be 10 times more mass than we can identify.  Whatever is causing it the Universe will end cold,  black, with empty space being the winner.
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--------------------------------  #1493  -  Puzzles in Astronomy
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-  Astronomers have a challenging job.  So many problems to solve.  And, these are BIG problems.  We know the Universe is BIG.  It has been expanding for 13.7 billion years.  That is how old the Universe is.  But, the Visible Universe that we can see is constrained by the speed of light.  During the 13.7 billion years from the beginning the light we see has traveled nearly that many lightyears distance.  What we can see is in the past and over that time it takes the light to get to us the Universe has expanded even further.  Calculating the rate of expansion which is accelerating the Visible Universe has moved beyond to a radius of 42 billion lightyears radius. We can only see 13.7 billion lightyears of it today.
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-  I know, it is hard to wrap your mind around this.
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-  It is likely that there is an even greater Universe beyond this “ Visible Universe”.  The “ Visible Universe is not visible yet because all the light has not had enough time to reach us yet.  This part of the Universe is 84 billion lightyears in diameter.  To explain the homogeneity and the geometric flatness of the Universe astronomers believe that soon after the Big Bang the Universe experienced Cosmic Inflation that expanded the Universe much faster than the speed of light.  It was space expanding rather than the matter in the Universe moving.  So we are not breaking any rules that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light.  The light in this part of the Universe will never reach us.  It is too far away and accelerating too fast.  But, that still means there is much more of the Universe out there.
-
-  Now, to make the Universe even more challenging within the Universe that we can see there exists 95% of matter and energy that we can’t identify.  It is called “Dark” Matter and “Dark” Energy.  This mass-energy effects gravity but it does not interact with electromagnetic energy.  It can not be detected with light or any other electromagnetic radiation.  We know it is there because of the gravity effects on other matter that we can see.
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-  Spinning galaxies could not remain intact if there were not unseen matter providing 10 times more gravity needed to hold things together.  10 times more mass than we can see and detect with any other means other than its affect on gravity.
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-  Light passing past a large Dark Matter mass is bent with Gravitational Lensing.  We can see these effects on images that are in the background of the Dark Matter mass.  Again calculations tell us that there is 10 times more matter causing this that we can detect, other than by gravity.
-
-  The Universe is expanding at an accelerating rate.  There must be some form of Dark Energy in the vacuum of space that opposes gravity and causes the expansion to accelerate.  Astronomers can use E = mc^2 to calculate the amount of mass and energy in the Universe.  Their calculations are that 72.1% is Dark Energy and 23.3% is Dark Matter.  The remainder 4.6% is “everything” we can see and detect.  95% is “ Dark” and called dark because it is a puzzle that has yet to be solved.
-
-  Another puzzle is the Big Bang itself.  Supposedly, it really came out of “nothing”.  If it was truly created out of nothing than there must have been equal amounts of matter and anti-matter that put back together would equal nothing.  There must have been equal amounts of positive and negative charges, protons and electrons.   There must have been an equal number of north and south magnetic poles to cancel out all magnetic energy.  It all must add up to nothing.  Was there nothing there before the Big Bang exploded with space and time expanding from the beginning?  Are there other Universes out there experiencing the same thing?
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-  Somehow the Universe we know exists with matter outnumbering anti-matter.  For every billion anti-matter particles there would have to have been 1 billion plus one matter particle.  That is the only way we can explain how we got here.
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-  We also must assume that all the laws of nature are the same everywhere in the Universe.  Not only the same but without the slightest change from what we experience or life could not exist.  Not only must the laws of nature be friendly to life these laws must exist for billions of years, the time it takes for life to evolve.
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-  We have evidence that the first galaxies formed less than 500 million years after the Big Bang.  Galaxies formed from small density fluctuations in the hot primordial  gas that formed out of the plasma as it expanded and cooled.  Slightly higher densities provided the gravity needed to make denser regions that eventually coalesced into stars and galaxies.  Dark Matter had to be present as part of the calculations that predict the Universe we see today.
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-  After the puzzle as to how it all began there is the puzzle as to how it will all end.  The Universe is expanding at an ever faster rate.  The distances between galaxies is becoming greater and greater.  Eventually the distances will be so great their light will never have time to reach us.  We will only see the stars that are gravitationally connected to us.  And, those stars will be running out of fuel and will extinguish.  The rarefied vacuum of space will contain only blackholes and dead stars.
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-  Blackholes have an Event Horizon that separates the hole from the surrounding Universe.  Anything inside the Event Horizon disappears from the Universe for good.  Blackholes themselves are a dark universe.  In the end Blackholes will exist in a totally dark Universe expanding into infinity.
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-  Enjoy life while you have it.  The far distant future does not look so bright.
-
-  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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-  #1836  - An Expanding Universe.
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-  #1821  -  Describing the Universe listing 15 additional reviews.
-
-  #1808  -  History of the Universe from the Big Bang to today, 16 pages long.
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An expanding Universe

-  1836  - An expanding Universe is stretching our imagination.  Experimental evidence tells us that 95% of the Universe is Dark Energy and Dark Matter that we haven’t found yet.
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- ----------------------------- -  1836  - An expanding Universe .
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-  One of the most spectacular discoveries over the past 100 years is that the Universe is expanding.  And, it is expanding at ever accelerating rate.  Galaxies are rapidly separating from each other and some are going out of sight.
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-  When the General Relativity equations were produced in 1905 - 1915, the equations were “ unstable”.  They defined a Universe that was like balancing a pencil on its point.  Any tilt, in any direction , would result in the Universe expanding forever, or, compressing back into a single point, a “singularity“.
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-  Einstein came up with another term to put in his equation to solve this problem.  He called it a “Cosmological Constant“, with values selected to balance the equation into a “static” condition.  That was what he thought the Universe was doing at the time.  It was static.
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-  Hubble later in 1915 discovered the Universe was expanding.  The further a galaxy was away from us the faster it was receding away from us.  So, the Cosmological Constant needed to change its values to allow for an accelerating, expanding Universe.  Distant galaxies the further away the faster they were separating from us.  Those at the most distant boundary were too far for enough time to allow light to reach us.  They are past a  horizon beyond which a galaxy will never be seen again.
-
-  The conclusion became that the fabric of space itself was expanding everywhere overcoming the pull of gravity.  The pull of gravity (F) decreases at the square of the distance of separation ( r )
-
-----------------------------  F =  G  *  M  * m  /  r^2
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-  Fine, I can buy that but what is the Universe expanding in to?
-
-  Hard to comprehend, but, space itself is growing everywhere the same as time is expanding everywhere.  Denser regions draw in more and more matter creating a “Lumpy” distribution with expanding “voids” in between.
-
-  What is causing this expansion?  The name given is “ Dark Energy”.
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-  Today the rate of expansion is 47,000 miles per hour per every million lightyears distance
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-------------------------  Distance  * 47,000 mph/MLY  =  receding velocity.
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-  We can not see beyond how far light has traveled over the past 13.6 billion years.  Beyond that horizon is the “Unobservable Universe” that we can never see.
-
-  So,  we are free to let your imagination wander.  Could the Universe eventually fold back on itself?
-
-  If looking east and a galaxy disappears. Could you turn the telescope pointing west and see it come back over the horizon?
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-  Or, is our Universe inside a bigger Universe?
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-  Or, are there multiple Universes and are we just in one of many?
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-  All we have to hang our hat on is the equations in General Relativity that shows how space could be expanding. Even between our ears.
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-  A brain once expanded never returns to its original size.
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-  Physics has something to say about the temperature of the Universe decreasing as the size increases.  At the time of the Big Bang the temperature was 1.4*10^32 Kelvin.  Today the Universe has expanded and cooled to 2.73 Kelvin.
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-  If you take the clock back to the beginning the smallest increment of time is theoretically 10^-43 seconds.  If you use the natural constants to calculate the mass the equation becomes:
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---------------------------  mass^2  =  h  *  c  /  G
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-------------------------  h  =  Planck’s constant  =  6.58 * 10^-22        MeV*sec
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--------------------------  c  =  constant speed of light  =  2.99*10^8  m / sec
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-------------------------  G  =  Gravitational Constant  =  6.67*10^-11  m^3 / kg* sec^2
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--------------------------  MeV  =  1.6022*10^-13    kg^ * m^2  / sec^2
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--------------------------  m^2  =  4.73 * 10^-16  kg^2
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--------------------------  m  =  2.2*10^-8  kg
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-  Planck mass 2.2 * 10^-8  kilograms doesn’t sound like much but it is equivalent to 10^19 protons  And, the energy equivalent using E = mc^2  =  1.23 * 10^19 GeV.
That is a tremendous amount of energy.
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 -   It is embarrassing for astronomers that the evidence suggests 95% of the Universes’ mass-enregy is something we have not discovered to date.  70% is Dark Energy.  25% is Dark Matter.
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-  The Universe we see, know a little about, and love is only 5% of what is out there.
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-  The search for Dark Matter is pushing technologies to new limits.  Some current experiments are located one mile underground in South Dakota.  These technologies are using Xenon detectors.
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-  Xenon has the atomic number 54.  It is a colorless, dense, odorless, noble gas.  It is used in flash lamps in lasers and in the search for weakly interactive massive particles (WIMPS) believed to be the source of Dark Matter.
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-  The evidence for Dark Matter’s existence is the unseen gravity found around galaxies.   Unseen  gravity that acts as a lens bending light beams to magnify even more distant galaxies.
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-  The Xenon detectors are located deep underground to reduce interference from any other particles.  The search depends on the accuracy of current theories.  Every new clue produces new theories.
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-  General Relativity was the theory used to detect gravitational waves in the LIGO experiment.  The Laser Interferometer Gravity Observatory discovered these waves for the first time last September, 2015.  This same theory is being used as the only evidence for Dark Matter depending on our same understanding of gravity.
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-  Gravitational Waves are distortions , or ripples, in the fabric of space-time.  WIMPS are particles that have mass affected by gravity, but, these particles do not interact with electromagnetic radiation.
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-  The science of cosmology and the expansion of the Universe is used to calculate how much Dark Energy is out there and Gravitational Lensing is what has given astronomers a pretty good idea of how this Dark Matter is distributed.  It is effectively invisible halos surrounding the visible galaxies containing at least 5 times the mass we can see.
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-  What we do not know is what this invisible mass is at the particle level.  That is what these experiments are all about.  A brain once expanded never returns to its original size.
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-  #1821  - Describing the Universe.
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-  #1821 -   also list 15 other Reviews.
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-  #1808  -  History of the Universe, 16 pages long.
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Dwarf galaxies and WIMPS?

-  1832 -  Dwarf Galaxies and WIMPS, believed to be the particles in Dark Matter.  Dwarf Galaxies have a few hundred stars.  Globular Clusters have  100,000’s stars.  Our Milky Way has billions.
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-----------------  -  1832 -  Dwarf Galaxies and WIMPS
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-  We think of galaxies as gigantic spiral disks containing trillions of individual stars.
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-  The Sloan Digital Sky Survey has discovered dozens of Dwarf  Galaxies that only contain a few hundred stars.  The total number of candidates being studied orbiting our Milky Way Galaxy is 50.  The Milky Way itself contains 100 billion stars.
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-  Two of the largest dwarf galaxies can be seen with the naked eye.  These are known as the Large and Small Megellanic Clouds.
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-  One of the main reasons for studying these small faint dwarfs is to uncover the mystery of Dark Matter.  The measurements to date calculate that there is 5 times more Dark Matter that Visible Matter in or around galaxies.
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-  Current theories that there are particles that respond to gravity but do not respond to electromagnetic radiation, therefore “ Dark Matter”.  These hypothetical particles are called WIMPS, Weakly Interactive Massive Particles.
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-  Astronomers hope to detect these WIMPS thinking they will emit Gamma Rays, the highest energy electromagnetic radiation when the WIMP particles decay or annihilate each other.
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-  The Dwarf Galaxies appear to have an even higher ratio of Dark Matter, 100 to 1000 times faint visible matter.  This conclusion is made measuring the relative motion of these galaxies.
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-  Dwarf Galaxies are the oldest galaxies .  Their stars are more than 10 billion years old.  The Universe is 13.8 billion years old.
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-  Current theories for galaxy formation is that they start out as small dwarfs and merge into giant spirals.  The Milky Way Galaxy is still merging with several smaller dwarf galaxies.  In fact in 4 billion years from now we will be merging with the largest galaxy in our Local Group of Galaxies, the Andromeda Galaxy.  You can also see that with the naked eye, in the north sky line some 20 degrees above the horizon.
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-  To learn more as always astronomers want bigger, more powerful telescopes.  They want to study the faintest dwarfs to better understand and even discover the source of Dark Matter.
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-  With the naked eye on a good night you can see 3,600 stars in the night sky.  If the Earth was inside 47 Tucanae, NGC104, Globular Custer you would see 570,000 stars with the naked eye.
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-  There are 160 Globular Clusters in the Milky Way Galaxy.  These star clusters are 12 billion years old, compared to our Sun and Solar System that is 5 billion years old.
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-  Some of the Clusters are 330,000 light-years from the center of the Galaxy and they take a billion years to complete one orbit.  The Earth and our Solar System take 220 years to complete one orbit about the Galaxy center.
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-  To further illustrate the density of stars in these clusters, again, NGC104, you could see 10,000   1st Magnitude stars compared to the 29 that we can see.  You could see 130,000 6th Magnitude stars compared to the 6,000 we can see.  The night sky would be 20 times brighter than our night sky when there is a full moon.
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-  #1813  -  Galactic storms, quakes and waves.  Also list 4 other reviews.
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-  #1760  -  When and how did the first galaxies form.  How do galaxies regulate star formation?
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-  #13  -  How to weigh a galaxy? The mass of the Milky Way inside the orbit of Earth is 1.9*10^41 kilograms.  The total mass of the Milky Way is 3.9*10^41 kilograms
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-  #1132  -  Why don’t galaxies follow the laws of gravity?  Thus the theory of Dark Matter.
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-  #53  -  The farthest galaxy in our Universe is traveling 98% the speed of light away from us.
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-  #892  -  How galaxies grow up.
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-  #1585  -  Andromeda and Milky Way Collision in 6.3 billion years.
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-  #933  -  Galaxy evolution.  Most have a Blackhole at their center.
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--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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Dwarf Galaxies and Dark Matter?

-  1832 -  Dwarf Galaxies and WIMPS, believed to be the particles in Dark Matter.  Dwarf Galaxies have a few hundred stars.  Globular Clusters have  100,000’s stars.  Our Milky Way has billions.
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-----------------  -  1832 -  Dwarf Galaxies and WIMPS
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-  We think of galaxies as gigantic spiral disks containing trillions of individual stars.
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-  The Sloan Digital Sky Survey has discovered dozens of Dwarf  Galaxies that only contain a few hundred stars.  The total number of candidates being studied orbiting our Milky Way Galaxy is 50.  The Milky Way itself contains 100 billion stars.
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-  Two of the largest dwarf galaxies can be seen with the naked eye.  These are known as the Large and Small Megellanic Clouds.
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-  One of the main reasons for studying these small faint dwarfs is to uncover the mystery of Dark Matter.  The measurements to date calculate that there is 5 times more Dark Matter that Visible Matter in or around galaxies.
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-  Current theories that there are particles that respond to gravity but do not respond to electromagnetic radiation, therefore “ Dark Matter”.  These hypothetical particles are called WIMPS, Weakly Interactive Massive Particles.
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-  Astronomers hope to detect these WIMPS thinking they will emit Gamma Rays, the highest energy electromagnetic radiation when the WIMP particles decay or annihilate each other.
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-  The Dwarf Galaxies appear to have an even higher ratio of Dark Matter, 100 to 1000 times faint visible matter.  This conclusion is made measuring the relative motion of these galaxies.
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-  Dwarf Galaxies are the oldest galaxies .  Their stars are more than 10 billion years old.  The Universe is 13.8 billion years old.
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-  Current theories for galaxy formation is that they start out as small dwarfs and merge into giant spirals.  The Milky Way Galaxy is still merging with several smaller dwarf galaxies.  In fact in 4 billion years from now we will be merging with the largest galaxy in our Local Group of Galaxies, the Andromeda Galaxy.  You can also see that with the naked eye, in the north sky line some 20 degrees above the horizon.
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-  To learn more as always astronomers want bigger, more powerful telescopes.  They want to study the faintest dwarfs to better understand and even discover the source of Dark Matter.
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-  With the naked eye on a good night you can see 3,600 stars in the night sky.  If the Earth was inside 47 Tucanae, NGC104, Globular Custer you would see 570,000 stars with the naked eye.
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-  There are 160 Globular Clusters in the Milky Way Galaxy.  These star clusters are 12 billion years old, compared to our Sun and Solar System that is 5 billion years old.
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-  Some of the Clusters are 330,000 light-years from the center of the Galaxy and they take a billion years to complete one orbit.  The Earth and our Solar System take 220 years to complete one orbit about the Galaxy center.
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-  To further illustrate the density of stars in these clusters, again, NGC104, you could see 10,000   1st Magnitude stars compared to the 29 that we can see.  You could see 130,000 6th Magnitude stars compared to the 6,000 we can see.  The night sky would be 20 times brighter than our night sky when there is a full moon.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
-
-  #1813  -  Galactic storms, quakes and waves.  Also list 4 other reviews.
-
-  #1760  -  When and how did the first galaxies form.  How do galaxies regulate star formation?
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-  #13  -  How to weigh a galaxy? The mass of the Milky Way inside the orbit of Earth is 1.9*10^41 kilograms.  The total mass of the Milky Way is 3.9*10^41 kilograms
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-  #1132  -  Why don’t galaxies follow the laws of gravity?  Thus the theory of Dark Matter.
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-  #53  -  The farthest galaxy in our Universe is traveling 98% the speed of light away from us.
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-  #892  -  How galaxies grow up.
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-  #1585  -  Andromeda and Milky Way Collision in 6.3 billion years.
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-  #933  -  Galaxy evolution.  Most have a Blackhole at their center.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------  RSVP, Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----------------
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Thursday, March 3, 2016  -----
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Exoplanets new secrets revealed?

-  1833  -  Exoplanets are starting to reveal their secrets. These first discoveries are the super-size planets that are truly alien worlds.  We have much more to learn in the search for the smaller earth-like relatives.
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-----------------  - 1833  -  Exoplanets are starting to reveal their secrets
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-   Most of us have heard that astronomers have discovered over 2,000 exoplanets orbiting other stars.  There are not many reports that follow up on what astronomers have found since.
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-  One is a planet 4 times more massive than Jupiter.  It is orbiting a Brown Dwarf star  5 billion miles away.  In contrast our Jupiter is 10 times closer to our Sun in a 500 million mile orbit.  You would think this planet would be ice cold being so far away from a cool star.
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-  Not the case, this planet is bright in the infrared because it is hot and only 10 million years old.  In contrast our Jupiter has had 4,500 million years to form and cool off.
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-  With Infrared Telescopes Hubble can study the varied atmosphere of these exoplanets.  Because the atmosphere is varied it can measure the rotation by the brightness variations.  One rotation in every 10 hours about the same as Jupiter’s, which is 9.8 hours
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-  The planet is called 2M1207b and is 170 lightyears away.  Discovered in 2006.  The patchy complex cloud patterns have the strangest atmosphere.  The temperatures are from 2,200 to 2,600 F.  The atmosphere rains silicates and vaporized rock floats in the atmosphere like cigarette smoke.
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-   Deeper into the atmosphere iron droplets are forming and falling like rain eventually evaporating again as they get lower in the atmosphere.
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-  The planet will cool over billions of years and the iron and silicate clouds will descent lower and lower in the atmosphere.
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-  The planet is only seven times less massive then the Brown Dwarf that is its sun.  By comparison our Jupiter is 100 times less massive than our Sun.  This is a strong indication how different this solar system is than our Solar System.  Our Sun formed inside a circumstellar disk through accretion.  This exoplanet and Brown Dwarf star formed through the gravitational collapse of a pair of rotating disks.
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-  In 2018 the Webb Space Telescope will be able to derive more details about these cloud maps.  The atmosphere composition we are finding so far are beyond our imagination.
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-  Another exoplanet discovered in 2004 is 40 lightyears away.  This planet is called “ 55 Cancri e”  It is 2 times the diameter of Earth and 8 times more massive.  The planet orbits very close to its star and directly in front of it from our vantage point.  Its atmosphere is hydrogen, carbon, and helium.  Its atmosphere is 1,000F.  Its orbit completes every 18 hours.
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-  The core of the planet is believed to be pure carbon, better known as “ diamond” due to the extreme pressure.  The temperature and pressure at the surface would melt the rocks and create thick layers of steam.  The atmosphere has large amounts of hydrogen and helium.   It also contains carbon monoxide ( CO),  carbon dioxide (CO2), and acetylene (C2H2)
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-  These are two of the 2,000 plus exoplanets being investigated by astronomers.  We hope to soon discover a smaller planet that is more Earthlike.  Aliens living on the super planets could have no resemblance to what we are used to.
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-  How many terrestrial planets do astronomers believe are out there?
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-  Would you believe 700 million trillion
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---------------------  7 *10^17
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-  Could Earth be one of a kind of this many rolling dice?
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-  The galaxies have had 13.8 billion years to produce these planets.  The Earth is a relatively young age among those in the Milky Way Galaxy at only 4.5 billion years.
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-  Everything we know so far comes form a very small patch of sky.  The data on exoplanets is heavily weighted on gaseous giants, or super-Jupiter’s, because they are easier to find that the smaller terrestrial planets.  So the computer models that came up with this number have a high degree of uncertainty.
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-  Of course ,even having a terrestrial planet is a far cry from having intelligent life.  The most incomprehensible fact is that I am here writing this down and you are there comprehending it.  Either we are the result of a very improbable lottery draw, or, we do not understand how the lottery works.  God only knows.
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-  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-  #1669  -  As of November, 2013 there were 3,538 planet candidates being observed.
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-  #1592  -  The first exoplanet was discovered in 1995.  So far 4 of the stars have a system of at least 6 planets.
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-  #1274  -  The Kepler Space Telescope is continuously monitoring 156,000 stars in search of planets in a single patch of sky.
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-----------------  RSVP, Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----------------
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Wednesday, March 2, 2016  -----
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MICROBES CONTROL YOUR LIFE?

-  1837  -  Microbes control your life?  Microbes, protons, and the smallest stuff responsible for life and the causes of death.
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---------------------------  -  1837  -  Microbes control your life?
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-  Zika is in today’s headlines.  A virus carried by mosquitoes that has infected 9 pregnant women in the U.S. to date.  All 9 got infected while visiting places where zika virus outbreaks have occurred.  Many travelers are rethinking plans to attend the Olympics and other vacation spots south of the border this summer.
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-  The virus spreads through mosquito bites.  The symptoms are mainly a mild illness but the danger is very real for birth defects.  The disease is called microcephaly.
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-  There are teeming masses of microbes are all over and inside your body.  In fact for every human cell in your body there are 10 bacteria.  Let me say that again bacteria outnumber your cells 10 to one.  You are more bacteria than human!  Or, is this simply a partnership for a healthy life?
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-  Those bacteria in you cells are essential for life.  You could say that your body is a conglomerate of super organisms composed of thousands of species.  We humans are definitely in a relationship with microbes.
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-  Intestinal bacteria digest our food.
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-  Microbes protect organs against infection from other disease -causing- bacteria.  Microbes are even educating your immune system against these diseases.
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-  Current studies are indicating that “ clean living” is breaking up some of the healthy friendships between people and microbes.  My Mom saying to my brother and me , “ go out and play in the dirt” was probably good therapy.
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-  Loosing a friendly bacteria can have some unpleasant side effects.  Researchers are having trouble telling what bacteria are healthy and which are not.  So, now they refer to certain bacteria as “ normal”.
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-  Having acne  -  is it healthy?  But, is it “ normal”?
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-  How about dandruff?
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-  Certain microbes are associated with obesity.  Others, with high cholesterol.  Also, microbes seem to control how much fat gets into our liver.
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-  Some bacteria create lactic acid that fights off infection.
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-  Science is trying to learn how these trillions of bacteria operate inside their human hosts.
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-  Does memory exist between brain cells that send chemical communications across synapses, or, does memory exit inside these brain cells with the brain microbes.  Are the microbes part of the brain memory and even part of the thinking processes.?
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-  How many microbes can dance on the head of a pin?  How many protons can dance on the head of a pin?
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-  How many protons does it take to have a living microbe?  Microbes are alive.  How many protons, which are just hydrogen nuclei, are needed to go from chemistry to biology?
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-  How big is the proton.  The building block for all the atoms, and the proteins, that give us life.
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-  A proton is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom.  A neutral hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron.  Proton has a positive charge and the electron a negative charge, together they cancel and create a neutral atom.
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-  Hydrogen is the lightest atom.  Each heavier atom has another proton.  2 make up helium, 3 lithium, 4 up to 92 , Uranium , make up all the elements in the Periodic Table.  Most of your body is water in the form of hydrogen and oxygen, H2O.  But, traces of most all of the Periodic Table elements can be found in your body.
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-  So how big is the proton?  It is a particle with a radius of 0.84087 femtometers.
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-  0.84087 millionth of a billionth of a meter.
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-  That is so small , it is smaller than the wavelength of a Gamma Ray that is 100 times larger.  In fact, when you get down to this size there is a duality in particles and waves.  But , that is another Review.
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-  Obviously this measurement for the radius of a proton is difficult and precision is a challenge.  A different measurement approach put the radius at 0.8768 femtometers.
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-  The 4% difference is causing some stir in the field of quantum electrodynamics.  QED is the science of how light and matter interact, how waves and particles interact.
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-  A third measurement method got 0.84185 femtometers.
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-  One of the measurement techniques use “ electron scattering”.  Firing electrons ant hydrogen nuclei and measuring how much their paths are deflected.
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-  Another  way is to measure how much energy it takes to get an electron to move to different orbits about the nucleus.  The wavelength of the photon that is the release of energy when the electron drops back to a lower energy orbit.
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-  Still a third measurement involves muonic hydrogen.  This hydrogen nucleus with a proton and a muon, instead of an electron.  A muon is a high energy electron.  It is 207 times “ heavier”, more energy.  Remember energy and mass are the same thing,
(E = mc^2).
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-  Somewhat the same process:  A laser is fired at the muonic hydrogen raising it into a  higher energy orbit.  When it falls back it emits an X-Ray photon. the frequency tells us the amount of energy,  ( E = h*f ).  But, that is another Review.
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-----------------------  0.80087  femtometers.
-----------------------  0.8768    femtometers
-----------------------  0.84185    femtometers.
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-  Understanding the small differences of the smallest dimensions may change our understanding of the proton structure which is made of Quarks and Gluons.  But, that is another Review.
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-  Maybe the Quantum Electrodynamics’ theories need to be corrected?
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-  Maybe science has made some simple measurement errors?  Error analysis!
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-  The search goes on to understand how the very small controls our lives.  When does the physics of particles and waves become biology?  How is that possible?  Physics and astronomy puts “alive” in the middle of the size scale.   May you live in interesting times with the curiosity to figure this all out.  An announcement will be made shortly stay tuned.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-  #1374  -  Microbes, dominant life on Earth.
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-  # 787  -  Microbes include bacteria, fungi archaea, protists  but not viruses and prions which are considered as non-living.
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-  The human gut is 20 feet long , contains 10^15 microbes of 1,000 different species.
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-  #906  -  Vaccines work because they are a variation of the microbe that causes your immune system to go to work.
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-  #959  -  Bad microbes originate in animals and our bodies are not equipped to handle them.
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-  #881  -  Microbes make climate change.  Microbes may have arrived on Earth hitchhiking on meteorites.
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-  #989  -  Extreme microbes.  If you stop an antibiotic too soon some microbes might survive and mutate to become resistant to the antibiotic.
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-  #1654  -  Everything about protons.  The proton lifetime is 2.1*10^29 years.
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-  #979  -  Calculating the mass of a proton.

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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Tuesday, March 1, 2016  -----
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