The Energy of Motion

- 2108 -  The Energy of Motion.  The energy of motion is called Kinetic Energy. The Universe is in constant motion in all directions and everywhere. The Universe must be FULL of energy. Constant motion is a natural state.  I am sitting here moving east at 814 miles per hour. If I were on the equator I would be moving east at 1,038 miles per hour,  1,194 feet per second due east.

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-----------------------------  2108   - The Energy of Motion

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-  The energy of motion is called Kinetic Energy. The Universe is in constant motion in all directions and everywhere. The Universe must be FULL of energy. Constant motion is a natural state. You can not feel it as long as everything is in the same constant motion with you.

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-  You can feel acceleration or deceleration, which is a change in velocity. Velocity has both magnitude and phase, if direction changes velocity changes. Speed is magnitude only. So, you can have constant speed and change directions and that would be a change in velocity that you would feel.
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- The Earth is traveling 66,663 miles per hour around the Sun. Our orbiting velocity is dependent on our distance from the Sun. ( The radius of the orbit). Everything that is the same distance as the Earth, 93 million miles, must be traveling the same velocity, 66,663 miles per hour in order to be in this orbit. Now, if the object happens to be traveling in the opposite direction then our closing speed is 133,300 miles per hour.
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-  The meteor showers like the December's Geminid Meteors hit us traveling nearly sideways at 78,000 miles per hour. The August Perseid meteors are hitting us nearly head on at 132,000 miles per hour. Each night after midnight is when our part of the Earth is facing directly forward to the direction we are traveling.

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-  The fastest Cosmic Rays whip into our atmosphere at 2,237,000 miles per hour, 0.3% the speed of light.
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-  The galaxies are rushing away from us at 13 miles per second for every million lightyears distant. So, the farther away the galaxy, the more space that is expanding in between us.  The faster it is receding. 47,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears. A galaxy that is 1 billion lightyears away is receding at 47,000,000 miles per hour.
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-  What about a galaxy that is 13 billion lightyears away. So its velocity receding from us is 611,000,000 miles per hour. The speed of light is 671,000,000 miles per hour. There is no problem with the Theory of Relativity here. Actually the galaxy is not exceeding the speed of light, it is just sitting there. It is not moving away. The space in between us is expanding.

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-   It is like raisins in a baking loaf of bread. The dough is expanding and all the raisins are moving away from each other. The space between us and the furthest galaxies is pushing us apart at 611 million miles per hour. It is all relative. We could say we are going backwards that fast. Or , we are both going in opposite directions at half that speed.
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-  When an object is moving relative to space-time, using the Theory of Relativity tells us that the faster the object goes the more mass it gains. Its length collapses and its time slows down.

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-  These changes in mass, distance, and time are necessary to prevent an object from ever exceeding the speed of light, 671,000,000 miles per hour. According to Relativity a pitched baseball is heavier the a baseball lying on the ground. Clocks tick slower when they move faster.
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-  If you don’t think motion has energy try stopping an asteroid as it hits the Earth. All of its Kinetic Energy, it mass times the square of its velocity, gets converted to thermal energy that explodes like a bomb.

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-  The energy can never be created or destroyed it simply gets converted from one form into another form. ( See Review #859 for more discussion on Kinetic Energy).

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-  The Universe is in constant motion, but not all of it is fast. The Pacific Tectonic Plate that I am sitting on is moving 0.000,000,007,09 miles per hour. Does not sound like much but over 100 million years it moved Bodega Head over 600 miles from Baja to my neighborhood.
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-  Bamboo grass grows at 0.000,023,7 miles per hour
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-  Olympic swimmers 5.71 miles per hour. Marathon runners 11.6 miles per hour. Jackrabbits 35 miles per hour. Race horses 37.6 miles per hour. Cheetah 60 miles per hour. Sail fish in the water 68 miles per hour. The fastest car on the Salt Flats 763 miles per hour.
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-  I am sitting here moving east at 814 miles per hour. If I were on the equator I would be moving east at 1,038 miles per hour. I am moving 1,194 feet per second due east. The sound barrier is 1,029 miles per hour. I could be breaking the sound barrier but I don’t feel a thing.
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- Our whole Solar System is moving sideways toward the Constellation Hercules the Hero at 43,200 miles per hour. At the same time we are moving forwards towards the star Deneb in the Constellation Cygnus the Swan at 486,000 miles per hour.
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-  The Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 288,000 miles per hour. Together we are approaching the Virgo Cluster of Galaxies at 2,370,000 miles per hour and the Coma Cluster of Galaxies at 16,000,000 miles per hour.

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-  These galaxies are gravitationally connected. Galaxies further away are receding from us at the 47,000 miles per hour per million lightyears distance. (See Review #684 for more details ) .

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-  Other reviews on energy include # 527 The review starts with the energy of the flowing water in the Russian River near flood stage. Proceed to a flashlight and continue to add energy as far as you can go. Where does it take you?
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-  Review #682 Symmetry is the expression of things being equal from all frames of reference. What does this have to do with the Law of Conservation of Energy?
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-  Review # 681 What is the most effective source of energy in the United States today? What is your best alternative for energy independence?
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-  Review #956 There are 13 different forms of energy . What do you learn when you try to mathematically define each form from electrical to nuclear?
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Planets outside our own

- 2107 -  Planets outside our own.  -  There are 300,000,000,000 stars in our galaxy. There are 

2 trillion galaxies in the Observable Universe.   So, that is 200,000,000,000,000,000.

  ( 2 * 10^17 stars).  Half of these stars have at least one planet.

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------------------  2107  -  Planets outside our own

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-  Our Solar System has 8 planets.  When I was in high school we had 9 planets.  Pluto got demoted to a dwarf planet.  This happened because astronomers discovered planet size asteroids larger than Pluto further from the Sun.  These outliers were named dwarf planets so Pluto had to be included.  In fact the largest asteroid orbiting between Mars and Jupiter named Ceres also became a dwarf planet.

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-  We no sooner got our own solar system redefined when we discovered other solar systems outside our own.  The first was a pulsar discovered in 1992.  This rotating neutron star crested a beam of radiation that swept across Earth like a light house beam.  The radio frequency of the beam shifted in wavelength in a cycle of repeating period.  The conclusion was that a planet , or planets, were orbiting this star causing it to wobble back and forth as the planet circles.

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-  Our Sun does the same thing as our planets orbit it.  The biggest contributor being massive Jupiter. 

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-  Then in 1995 a planet , or planets, were discovered orbiting a star called 51Pegasi.  This was a normal, main sequence star similar to our Sun.   This planet was half the mass of Jupiter and completed each orbit in 4 days. 

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-  Over the next decade thousands of exoplanets, as they are called, have been discovered.  The discoveries used two methods to confirm the star had orbiting planets.  The first was the "radial velocity method".  This uses the Doppler shift in frequency of light as the star's motion repeated  back and forth as it was pulled by the orbiting planet.  The planets are invisible to our telescopes, but, their presence is learned by their effect on their host star. 

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-  In 1999 the second method of planet discovery used the detectable slight dip in the star's light as the planet passed in front of the star,  called the "transit method".  This method only works when the plane of orbit lines up with Earth's line of sight.  

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-  To date, 2018, there have been thousands of discoveries and 1,284 of these have been "confirmed" as orbiting planets.  Confirmation requires multiple measurements of multiple orbits before astronomers can say for sure that is a planet. 

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-  Beginning in 1999 the detection of the first spectrum of light passing through the planet's atmosphere became possible.  This allowed elements to be identified, sodium being the first element found.   Scores of exoplanets have had spectra of their atmospheres analyzed.  Brightness and size and atmosphere compositions have allowed astronomers to select those  targets that are most earthlike.  

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-  In 2009  the Kepler Space Telescope was launched to add to the exoplanet study.  Kepler's telescope stared at tens of thousands of stars  all at once, watching for transits that dimmed their starlight as the planet passed in its orbit.  Thousands of these planet candidates were discovered.  Long term studies are needed for each candidate are required before a confirmations can be made. 

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-  Planet temperatures are measured.  Their mass calculated.  Chemical compositions are measured.  All to better understand how solar systems come to be and how they evolve.  We now know that tiny planets around small stars are common place. 

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-  Back to our closest star, Proxima Centura, seven temperate, rocky planets have been identified and three of these are in the habitable zone of orbits.  The total number of diverse planets is confounding, and amazing, generating much more to learn.

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-  OTHER  REVIEWS  AVAILABLE  TO  LEARN ABOUT  EXOPLANETS:

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-   2064  -  Of the 3,700 exoplanets discovered 17 are earth masses about the size of Neptune.   We can determine the planet's mass using the Doppler effect on the planet's star.  Planets can receive their water from comets and asteroids over their lifetimes in habitable zones.  Water rich planets and moons are frequent in other planetary systems. 

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-   2043   -  Evidence is that planetary systems are highly chaotic.  The chaos erases all the evidence of how they were formed.  As the technology and techniques improve more and smaller planets will be discovered.  Astronomically speaking there is total diversity in the universe.

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-  2036.  -   Is there life on other planets?   Studying 150,000 stars astronomers

have found over 4,000 exoplanets.

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-  2030. -  New data on Cepheid Variable stars in our Milky Way Galaxy find them 10 times further away.   New calculations for an expanding universe are that the expansion rate is 50,000 miles per hour for every lightyears distance. 

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-  The Hubble Constant is a measurement of how fast the Universe is expanding. For every star there is a 50% chance there is at least one planet orbiting it. If we discover a planet with a large amount of oxygen in its atmosphere there must be living organisms living there.

-   1912.  -   Our nearest star system , Proxima Centura , has at least 2 planets in orbit. One in the habitable zone, Exoplanet Proxima b. It is only 25 trillion miles away. The star Proxima has at least one planet in orbit that could likely have liquid water on its surface.

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-  1874   -   Exoplanets have moons and they may even be more habitable?  4,000 planets discovered so far but who knows how many moons?   Jupiter’s has 67 moons and two of them could support life because liquid water is below their surface.

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This same Review has an appendix listing five more reviews about Europa, three reviews about Enceladus, and five reviews about Titan. 

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-  1833. -  Exoplanets are starting to review their secrets. 

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-  1669.  -  How many planets are there?  How we do the math to determine the mass of each planet.

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-  There are 300,000,000,000 stars in our galaxy.

-  There are 2 trillion galaxies in the Observable Universe.

-  So, that is 200,000,000,000,000,000.   ( 2 * 10^17 stars )

-  Half of these stars have at least one planet.

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-  Think about it!

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-  September 28, 2018

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Earth is finely tuned for life.

- 2106 -  Earth is finely tuned for life.  How did it get that way?  Are we here as a result of random collusions and mutations?  We only know life that is us.  That is a sample size of one. Regardless,  Earth's history demonstrates that life can take root and evolve.  Here is what we haven learned.

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------------------  2106  -  How Did I Get Here??

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- It is an amazing story.  You may find it hard to believe.  It all started 13,800,000,000 years ago when the Universe started expanding.  Energy and matter are two forms of the same thing.  But we needed matter to form stars.  Stars happened about 13,000,000,000 years ago with only about 0.03% of all the mass/energy in the Universe

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-  Originally the stars were made up of only hydrogen and helium.  Giant stars were crushed by gravity.  When atoms themselves got crushed into a rebound that resulted in a giant explosions, called a supernovae. 

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-   It took billions of years of repeated star formations and star explosions to create enough heavy elements out of the merging of protons and neutrons and electrons into the elements. We find all these elements in the Periodic Table of Elements today.  Those elements are what was needed to form our Sun and planets in our solar system.

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-  Our Sun happens to be in a perfect zone in our Milky Way Galaxy.  It was in the right position to allow the formation of rocky  planets that could orbit around it.  The Earth got lucky because it orbits the Sun at just the right position to host liquid water at the right temperature.

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-  The Earth also lucked out having a metallic core and a powerful magnetic field.  That magnetic field protected the surface from being bombarded by harmful radiation.  The plate tectonics at the surface were active enough to replenish the Earth's surface with nutrients and to stabilize the temperatures.  Our Moon was likely responsible for keeping Earth's tilt at 23.5 degrees. This allowed the seasons and the changes needed for the diversity of life on Earth.

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-  3,400,000,000 years ago these conditions allowed a single celled organism called a prokaryotes to form.  But, it took another 2 billion years before there was a merging of these cells and another billion years before multi cellular life formed.  These multi cellular life forms proliferated 550,000,000 years ago. It is what is called the Cambrian Era Explosion.

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-  Somehow we got from multi cellular life to the development of an intelligent species.  We somehow advance enough for me to write this Review.  Somehow we humans advanced far beyond our close animal relatives. Somehow our species escaped extinction several times in the process.

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-  Astronomers have found thousands of planets orbiting other stars and they have found billions of more stars in billions of more galaxies.  Given the sheer numbers could the Earth really be unique among so many planets? 

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-  But the Earth must be unique with very rare conditions that would allow the evolution of life.  From that aspect we might very well be irreproducible?  We come from a long chain of implausible coincidences.

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-  We have good reason to conclude that we are only technological civilization in our own galaxy.  

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-  Our Sun contains 71 % hydrogen, 27% helium, and only 2% of the rest of the elements in the Periodic Table of all elements.  The Earth and the other planets formed out of that small 2% of construction material. 

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-  Then there are these extinction events: We have seen Gamma-Ray Bursts in other galaxies.  From these observations astronomers predict that our Milky Way galaxy would experience such an event every 1 to 100 million years.  A single burst would sterilize most of the galaxy.

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-  The habitable zone in our galaxy extends only 23,000 to 30,000 light years from the galactic center.  We just happen to be 24,500 lightyears from that center.  At the same time we just happen to be within the habitable zone of our own solar system.  Liquid water is the basic sign for habitat and Venus and Mars orbiting on either side of us are missing liquid water. 

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-  Plate tectonics on Earth's surface brought nutrients to the surface to replenish that depleted by living cells.  These tectonics were necessary to recycle carbon and to stabilize temperatures over long time scales.  Earth's magnetic core and rapid rotation shielded the surface from harmful radiation.  Without the shield the atmosphere would have eroded and the surface would have fried. 

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-  Scientist believe the Moon was responsible.  The giant collision that splashed the Moon into orbit also created Earth's metallic core and its floating crust.  The relatively large moon orbiting Earth was a type of stabilizer allowing Earth's axis not to wobble in its orbit. T he Earth - Moon partnership is a rare happening.  Without it we would likely not be here. 

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-  Once all this planetary juggling settled down somehow life started.  Single cell organisms in rocks have been dated to be 3.4 billion years old.  The Sun and Solar System formed 4.5 billion years ago.  That is when life started, but, it remained at the microbe level for the next 3 billion years.  In fact,  those same microbes are alive with us today.

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-  These simple cells are called prokaryotes.  They are merely a bag of jelly containing the molecules of life, we call DNA.  The more complex cells are called eukaryotes.  They first came on the scene 1.5 billion years ago.

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-  Somehow after 3 billion years these primordial single cells merged into organisms called bacteria and archaea.  Somehow these guys started eating each other and using their raw materials to grow and multiply.  Life started from these simple cells.  At this cellular level there is no difference between your cells and those of a mushroom, or any other life on Earth. 

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-  The eukaryotes forming multi cellular organisms did not happen until 550 million years ago. This outburst of life forms is known as the Cambrian Era.  How it got to humanity is written in our genes.  One conclusion from analysis of these genes is that chimpanzees living in central Africa differ from one another genetically no more than humans do living from opposite ends of the world.  This means that both started out from their same gene pool.

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-  Some 150,000 years ago the human gene pool was reduced to a few thousand, a few hundred breeding pairs.  Some 70,000 years ago our population on Earth was again reduced to about 1,000.  The 7 billion people on Earth today are descendents of this small group.   How likely is our advancement to the technological society we have today likely to get repeated. 

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-  Could this really happened somewhere else in our galaxy?  How likely is 4 billion years of a chain of events likely to repeat itself?  It all suggests that we are unique on our planet and even in our own Milky Way Galaxy.  All the more reason to take care of what we have.  It will be hard to repeat it.

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-  Are life's beginning on Earth so convoluted and unlikely that we are alone in the entire Universe?  Yet somehow life began on Earth as soon as it was possible to begin.  The molten Earth had barely cooled enough.  Immediately when asteroids and comets stopped pummeling Earth 4 billion years ago life got started. 

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-  We are here for a purpose.  One purpose is to try and understand all of this.  Our knowledge is but a few seashore pebbles on the sand with a whole ocean of unknown before us.  Im; working on it.  Hope you learned something?

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-   September 24, 2018

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 ---------------------   Monday, September 24, 2018   -------------------------

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Energy Expanding Universe.

- 2105 -  Energy Expanding Universe.  Universe is expanding at 49,306 miles per hour per million lightyears distance.  .  Eventually at the edges of the Universe the separation speed exceeds the speed of light.  Then light from those galaxies at the edge will never reach us.

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---------------------------  2105  -  Energy Expanding Universe.

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-  The Universe is expanding at 49,306 miles per hour per million lightyears distance. 

This is a units conversion from what astronomers measure the expansion to be between 67 kilometers per second per Megaparsec and 73 km/sec/Mpc.  A megaparsec is 3.262 million lightyears.

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-  That expansion rate says that as distances increase every million light years the separation of galaxies is increasing at the rate of another 49,306 miles per hour.  Eventually at the edges of the Universe the separation speed exceeds the speed of light.  Then light from those galaxies at the edge will never reach us.  They go out of sight.

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-  The two different expansion rates were arrived at using two different measurement techniques. -

-  We need to know how far away the galaxy is and how fast it is moving.  All of these galaxies are receding away from us which means the wavelength of light is being stretched wider and wider.  The wavelength is stretching towards the red end of the light spectrum. 

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-  This redshift allows us to calculate receding velocity.  To calculate distance we use the fact that the light is getting dimmer the farther away the light source is.  This is luminosity per distance the light has travelled. 

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-  So if we know the original luminosity we can calculate the distance it is away from us by measuring the luminosity we receive. 

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-  A particular light source called a White Dwarf  that collapses into a Neutron Star at the same point of compressing gravity.  The resulting burst of light is the same each time it occurs.  First we measure the light intensity at a distance we know.  After that we can calculate a further distance because we have a luminosity we know. 

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-  Another method uses Cepheid Variable stars that pulsate periodically with a period that is related to their luminosity.  Start with Cepheids that are close enough to be at known distances then we can use these as "standard candles" to calculate distances for those further away. 

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-  These distance measurements made beginning in the 1990's were concluding that the Universe is expanding at an ever increasing rate.  What is causing this accelerating expansion?  It must be some unknown energy.  Let's call it Dark Energy. 

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-  In order to make the math work in explaining this rate of expansion astronomers had to assume the Dark Energy must make up 69% of all the mass-energy in the Universe.

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-  This repulsive effect of Dark Energy permeates throughout all of space.  It is steadily accelerating the expansion of the Universe.  The ultimate result will be that all matter drifts apart.  Clouds of dust and gas will become too diffuse to ever collapse under the force of gravity.  New stars can never form again.  The ultimate Universe will be a cold, dark,  and desolate place. 

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-  After 5 billion years of expansion since the Big Bang the repulsive force of Dark Energy is overpowering the attractive force of gravity. 

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-  Either there is a new component of the Universe having these exotic physical properties or, Einstein' s Theory of Gravity is missing something.  Most astronomers think Einstein's math is correct and we still need to discover the source of Dark Energy, sometimes called vacuum energy that is expanding the Universe.  The conclusion must be that empty space is not really empty. 

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-  "Empty Space"  must be made of virtual particles that pop in and out of existence so fast  that our measurements cannot detect them.  These virtual particles are somehow a manifestation of the time - energy uncertainty principle in a vacuum that creates this negative pressure.  They push instead of pull.  They are an anti-gravity force.

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-   Dark energy is the biggest discovery we don't understand.  It is 69% of the Universe.  We do not understand Dark Matter either.  It s 26% of the Universe.  What we do understand is normal matter that is 4% hydrogen and helium, 0.5% stars and planets, 0.3% neutrinos, and 0.03%  the heavy elements that make up the Periodic Table of Elements that is everything we know and understand.    

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-  That 0.03% is pretty insignificant.  But, that is the makeup of who is writing and reading this Review.   It is so great that we have so much more to learn.  How lucky can you get.

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--  OTHER  REVIEWS  ABOUT  DARK  ENERGY:

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-  1896  -  Planck measurements were made of the slightest temperature variations of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.  These measurements include the polarization of his ancient light that originated 380,000 years after the Big Bang.  

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-  Astronomers begin to see space to be a spider web tapestry very similar to the neurons and nodes in the human brain.  To try to understand astronomy is to stretch your brain.  Once stretched it will never return to its previous size.

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-  1800  -  When the Universe first formed it was two competing forces the expansion of light radiation and the compression of gravity.  There are sound waves in this expansion that have a wavelength of 480,000.000 lightyears.  

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-  1749  to 660  -  This Review lists eleven more reviews that explore Dark Energy.

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 ---------------------   Thursday, September 20, 2018   -------------------------

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