- 3341 - PHOTONS - particles or waves? Like all elementary particles, photons are governed by quantum mechanics and will exhibit wave-particle duality, they exhibit properties of both waves and particles. A single photon may be refracted by a lens or exhibit wave interference, but also act as a particle giving a definite result when its location is measured.
--------------------- 3341 - PHOTONS - particles or waves?
- Ok you want the big picture. Start with God who created the Universe that is made of space and galaxies. Space is just empty dust and radiation but galaxies are made of stars and planets. Stars are made of energy and matter, which are two forms of the same thing. Matter is made of atoms and the energy in atoms, E, is equal to:
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------------------------ E = m * c^2. Energy = mass * 90,000,000,000,000,000
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- It all started with John Dalton explaining the theory of atoms to be a lot about matter, chemicals, and chemical reactions. But atoms can be broken apart into smaller subatomic particles, electrons, protons and neutrons.
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- Then J. J. Thomson discovered a negatively charged particle, the electron. Rutherford proposed that these electrons orbit a positive nucleus. In subsequent experiments, he found that there is a smaller positively charged particle in the nucleus, called a proton. The neutron is the neutral particle in the nucleus.
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- Electrons are one of three main types of particles that make up atoms. Unlike protons and neutrons, which consist of smaller, simpler particles, electrons are “fundamental particles’ that do not consist of smaller particles.
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- They are a type of fundamental particle called “leptons“. All leptons have an electric charge of −1 or 0 . Electrons are extremely small. The mass of an electron is only about 1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron, so electrons contribute virtually nothing to the total mass of an atom.
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- Electrons have an electric charge of −1 , which is equal but opposite to the charge of a proton, which is +1 . All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons, so the positive and negative charges "cancel out", making atoms electrically neutral.
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- Protons and neutrons are located inside the nucleus at the center of the atom, electrons are found outside the nucleus. Because opposite electric charges attract one another, negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus.
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- This force of attraction keeps electrons constantly moving through the otherwise empty space around the nucleus. Otherwise they would collapse into the nucleus.
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- Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons. If an electron was the mass of a penny, a proton or a neutron would have the mass of a large bowling ball!
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- A proton is one of three main particles that make up the atom. Protons are found in the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus is a tiny, dense region at the center of the atom. Protons have a positive electrical charge of one (+1) and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu) , which is about 1.67 * 10^−27 kilograms. Together with neutrons, they make up virtually all of the mass of an atom.
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- Atoms of all elements, except for most atoms of hydrogen which have only one proton, have neutrons in their nucleus. Unlike protons and electrons, which are electrically charged, neutrons have no charge, they are electrically neutral.
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- The mass of a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of a proton, which is 1 atomic mass unit (amu). An atomic mass unit equals about 1.67×10^−27 kilograms. A neutron also has about the same diameter as a proton, or 1.7×10^−15 meters.
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- The neutron is neutral, it has no charge and is therefore neither attracted to nor repelled from other objects. Neutrons are in every atom (with that one exception), and they are bound together with other neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus.
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- Since neutrons are neither attracted to nor repelled from objects, they don't really interact with protons or electrons (beyond being bound into the same nucleus with the protons).
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- The proton and neutron are not fundamental particles. Inside the proton are gluons and quarks. A gluon is an elementary particle that acts as the exchange particle (or gauge boson) for the strong force between quarks. It is analogous to the exchange of photons in the electromagnetic force between two charged particles. Gluons bind quarks together forming protons and neutrons.
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- Gluons are vector gauge bosons that mediate strong interactions of quarks in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Gluons themselves carry the “color charge” of the strong interaction.
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- This is unlike the photon, which mediates the electromagnetic interaction but lacks an electric charge. Gluons therefore participate in the strong force interaction. The gluon is a vector boson, which means, like the photon, it has a spin of 1.
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- While massive spin-1 particles have three polarization states, massless gauge bosons like the gluon have only two polarization states because gauge invariance requires the polarization to be transverse to the direction that the gluon is traveling.
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- In quantum field theory, unbroken gauge invariance requires that gauge bosons have zero mass. Experiments limit the gluon's rest mass to less than a few meV / c^2. The gluon has negative intrinsic parity.
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- Unlike the single photon of QED or the three W and Z bosons of the weak interaction, there are eight independent types of gluon.
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- Quarks carry three types of color charge; antiquarks carry three types of anticolor. Gluons may be thought of as carrying both color and anticolor. This gives nine possible combinations of color and anticolor in gluons.
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- Quarks and gluons are the building blocks of protons and neutrons, which in turn are the building blocks of atomic nuclei. Scientists’ current understanding is that quarks and gluons are indivisible. They cannot be broken down into smaller components. They are the only fundamental particles to have something called color-charge.
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- In addition to having a positive or negative electric-charge (like protons and neutrons), quarks and gluons can have three additional states of charge: positive and negative redness, greenness, and blueness. These so-called color charges are just names, they are not related to actual colors.
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- The force that connects positive and negative color charges is called the “strong nuclear force“. This strong nuclear force is the most powerful force involved with holding matter together. It is much stronger than the three other fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, and the weak nuclear forces.
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- Because the strong nuclear force is so powerful, it makes it extremely difficult to separate quarks and gluons. Because of this, quarks and gluons are bound inside composite particles.
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- The only way to separate these particles is to create a state of matter known as quark-gluon plasma. In this plasma, the density and temperature are so high that protons and neutrons melt.
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- This soup of quarks and gluons permeated the entire universe until a few fractions of a second after the Big Bang, when the universe cooled enough that quarks and gluons froze into protons and neutrons.
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- The interaction of quarks and gluons combine into composite particles called “hadrons“, and the way they behave at high temperature and density.
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- The theory that describes the strong nuclear force known as “Quantum-Chromodynamics”. The idea of quarks was proposed in 1964, and evidence of their existence was seen in experiments in 1968 at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC). The heaviest and last discovered quark was first observed at Fermilab in 1995.
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- There are six different kinds of quarks with a wide range of masses. They are named up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Quarks are the only elementary particles to experience all the known forces of nature and to have a fractional electric charge.
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- The interaction between quarks and gluons is responsible for almost all the perceived mass of protons and neutrons and is therefore where we get our mass.
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- A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field and the basic "unit" of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is also the force carrier for the electromagnetic force.
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- The effects of this force are easily observable at both the microscopic and macroscopic level, because the photon has no rest mass; this allows for interactions at long distances.
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- The modern concept of the photon was developed gradually by Albert Einstein to explain experimental observations that did not fit the classical wave model of light. In particular, the photon model accounted for the frequency dependence of light's energy, and explained the ability of matter and radiation to be in thermal equilibrium.
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- This model also accounted for anomalous observations, including the properties of blackbody radiation, that other physicists, most notably Max Planck, had sought to explain. Models, in which light is described by Maxwell's equations, but the material objects that emit and absorb light are “quantized“.
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- Although these models contributed to the development of quantum mechanics, further experiments proved Einstein's hypothesis that light itself is quantized and the quanta of light are “photons“.
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- Photons are described as a necessary consequence of physical laws having a certain symmetry at every point in spacetime. The intrinsic properties of photons, such as charge, mass and spin, are determined by the properties of this “gauge symmetry“.
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- The photon concept has led to momentous advances in experimental and theoretical physics, such as lasers, Bose–Einstein condensation, quantum field theory, and the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. It has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy, and measurements of molecular distances.
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- Photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers and for sophisticated applications in optical communication such as quantum cryptography.
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- Physicists have used lasers to deep-freeze antimatter. An ultraviolet laser quelled the thermal jitters of antihydrogen atoms, chilling the antiatoms to just above absolute zero.
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- Taming unruly antimatter with laser light may also allow physicists to measure the properties of antiatoms much more precisely. Comparing antiatoms with normal atoms could test some fundamental symmetries of the universe.
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- Lasers can cool atoms by dampening the atoms’ motion with a barrage of light particles, or photons.
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- The photon has no rest mass. This allows for interactions at long distances. Like all elementary particles, photons are governed by quantum mechanics and will exhibit wave-particle duality exhibiting properties of both waves and particles.
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- The photon concept has led to momentous advances in experimental and theoretical physics, such as lasers, Bose–Einstein condensation, quantum field theory, and the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. It has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy, and measurements of molecular distances.
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- Recently, photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers and for sophisticated applications in optical communication such as quantum cryptography.
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- November 15, 2021 PHOTONS - particles or waves? 3341
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