Is their a ninth planet?

-  1916  -  How big is our Solar System?  New discoveries at the edge of the Solar System are causing renewed search for the answer.  Is there a Planet 9 out there.  There is something causing strange orbits.
-
-----------------------------  1916  -  How big is our Solar System?
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-

-
-  The night sky seems tranquil.  Peaceful and quiet.  The stars are consistent in the sky throughout our lifetime of observation.  Our Solar System seems to be in a similar state.  But, evidence shows that tranquility was not the case a few billion years ago.
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-  Planets form around their star in a disk.  Gravity collects the gas and dust in a rotating wash machine of material.  The gas is escaping the disk rapidly, so, planets must form in a short period, 4 to 5 million years.  Although the rocky inner planets can form over a longer period, maybe up to 100 million years.  The Solar System itself is 4,800 million years since formation.
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-  During these phases of planet formation the planets and the planet hopefuls, called planetesimals, often collided.  Such a collision is how the Earth-Moon first formed.  The Moon is a splash of Earth’s crust.  Such collisions also caused Venus to rotate backward compared to the other planets.  Uranus got tilted 90 degrees in its rotation.  Mercury lost its outer shell.  Other planetesimals were knocked out of the Solar System all together.
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-  Studying our Solar System is difficult.  Evidence for what happened for the first few million years is mostly wiped out.  But, thanks to Kepler’s Space Telescope we can begin to collect evident from other solar systems in various stages of formation.  We call these planets, “ exoplanets”.
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-  Studying Mercury gives us another clue.  Mercury is mostly an iron core.  Its crust and mantle are  missing, or far reduced.  Mercury’s orbit is far less circular than the other terrestrial planets.  The best explanation ( computer modeling ) suggests that Mercury shared its orbit with other planetesimals.  Many collisions occurred. Mercury’s natal shell was vaporized in these collisions.
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-  Planetesimals were constantly colliding with in the confined space closer to the Sun.  Some were smashed to bits.  Some were ejected out of the Solar System all together.  Some went crashing into the Sun.
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-  Venus and Earth have nearly circular orbits.  But, the larger gas planets have elliptical orbits and their orbits dip far above and below the plane.  Between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years ago the gas planet’s immense gravity sent rocks and ices hurtling into the inner solar system creating collisions with the smaller rocky planets.
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-  All these same computer  models are suggesting the likelihood of an undiscovered ‘Planet 9”.  Adding another gravitation influence would help explain much of the Solar System structure,  particularly with the new discoveries beyond Neptune.  The models want to create a Planet 9 with 10 times Earth-mass and orbiting at 250 AU in the outer Kuiper Belt.  ( AU is Astronomical Units, Earth-Sun distance, or 93 million miles)
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-  Supporting evidence came with other “dwarf planets” found beyond 40 AU, 30% further out than the dwarf planet Pluto.  These new dwarf planet orbits are disturbed by an object gravity far outside the effects of Neptune.  These objects could take 20,000 years to orbit the Sun.  Neptune takes 165 years to orbit.
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-   These models tell us that the early Solar System needed twice as much mass as what would up as the 8 planets.  All these theories lead us to thinking that the early Solar System started out far more complicated than originally thought.  My high school science book is outdated?
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-  Studying exoplanets is another source in the search for answers  The most intriguing answer would come from the discovery of the mysterious Planet 9.  Over 4,000 likely exoplanets have been discovered.  Continued study is trying to understand each of their solar systems.
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-  Interesting stuff.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.  Maybe it will be “ We have discovered a ninth planet, what should we name it?
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-  See Reviews #1872 , #1826,  and six other reviews to learn more about our Solar System.  
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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Is gravity a universal force?

-  1913  -  Is gravity a universal force?  Is it the same everywhere?  Astronomers have measured light that has traveled a distance of 8,000,000,000 lightyears.  Conclusion  -  the laws of physics are the same everywhere.
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-----------------------------  1913  -  Is gravity a universal force?
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-

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-  Is gravity a universal force the same throughout the Universe?  Isaac Newton started our understanding of gravity as a “ force” of nature.  Like magnetic force.  Like the strong nuclear force.  Albert Einstein changed the concept of gravity as a force at all.  Gravity ‘forces” are the result of the warping of space and time.  So, space was no longer constant.  It was a flexible quantity.  Time was now longer a constant flow, it changed depending on the velocity it was traveling.  Gravity is falling down the slope of curved space-time.
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-   There are 4 forces in nature.  Electromagnetism, Strong and Weak Nuclear forces are interactive forces that are much , much stronger than gravity.
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-  Could it be that gravity is not a “ fundamental force’” created by space, time, mass and energy?  Is this reality merely a stage evolving from a more fundamental force that we have yet to discover?
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-  Where to start with this idea?
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-  Could gravity exist as “ quantum units”, and not as what we perceive as a “ continuous force”.
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-  One investigation involves understanding the “Entropy” of a Blackhole which is proportional to the Blackhole’s surface area ( not its volume ).  A second avenue of investigation is Stephen Hawking’s theory that the temperature of a Blackhole is proportional to the acceleration at the Blackhole’s Event Horizon.  ( Request Review #964 to learn more about Entropy )
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-  With Einstein’s equations for General Relativity the 4 dimensions of space-time incorporating Dark Energy as a positive Cosmological Constant could explain gravity.  The problem comes from the assumptions needed in the equations that do not allow for the gravitational acceleration of the galaxies.  We are missing something?  All observations conclude that galaxies are flying apart at an accelerating rate.  Another missing force must exist to cause this acceleration.
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-  The composition and structure of the Universe have changed over time but the laws of physics have not.
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-  One confirmation that occurred last month ( November, 2016) was measurements made on a galaxy 8 billion lightyears away.  The galaxy had a super-massive Blackhole at its center.  At the event Horizon the Blackhole it is consuming mass as the gas and dust orbits are descending.  The violent collisions occurring at this interface expels tremendous amounts of radio, microwave, infrared, optical , ultraviolet, X-ray, and Gamma Ray energy.  This radiation is visible over billions of lightyears distance.  When this electromagnetic energy travels this great distance it encounters many of the elements in the intergalactic medium.  Most encounters are with hydrogen and helium atoms, but, a few other elements as well.  When the light energy is absorbed by these atoms, absorption lines are created in the electromagnetic spectrum.   Each atom has unique electron shells and each absorption bar-code represents a unique quantum of energy.  This unique signature is used to identify each element
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-  What is learned by studying this light from 8 billion lightyears away with that same phenomena occurring in our own Milky Way Galaxy is that electromagnetic energy is a consistent force over time.  It always behaves the same everywhere and always.
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-  These studies are attempts to understand and “ unify” electromagnetism, nuclear forces and that of gravity.  Unifying “ Quantum Theory” with “ General Relativity Theory”.  How does gravity work, really?  Today the equations in these two theories are not compatible.  One only works on small things and the other only on large things.  We need one theory that works on everything , everywhere.  We are not there yet.
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-  Stay tuned, there is much more to learn.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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Boltzmann’s Constant - Energy and Temperature

-  1915  -  Boltzmann’s Constant  -  Energy and Temperature  Some very smart people in the 1800’s discovered the fundamental constants that define energy and temperature.  Here are some of the basics of physics:
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---------------------  1915  -  Boltzmann’s Constant  -  Energy and Temperature
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-

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-  Boltzmann’s Constant relates the amount of thermal energy in a body to its temperature.  In 1871 Ludwig Boltzmann, at the age of 27,  proposed that the quantity of radiation, or energy intensity, was directly proportional to the 4th power of temperature.
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-Ludwig Boltzmann was born in 1844 in Vienna, Austria.  He was working off Josef Stefan’s earlier proposal that stated an object emits energy at a rate proportional to its temperature in Kelvin^4.  Josef Stefan was born in St. Peter, Austria, in 1835.  Boltzmann was also a friend of James Clerk Maxwell who wrote the famous mathematical equations for electromagnetism and showed that light was an electromagnetic wave.  Boltzmann applied his mathematics to deduce Stefan’s proposal regarding thermal energy and temperature using thermodynamic principles, entropy, and statistical mechanics.  In other words, he did the math.
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-  The total energy emitted from each square meter of a body’s surface each second is called energy flux.  And energy flux = (Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant) * Kelvin^4.
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-----------------  Energy = (5.67 * 10^-8 joules/m^2 * K^4*sec) * T^4
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-----------------  Stefan-Boltzmann’s Constant is   5.67 * 10^-8 joules/m^2 * K^4*sec
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------------------ “T” is the temperature in degrees Kelvin.
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-  Raising the temperature from 300K to 600K increases the radiated energy by 2^4, or 16 times.  Raising the temperature to 6000K, the surface of the Sun, increases radiated energy to 20^4, or 160,000 times more energy.  This is the energy emitted per square meter each second.  If we know the surface area of the Sun we can calculate its total energy emitted per second.
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-  Energy from the Sun per square meter  =         (5.67*10^-8)  * 6000^4
-  Energy from the Sun per square meter  =         7.348 * 10^7 joules/m^2*sec
-  The surface are of the Sun  =                           4*pi*r^2
-  The radius of the Sun =                     6.96*10^8 meters  ( or, 432,500  miles )
-  The surface are of the Sun  =               6.09 * 10^18 square meters
-  Energy from the Sun per second  =       45 * 10^25 joules/second
-  Energy from the Sun  = 450,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 watts  (note 1)
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-  So, if we know the Temperature of the Sun we can calculate its energy, or luminosity, which is power, or, total energy emitted each second.  Joules of energy / second is watts of power.   But, how do we know the temperature of the Sun?

-  We determine the temperature of the Sun by using Wien’s law which says that the energy intensity of each wavelength emitted by a blackbody is determined solely by its temperature.  A blackbody is a body that absorbs or emits all wavelengths and is therefore perfectly black.  The Sun by definition is a “blackbody“.  The peak wavelength emitted is inversely proportional to the temperature.
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- Maximum wavelength = 2.9*10^-3 / T
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-  So, we measure the intensity of the Sun at each wavelength of light.   Then, we determine the wavelength where the intensity peaks.  The wavelength peaks at 500 nanometers, or the color of blue-green light.  The Sun looks yellow to us, or 600 nanometers wavelength, because we see the Sun through our atmosphere which filters out the shorter wavelengths.
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- T  =  2.9*10^-3  /  maximum wavelength
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- T =  2.9*10^-3  /  500 * 10^-9 meters
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- T  =  5800 Kelvin
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-  The surface temperature of the Sun is 5800 Kelvin.  Temperature is inversely proportional to maximum wavelength allows us to measure the temperature of the stars.  Reddish stars are 2000-3000 Kelvin.  Orange stars are 3000-5000 Kelvin.  Yellow stars are 5000-8000 Kelvin and white stars are 8000-12,000 Kelvin.
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-  Wilhelm Wien was born in 1864 in Prussia.  He received the Nobel Prize in 1911 for discovering this law.  He died in 1928 at the age of 64.   Ludwig Boltzmann died in 1906 at the age of 62.  He committed suicide due to episodes of severe mental depression brought on by other scientists disagreeing with his theories.
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-  Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.67*10^-8 watts /meter^2 / Kelvin^4
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The Stefan Boltzmann Constant is the energy in watts per square meter per the 4th power of temperature.
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-  The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant came from = 2*pi^5*k^4 / 15*h^3*c^2
-  Where “h” is Planck’s Constant of Action
-  Where  “c” is the speed of light
-  Where “ k” is Boltzmann’s other constant.
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-  Boltzmann’s other constant = 1.38065  *  10^-23 joules / Kelvin:
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-  The Boltzmann Constant came from = the Molar Gas Constant / Avogadro’s Number
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-  Amedeo Avogadro was born in Turin, Italy in 1776.  He lived to age 80, to 1856. Avogadro invented the word “molecule” and separated it from atoms.  He was studying the electrolysis of water separating it into hydrogen and oxygen.  He learned that water was 2 parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.  He also learned that equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules, assuming that temperature and pressure is the same.  Equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules.  What is that number of molecules?  It is called Avogadro’s Number.
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-  When hydrogen and oxygen are a gas they are molecules, with molecular weights , H=2 and O=32.  The atomic weights are individual atoms of hydrogen and oxygen, H=1 and O=16.  H2O has a molecular weight or 18,  H=2, O=16.  It is convenient for physicists to express molecular weights in grams.  So, the gram-molecular weight of water is 18 grams, and this is referred to as a “mole”.  A mole of water has a mass of 18 grams.
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-  A mole of hydrogen gas (2 grams) at zero Centigrade has a volume of 22.4 liters (5.5 gallons).  A mole of oxygen (32 grams) takes up the exact same volume, 22.4 liters.  Each gas, hydrogen and oxygen, and every other gas has the same number of molecules per mole.  Once you know how many molecules are in a known volume and known weight you can calculate the weights and diameters of each molecule, and therefore, of each atom.
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-  Johan Loschmidt was born in Bohemia ( now Czechoslovakia) in 1821.  As a businessman he went bankrupt and became a teacher in 1856 and began publishing papers.  He was the first one to calculate Avogadro’s Number.
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-  Avogadro’s Number  =  6.0221367*10^23 molecules / mole
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-  One mole of any gas has 602,213,670,000,000,000,000,000 molecules.
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-  A mole of oxygen weighs 32 grams and contains 6.02*10^23 oxygen molecules.  Therefore, each molecule of oxygen weighs 5.3*10^-23 grams.
An atom of oxygen weighs 1.67343*10^-24 grams.
The diameter of an oxygen atom, and any other atom is 10^-10 meters.
254,000,000 atoms placed side-by-side would make a line one inch long.
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-  The Molar Gas Constant comes from a mole of gas where pressure * volume = Molar Gas Constant * Temperature.  p*V = R*T.  The Molar Gas Constant, R =  8.314510 joules / Kelvin / mole
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-  Now, back to Boltzmann’s Constant:
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 -  Boltzmann’s other constant = 1.38*10^-23 joules / Kelvin:
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-  The Boltzmann Constant came from = the Molar Gas Constant / Avogadro’s Number
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Boltzmann’s Constant = 8.3 joules / Kelvin / mole  //  6.02*10^23 molecules / mole
Boltzmann’s Constant = 1.3*10^-23 joules / Kelvin.
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-  So, in summary you need Avogadro’s Constant Number to calculate Boltzmann’s Constant.  And Boltzmann’s Constant to calculate the Stefan-Boltzmann Constant which relates Energy to Temperature^4.  Ludwig Boltzmann knew that thermal energy measured by temperature was created by atoms constantly flying around like tiny missiles.
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-  Their individual velocities vary a great deal but their velocities can be described using statistics.  For example, the mean velocity of an oxygen gas molecule at room temperature and pressure is 0.3 miles per second, or 1,080 miles per hour.  It is the kinetic energy of these fast moving atoms that we measure as temperature and it is Boltzmann’s Constant that relates the two, temperature with energy.  It amazes me that this was all figured out in Europe in the mid-1800’s, over a hundred fifty years ago, by some very smart people.
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-  Note (1):  More accurate answer is 3.827 * 10^26 watts because actual surface temperature of the Sun is 5800 Kelvin, by measuring the peak wavelength from above the Earth’s atmosphere.
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-  Entropy is mathematical.  It is the result of statistics.  The is more possibilities of things to be disorderly than orderly.  So, if things vibrate, fluctuate, change then they are eventually gravitate to “ disorderly’.  That is Entropy.  The same thing happens with atoms.
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-  Joule -  is a unit of Energy whereby one Newton of Force acts over one meter of work.
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-  Newton  -  is a unit of Force that will accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram to 1 meter / second^2
------------------------------  F  =  m*a
-----------------------------  Force  =  mass  *  acceleration
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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Entropy is the arrow of time.

-  1914  -  Entropy is the arrow of time.  Thermodynamics is the fate of the Universe.  Entropy always increases. It is the reason we can not build a machine with 100% efficiency.  It is the reason the Universe will end as a cold, dark, vacuum of randomness.
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------------------  1914  -  Thermodynamics and the Fate of the Universe
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------------------------------  S  =  K  *   log W  on Boltzmann’s gravestone
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------------------  Entropy  =  ( Boltzmann Constant )  *  log ( number of microstates )
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-  Thermodynamics was invented during the study of steam engines in the 1800’s.  Physicists wanted to learn how to make them more efficient at doing work.  Maybe even get 100% efficiency if that was possible.  In the process of this study they developed four laws that had to be followed in nature.  They had no idea that these laws that work on steam engines also work on every process in the Universe including the Universe itself.  Here are their simple laws:

(1)  The Conservation of Energy.  Energy can be transformed from one form to another but it can never be destroyed, or created.  The amount of energy in a closed system is always the same.

(2)  The Entropy of a closed system will either stay the same or increase.  Entropy will never decrease.

(3)  Energy is at a minimum at absolute zero temperature, but never quite zero.  Temperature is actually the measure of the average vibrations, or kinetic energy, of a bunch of moving atoms.  Even at absolute zero, 0 Kelvin, atoms still vibrate at the quantum level.  Of course, they did not know quantum’s until 1910.

-  What is so amazing is that these laws apply to everything from molecular engines to Blackholes in the cosmos.  Take for example the muscles in your arm.  These laws govern the energy transformations from ATP molecules that provide the fuel for myosin molecules in muscle tissue to move along action filaments, pulling the muscle fibers to which they are attached.  These laws even apply to bacterial colonies and to computer memories.

-  Entropy is the most mysteries concept because it has been so ill defined and misinterpreted over the years.  But, you can understand it if you care.  Entropy is all around us in our daily lives.  It is what makes a rock fall from your hand to the ground.  It is what happens to a hot teapot when it cools down in the sink.  It is why a hole in the tire makes it go flat.  It is why ice melts when it sits at room temperature.

-  Thermo - dynamics is the study of “Thermo” which is thermal energy, or heat, and “dynamics” which is the study of movement.  Thermodynamics is the study of the movement of energy.  Energy is defined as the “ability to do work”  And, work is defined as a “change in energy“.

----------------------  E2 - E1   =  W

----------------------  dE  =  dW

-  Energy can transform into many different forms:

-----------  Kinetic  --------  the energy of motion, E = ½ m*v^2
-----------  Potential  -------  the energy of voltage and gravity, power = V*I
-----------  Thermal  --------  the energy of heat, the kinetic energy of atoms, “dQ” = C*dT
                                             C = heat capacity.  T = temperature
-----------  Sound -----------  the energy of a medium in motion
-----------  Light  -----------  the electromagnetic energy, E = 6.6*10^-34 * frequency,       joule* seconds
-----------  Elastic  ----------
-----------  Electric  ---------  the energy of electric charge, E = k*Q1*Q2 / r
-----------  Magnetic  --------  the energy of magnetic moments
-----------  Electromagnetic -  the energy of  E = 6.6*10^-34 * frequency
-----------  Nuclear  ---------    E = mc^2
-----------  Mass  -----------  the energy of E = m*c^2

-  Entropy is the transformation of all these different types of energy from one to another, or the dispersal of energy in any form.  Entropy  ( “S” ) is the measure of the change in heat energy to the average temperature.

-----------------  S  =  “dQ”  / T

-----------------  S  =  Joules / Kelvin

-  Let’s take the example of the hot teapot to go through the math and get more familiar with this term, Entropy:

-  We are using thermal energy in this example, not unlike the steam engine.  Entropy is measuring the dispersion of energy at some specific temperature.  The dispersion is always in the direction of increasing Entropy.  Entropy never decreases.  We start with kilowatt-hours of electrical energy to heat up the teapot to reach equilibrium at 100 C.  Turn off the stove.  Let the pot cool down.  It eventually cools to equilibrium at room temperature of 20 C.  Here are the steps:

----------  (1)  The teapot reaches 373Kelvin and contains 200,000 joules of heat energy.

----------  (2)  It cools down to 293K and has 40,000 joules of energy at room temperature.

----------  (3)  The teapot cools down losing 160,000 joules of energy while the air in the room warms up gaining 160,000 joules of heat energy.

-------------  Entropy from the teapot :

-------------  Entropy  =  change in energy  /  average temperature

------------  S  =  “dQ” / T

------------  S  =  200,000 - 40,000 /  (393K - 293K) / 2

------------  S  =  160,000 / 333K

------------  S  =  - 480 joules / Kelvin

-  The - 480 joules / Kelvin energy lost from the teapot to the room.


-----------------Entropy for the room:

----------------  S  =  160,000 / 293K

----------------  S  =  546 joules / Kelvin

-  The Entropy in the closed system of the teapot in the room has increased from 480 to 546.  Entropy has increased by 66 joules / Kelvin.  Entropy always increases.

-  That analysis seems very straight forward.  Why is Entropy confusing?  Well, Entropy is involved in so many situations it has acquired so many definitions.  Here are some of these definitions for all the same thing:

---------  Entropy is the change to a more disordered state at the molecular level.

---------  Entropy describes the number of possible microscopic configurations of the system.  Entropy is the natural logarithm of the number of microscopic states available to a system times Boltzmann’s Constant.  S = k*ln N.  k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.318*10^-23 joules  / Kelvin.  ( Request Review #728 to learn about Boltzmann’s Constant ).

----------  Entropy is the measure of the spontaneous dispersal of energy.

----------  Entropy is the ultimate evolution from order to disorder.  The higher the Entropy the greater the disorder.

----------  Entropy is energy broken down into irretrievable heat.

----------  Entropy is the direct measurement of the randomness of a system.

----------  Entropy is the measure of unavailability of a system’s energy to do work.

----------  Entropy is what keeps us from designing a 100% efficient engine.  We can never build a perpetual motion machine for this reason.

-  In order to get this disorder concept better understood let’s take the example of the melting ice cube.  When ice melts into a liquid it is increasing Entropy.  Therefore increasing disorder.  The ice molecules are in a fixed arrangement of order.  Melted water molecules are in a relatively free arrangement of disorder.  The entropy in the puddle is greater than the entropy in the ice cube.

-  My last definition is that Entropy is the Dark Force that will end the Fate of the Universe as a “heat death“.  The Universe will expand and disperse its energy forever with increasing Entropy  until it is a cold, dark, dispersion of random particles in equilibrium in empty space.  Even the Blackholes will evaporate to this state of maximum Entropy.  The other thought is that the Big Bang must have been at minimum Entropy when it started.  Ever since it has been smashing us down with random forces that can not be reversed.  It is the Dark Force in the Universe.  It is the “arrow of time”.
-
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-  Entropy is mathematical.  It is the result of statistics.  The is more possibilities of things to be disorderly than orderly.  So, if things vibrate, fluctuate, change then they are eventually gravitate to “ disorderly’.  That is entropy.  The same thing happens with atoms.
-
-  Joule -  is a unit of Energy whereby one Newton of Force acts over one meter of work.
-
-  Newton  -  is a unit of Force that will accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram to 1 meter / second^2
------------------------------  F  =  m*a
-
-----------------------------  Force  =  mass  *  acceleration
-
-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Tuesday, January 10, 2017  -----
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Our closest exoplanet - Proxima b

-  1912  -  Exoplanets  -  Proxima b.  Our nearest star system is Proxima Centura and it has its own solar system.  It has at least 2 planets in orbit and one is in the “ habitable zone”.  What have we learned after 16 years of studying this system?
-
-

-
-----------------------------  1912  -  Exoplanets  -  Proxima b
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-  When we found other dwarf planets outside the orbit of Neptune, we lost Pluto as a planet.  Pluto became a Dwarf Planet along with Ceres and Sedna, and several others.  Some of these Dwarfs were bigger than Pluto.  We either had to enlarge the Solar , Systems with planets, or , create a new category of sub-planets.
-
-  Something else happened at the same time.  These newly discovered orbiting objects displayed strange orbits indicating that some larger gravity pull was influencing their orbits.  Several were inclined with steep angles above and below the plane of the eight Solar System planets controlled by the Sun’s gravity.   Was there still a real 9th planet out there causing this?
-
-  Is there still an undiscovered planet in our Solar System?  Planet 9?
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-  A deep sky survey for objects beyond Neptune and beyond the Kuiper Belt was started.  Observations and calculations that are today trying to locate the massive planet that could be causing these perturbations of orbits.  The smaller objects can lead us to the bigger object.
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-  Some of these smaller objects have orbits extending out 3,000 AU’s from the Sun (Astronomical Units are Earth-Sun distances).  This orbit is a massively elongated ellipse that can only be explained by a strong gravitational pull existing beyond our current understood Solar System.
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-  Astronomers are finding never-before-seen objects orbiting the Sun at these extreme distances.  As their orbital parameters begin to be understood the interactions seem to fit the notion that another distant planet gravity pull is determining the newly discovered structure of our Solar System.
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-  The closest star to our Sun is Proxima Centura.  A mere 25 trillion miles away.  This star has an Earth-size planet orbiting in its “ habitable zone”.  That is: a planet having a temperature that could support liquid water on its surface.
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-  4.2 lightyears distance is not walk in the park, but, in astronomical terms that exoplanet is in our neighborhood.  This planet was discovered indirectly by studying the light from the host star.   The star wobbles causing color shifts in the light it is emitting.  The back and forth notion of the star is caused by the gravitational pull of an orbiting planet, or planets.  The calculations put the mass of this unseen planet at 1.3 times Earth-mass.
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-  Called “ Proxima b”.  The time for one complete orbit, the planet-year, is 11.2 days.  The planet’s orbit is just 5 million miles from the star.  The Earth is 93 million miles from its star.  Mercury is 36 million miles from the Sun.
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-  The star Proxima is smaller and cooler than our Sun.  It is a Red Dwarf star, 12% the mass of the Sun and 1/600 the luminosity (0.15%).  The planet Proxima b orbits close enough to allow liquid water to flow on its surface.  It is also so close  that its rotation is likely tidally locked, always facing the same hemisphere toward the star.  This is similar how the Moon is tidally locked to the Earth.  The size of this new planet is 1.43 times the diameter of Jupiter.
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-  By the way these conclusions are from over 10 years of gathering data on Proxima Centura.
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-  A key instrument in this study is the “spectrograph”  Using a prism the light is split apart by wavelength.  Each spectrum of wavelengths is a “ bar code” that can identify chemistry, how fast the star is moving , and in which direction.  If the bar code is shifted to the blue end of the light spectrum the star is  moving towards us, shifted to the red end it is moving away from us.
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-  As a planet orbits the star these shifts have a wobble indicating the push and pull of the planet’s orbit shifting gravity.  If repeats in a regular cycle it must be duration of the planet’s orbit.  Proxima b repeats every 11.2 days.
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-  Astronomers will be studying Proxima b for signs of life using every improving technology in scientific research.  This most recent data came from observations lasting 60 days in a row, 20 minutes each night.
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-  One disadvantage of a planet orbiting too close to its star is the effect of frequent flares. Our Sun flares as well.  But, being closer could mean these bombardments of high energy radiation could blow away any of the planet’s atmosphere.  It could radiate away any chance for life.
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-  Red Dwarf stars live for 10 trillion years.  Since it takes billions of years for complex life to evolve they have plenty of time.  Our Sun will only last 5 billion more years.
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-  There is likely a second planet in this solar system with a 60 day orbit, Proxima a.
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-  The Kepler telescope has discovered 4,696 exoplanet candidates, 2,325 confirmed to be planets circling other stars.  21 of these are less that 2 Earth diameters which could be smaller rocky planets orbiting in their star’s habitable zone.
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-  So we have a new planet to find in our own Solar System.  We have new planets discovered in our nearest exo-solar system, our nearest star.  And, we have thousands of new planets in other stars in our galaxy.  Now, astronomers believe nearly every star has its own planets.  We live in interesting times.  So much to learn, so little time.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Saturday, January 7, 2017  -----
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Ceres - Dwarf Planet

-  1911  -  Ceres the Dwarf Planet orbiting between Mars and Jupiter has the Dawn spacecraft been orbiting since March, 2015.  Here is some of the stuff we have learned.

-----------------------------  1911  -  Ceres the Dwarf Planet
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-  The 5th planet to be discovered in 1801 was “Ceres“.  It got demoted to an asteroid in 1850 because it is only 600 miles across, too  small for a planet.  Then, it got promoted to a Dwarf Planet because larger “ dwarf planets” were discovered beyond Pluto, beyond Neptune, in the Oort Cloud of comets.  Some are larger than Pluto, that is 1,440  miles diameter.
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-  This review is about the Dawn spacecraft exploration of Ceres.  It is currently orbiting this Dwarf Planet at 4,500 miles above the surface.
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-  The spacecraft was launched in 2007.  It visited the asteroid Vesta in 2011 and 2012  (See separate reviews about this exploration.).  Dawn arrived in Ceres in 2015.
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-  Dawn entered its orbit March 16, 2015 carrying a camera with 8 filters in front of a CCD.  Seven of the filters collect a narrow range of wavelengths at 430 nanometers  (deep blue color) to 980 nanometers ( near infrared ).  There are 4 spectrometers that operate from 0.4 to 1.0 microns ( 400 to 1000 nanometers ) to measure the light intensity at the different wavelengths.  Two other spectrometers measure Gamma Rays and Neutrons that are kicked up from Cosmic Rays hitting the surface.
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-  What these spectrometers discovered was large deposits of water-ice near the surface.  Some water molecules were in cold, dark craters, with temperatures of -260 F.  Other water ice was likely locked in a form of porous rocky materials on the surface.
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-  The spectrometers detected hydrogen,  iron, and potassium in the surface crust.  Hydrogen levels were almost 10% of the composition by weight.  There were also concentrations of iron and carbon.  This has lead to the theory that the decay of radioactive elements created enough heat to cause the planet’s structure to differentiate between a rocky interior and an icy outer shell.
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-  Ice separated from rock early in Ceres’ history forming an ice-rich crusted layer.  Where this water came from remains  mystery.  Was it formed with the planet , or, was water deposited by meteors?  The later scenario is believed to be how water arrived on  the planet Earth.
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-  When the water sublimated, evaporated from the surface, it left behind the dissolved salts.  These are highly reflective, bluish areas found in over 130 locations on the surface.
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-  Ceres has a surface area 35% the size of the contiguous United States.  Or, abut 1/3 the size of our Moon.  Its overall density is 2.2 grams per cubic centimeter.  Dry rock is 3.4 gm/cm^3.  This lower density suggests that water is a major constituent.  ( water is 1.0 gm/cm^3 )
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-  The conclusions are that Ceres is a watery and geologically active proto-planet. And, it could hold clues of how life existed billions of years ago?
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-  Ceres has fewer large craters than expected.  None are larger than 175 miles across.  Only 16 are larger than 62 miles.  The theory is that the larger craters have been erased due to deep subsurface ice-rich layer of material causing the crater rims to relax and become invisible.
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-  Ammonia is a molecule consisting of nitrogen and oxygen.  It would have not condensed in the rock, it would have evaporated, If Ceres was always in its current location.  Likely, Ceres formed in the outer Solar System beyond Saturn then later migrated to its current orbit.
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-  Vesta , on the other hand, is dry and rocky, more like the stony terrestrial planets closer to the Sun.
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-  The Dawn spacecraft has photographed 90% of the Ceres surface down to an altitude of 240 miles.  At higher elevations, 4,500  miles, Dawn is measuring the intensity of Cosmic Rays.
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-  Still more to learn.  May you live in interesting times.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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-  #1860  -  The Dawn spacecraft will orbit Ceres for another 50 years before crashing into its surface.
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-  #1618  and #1572  Dawn spacecraft visit’s the asteroid Vesta.
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-  #1784  -  Ceres has a crater that is 175 miles across and 9 miles deep.
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-  $847  -  Ceres orbit’s the Sun in 4.6 years at a distance of 2.77 astronomical units.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Friday, January 6, 2017  -----
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2016 in space exploration.

-  1910  -  Looking back on the year 2016 to reflect on the missions and accomplishments in space exploration.  There were many small steps into our Solar System thanks to unmanned robots.
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-----------------------------  1910  -  Looking back on 2016.
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-  Happy New Year 2017.  What happened last year in 2016 in astronomy and space exploration?  Viewing it from the big pictures to me the most significant happening was finding water on so many moons and planets.  Water essential for live as we know it.
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-  During the formation of the early Solar System Earth got too hot to retain water.  It all evaporated into space.  Much later when things cooled down the many asteroids and comets smashing into Earth’s surface brought us a new reservoir of water.  It filled the oceans.  Look at the pock marks on the Moon to get an idea of what this barrage of impacts was like.  The Moon does not have enough gravity to retain water.
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-  If this is a true scenario then there must have been a lot of water in the outer Solar System.  And, there still is.  What does this mean for life elsewhere?  Over 4,000 planets have been discovered orbiting other stars.  100’s of these are orbiting in the habitable zones where water could be retained.  The same could be said for the many moons orbiting these planets.
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-  But, let’s get back to 2016 and the small steps for man, or robots, and the giant leaps for mankind:
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-  Mars has had 40 visiting space probes, 20 have been successful in completing their mission, or part of their mission.  Some have gone far beyond what was expected.  ExoMars 2016 is orbiting Mars today arriving last October 19.  The “ lander” unfortunately made a crash landing while the mother ship continues to orbit with measuring instruments collecting data.
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-  “Curiosity” is the successful Mars lander that is entering its 5th year exploring the surface.  The unmanned nuclear “rover” is still searching areas where life could exist, but, the rover is on its last legs.
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-  On July 4 the “ Juno” probe went into orbit around Jupiter.  This is a 20-month mission designed to come within 2,500 miles of the Jovian north pole.
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-  “Cassini” is reaching the end of its 20-year mission orbiting Saturn.  It successfully sent detailed radar images of the surface of the Saturn moon, Titan.  Its mission is scheduled to end in September next year.
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-  “New Horizon” spacecraft flew by Pluto in July 2015.  It takes 16 months for it to transmit all the data collected back to Earthlings to analyze.  It is currently scheduled to arrive at t a Kuiper Belt object for more research.
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-  The biggest surprise with early analysis on Pluto is that it likely contains a slush, sub-surface ocean.
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-  “Rosetta” landed on comet 67/P on September 30.  Its total voyage was 12 years duration.  Its “Philae” lander made its landing November 2014.  Philae probe landed softly but in the wrong place and its solar panels were not able to recharge the batteries and continue transmitting data.
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-  The James Webb telescope completed assembly in April.  It is scheduled to be a Hubble Space Telescope replacement inn 2018.
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-  On a sad note, 2016, was the year we said goodbye to the last of the seven Mercury astronauts that started this whole adventure into space.
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-  To learn the details on these space missions Google the mission “names”, or, request a review.  I might have one already.
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 5, 2017  -----
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