When will a big asteroid hit the Earth?

-  1923  -  When will a big asteroid hit the Earth?  What is the mission that will land a spacecraft on an asteroid and bring back a sample of its surface?  This mission to also to determine the likelihood of it impacting Earth.  It comes by every 6 years.
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----------------------  1923  -  When will a big asteroid hit the Earth?
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-  You may have missed it.  About 6:00 PM last night ( January 23, 2017)  an asteroid, 39 feet in diameter, flew past the Earth.  It was only a miss by 46,603 miles.  That is one quarter the distance to the Moon.

-  Surprised?  Actually so far this year ( 2017) 50 asteroids have passed us at distances closer than the Moon which is 238,855 miles away.
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-  If you were to tally up all the “ discovered” asteroids in orbit within 130% the distance between the Earth and the Sun ( 1.3 AU )  then the total NEA’s identified come to 15,197.
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-  This last one was 39 feet in diameter and it would likely all burn up as it plunged through the Earth’s atmosphere.  If an asteroid made it to the surface it would be called a meteorite.  It all depends on the asteroids speed, angle of impact, composition, and of course size if it reaches the surface.
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-  The first discovery of a Near Earth Asteroid, NEA, occurred August 13, 1898.  It was call 433Eros orbiting within 1.13 AU of the Sun.
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-  The most threatening asteroid known was discovered in 1999.  Known as “ Bennu”  Its projected orbit is calculated to pass between us and the Moon in 2135.  ( I will miss it, let’s hope it misses you ).  Orbits can get tweaked by other gravity pass bys.  A miss is  not certain .  If Bennu did hit us it would be at least a 3,000 megaton TNT impact.
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-  Pieces of asteroids fall to the Earth “all the time”.  They are called meteorites.  Most that make it to the surface of Earth are composed of rock and metal.
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-  Bennu is a special case.  It is composed of coal-black mass of delicate organic compounds, carbon-based biochemistry.  Most of this chemistry would burn up in our atmosphere.  Or, if it languished on the surface for a long time it would be significantly changed by Earth’s environmental conditions.
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-  The Japanese “ Hayabusa” mission in 2005 to asteroid Itokawa was designed to capture some pristine samples to study.  It did manage to bring back 1,500 microscopic mineral grains collected from the asteroid’s surface.  ( much less than expected ).
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-   The mission to visit Bennu was launched in September 2016.  It will arrive at the asteroid in August 2018, a 2 year journey.  Bennu is 1,640 feet in diameter ( 0.5 km).
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-  The mission has several objectives.  We need to study the instabilities of its orbit to determine the likelihood of a collision with Earth in 2135.  Secondly, the mission , OSIRIS-Rex, is designed to collect 60 grams of the surface.  These organic molecules could become a story of the formation of our solar system and to life on Earth.
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-  The organic molecules and the clay minerals on the surface could serve as feedstock for DNA, RNA proteins.  Immense numbers of carbonaceous asteroids must have collided with the pre-biotic Earth.
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-  Will Bennu ever collide with Earth?  It circles the Sun ever 1.2 years traveling at 62,634 miles per hour.  It has a close approach to Earth every 6 years, to within 186,000 miles.  Bennu’s orbit will take into account “changes” in the orbit due to the gravity of the Sun, the Moon, the 8 planets, and the dwarf planets, like Ceres, and the Earth.  Using these models the closest approach occurs in 2135.  I will miss that one, Thank God.  One of you will have to write about it.
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-  The calculations put the chance of an impact at 1 in 2,700.
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-  Of course, the odds of hitting the Sun are 50 - 50.  And, then there are the planets Venus, Mercury, Mars, and Jupiter it also must miss.
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-  Some science needed to make these collision estimates more accuratly include the “ Yarkovsky Effect”.  This is the effect of the Sun’s radiation being absorbed on one side of the rotation and radiating the absorbed energy as heat back into space the other side of the rotation.  This thermal radiation acts as a mini-thruster.  This effect for retrograde rotations, like Bennu has, causes the asteroid to drift towards us.  But, by how much?
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-  Current calculations since 1999 tells us the inward drift is more than 100 miles closer.  The OSIRIS-Rx  mission will measure Bennu’s spin , surface area, and thermal emissions to calculate its acceleration in our direction.
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-  Bennu will receive a 5-second touch-and-go maneuver to gather a sample of the asteroid’s surface.  This maneuver happens at the end of a 3-year stay in orbit.  The communications is 18 light-minutes between satellite and Earth.  The touch-down on the surface is designed to have a maximum velocity of only 10 centimeters per second. And, the mission is designed to allow 3 of these sampling attempts.
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-  In 2023 the sample of Bennu’s surface collected is to be returned to Earth.  The return capsule will hit the upper atmosphere at 28,000 miles per hour.  The heat shield will burn off 99 % of the reentry energy.  At 2 miles altitude parachutes will be deployed.  The soft landing is to occur in Utah’s West Desert.  What will we learn?
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-  An announcement will be made shortly, well in 8 years from now.  Stay tuned.  I hope we are all around to get it.
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-  See also other Reviews available upon request:
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-  #1871 -   Asteroids and their Trojan orbits.
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-  #1829  -  Dwarf planets and asteroids.   Also lists 11 other reviews about asteroids.  Including:
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-   #1825  -  Asteroids responsible for evolution on Earth.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 26, 2017  -----
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Titan and Saturn Mission accomplishments.

-  1922  -  Titan and Saturn Mission accomplishments.  The 20 years space exploration of Saturn will end this September.  There area some amazing videos at the website.
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----------------------- 1922  -  Titan and Saturn Mission accomplishments.
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----------------------   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msiLWxDayuA
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-  The above address is an amazing video collected as the Huygens Space Probe is descending into the atmosphere of Titan, largest moon of Saturn.  Several other videos are available at the same address.
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-  On December 24, 2004, the Huygens probe was released from the mother ship. Cassini.  The probe descended into Titan’s atmosphere landing on January 14, 2005.
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-  The pictures in the video are a 2 ½ hour descent reduced to a few minutes.  In the last few frames Titan’s surface comes into full view.  The camera sees mountains, river channels ,and a lakebed.  The surface was cobbled with chunks of water ice, hundreds of degrees below freezing.
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-  There is a NASA video that also shows all the measurement instruments recording data during this descent with sound added.  19 countries cooperated and participated in this Huygens mission.  The data collected allowed analysis of the geological and meteorological processes that created the surface features.  It is a volume story of how these scientists used sheer persistence, insight , and lots of improvisations to recover these measurement results.  Not everything went according to plan, major adjustments to the  mission had to be made on the fly.
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-  The Huygens space probe did not have enough power or a large enough dish to transmit all the data to Earth.  Cassini had to store the data then later transmit when Earth was on a line of sight.
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-  The whole story is amazing.  It took 2 years of fancy coding modifications and amazing trajectory math to delay the landing  months for a new trajectory to overcome some radio system design flaws that were encountered.  But, they did it.  Radio telescopes around the world helped by listening to Huygens’ faint signal capturing the data that the mother ship would miss.
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-  The Titan probe was just part of the Cassini mission.  Launched in 1997 it is due to end September 15, 2017 crashing into the Saturn surface.  In the next few months the Cassini mission has much more to do.  The spacecraft will be flying as low as 1,056 miles above the Saturn clouds.
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-  There is an amazing cloud that exists in the shape of a hexagon at the north pole.  A monster hurricane with 340  mile per hour winds somehow forms into a symmetrical hexagon shape.
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-  Cassini will do another flyby of the moon Titan.  The last pass after 7 years orbiting the Saturn system.  The astronomers are still trying to learn, “ How long is a day on Saturn?”  It is hard to tell because the layers of clouds above the surface rotate at different speeds.  The estimate is that one rotation occurs every 10.66 hours.  The 2 hemispheres vary from 10.6 hours to 10.8 hours.  The variations are thought to be caused by the Sun’s radiation interacting with Saturn’s magnetic field.
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-  Cassini’s final orbits will pass through the Saturn rings.  Its Cosmic Dust Analyzer will grab a handful of particles.  “ Why do Saturn rings have a golden hue?”    The rings are water ice, but what else?
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-  There are 62 moons orbiting Saturn.  Titan is the biggest.  Enceladus is the moon with the water jets shooting up into the atmosphere.  The reason Cassini will be dropped into Saturn’s atmosphere to burn up is to prevent a future crash into Titan or Enceladus that would pollute future studies.
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-  This September The Cassini 20 year mission will end in a fading radio signal that is gone forever.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Tuesday, January 24, 2017  -----
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Particle Physics in the year 2016.

-  1921  - Particle Physics in the year 2016.  Mysteries to solve in Gravity Waves, Higgs Bosons, Neutrinos, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, and Anti-Matter.  Plus new ones unnamed.
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-----------------------------  1921  - Particle Physics in the year 2016.
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-  The year 2016 in Particle Physics covers the Universe from the smallest to the largest scales.  From inside the atom to inside Blackholes.
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-  100 years after Albert Einstein predicted Gravitational Waves scientists have confirmed they do exist, the LIGO experiment showed that.
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-  Other experiments are pursuing the Higgs Boson, Neutrinos, Dark Matter, Dark Energy ( the name for Cosmic acceleration ), anti-matter, and who knows what new discoveries might show up in 2017.
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-  The Large Hadron Collider first discovered the Higgs particle in 2012.  Today the collider’s particle collisions are producing one Higgs Boson per second.
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-  You would think that another particle that has 100 trillion of them passing through your body every second would be easy to discover.  Not so easy.  We know that there are 3 different types of Neutrinos produced in the Sun’s core nuclear reactor.  This stream of Neutrinos is continuously bombarding Earth.
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-  In 2016 Japan’s T2K experiment showed a possible difference between the rate at which a Muon Neutrino turns into an Electron Neutrino.  And, the same rate exists for their Anti-Neutrinos. Their search hopes to answer the question “ Why is the Universe not full of equal quantities of Matter and Anti-matter?  Why  does Matter dominate our World?
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-  Speaking of matter.  Why is 25% of all the Mass-Energy in the Universe made of Dark Matter that we cannot see?  Dark Matter interacts with Gravity but does not interact with electromagnetic radiation.  That is what makes it “dark”.
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-  Speaking of Dark.  What is the Dark Energy that is accelerating the expansion of the Universe faster and faster?  All the galaxies are racing apart.  The furthest ones are exiting out of our Observable Universe.  “ Observable” is limited by the speed of light that has only traveled 13.8 billion lightyears to get here.
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-  To answer the Dark Energy question the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey is collecting data on 1,500,000 galaxies and Quasars to construct a model of our Cosmic structure.  How fast is it really expanding?  Where is it going?  What happens next?
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-  Sometimes experiment search for one thing and find another.  Sometimes the data is not what is expected.  How do you explain it?  Could new undiscovered particles be the source of his new data?  Or, is the measurement in error?  Particle Accelerators are pursuing the limits, expanding the envelopes of current measurement capabilities.  Our knowledge is being pushed into the unknown.
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-  There is nothing more unknown than the data involving “ Quantum Entanglement”.  Particles that share a property like spin can be separated by distances, that light can not possible close the gap, but one particle will flip spin “ simultaneously” with the other.  How can this be possible?  Nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second.
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-  Science has certain rules:  cause and effect,  time moves forward not backward, the speed of light is a constant, properties are objectively measured, data doesn’t lie.  “ Entanglement” breaks the rules.  Entangled particles appear to have no fixed position or orientation ( spin) until they are measured.  Both particles show their state at the moment of measurement, regardless of how far they are separated.
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-  Is cause and effect violated?  Are measurements and observations only “ subjective”.  Is there communications possible faster than the speed of light?
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-  Speaking of new discoveries that are needed in 2017, “Why is the Universe more Matter than Anti-Matter?
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-  Charged particles, protons and electrons, have anti-matter counterparts that are identical in every respect except they carry the opposite charge.  They have the opposite electric charge and the opposite magnetic property.  If they come together they annihilate each other.  The package turns into nothing but Gamma Rays.
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-  Each spin-carrying electric charge creates a small magnetic field.  The magnetic moment is a fundamental property of the particle.  Measurements of magnetic moments of both particles and anti-particles are “identical” to a measurement uncertainty of 0.8 parts per  million.
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-  Stay tuned, there is  much more to learn.  An announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Note (1):  See also Space Mission in 2016  Review #1920
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- (2)  See Review # 1883 also listing 9 more reviews about Particle Physics.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Sunday, January 22, 2017  -----
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What's happening in space in 2017

-  1920  -  Space Missions in 2017.  Here is what we are doing in space exploration this year…………
( Also See # 1921  for year 2016 in Particle Physics )
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-----------------------------  1920  -  Space Missions in 2017
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-  While Donald Trump was being inaugurated he introduces a transitional year in government, 2017.  The same thing is true in space exploration, 2017 is a transitional year.  The New Horizon flyby of Pluto was in 2015.  The first ever landing on an asteroid is to occur in 2018.
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-  The new President is cutting budgets to get our nation back to financial sanity.  We will anticipate what is left of the over 100 launches scheduled in 2017.  Almost all of these will orbit Earth as communication satellites, or scientific instruments studying our planet.
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-  Other nations have bigger budgets for space.  China is sending a mission to the Moon, to collect 5 pounds of Moon soil and rocks,  returning them to Earth so samples can be studied.  China plans to have  “ taikonauts” exploring the Moon by 2030.
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-   For another crew of real people there are 2 US missions planning  maiden flights:  SpaceX Dragon 2 and Boeings Starliner both scheduled for 2018.  These missions are designed to replace the Space Shuttle in reaching the International Space Station.
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-  Cassini space probe of Saturn will end its mission burning up in the Saturn atmosphere on September 15, 2017.  Cassini has been studying Saturn and its moons since 2004.
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-  New Horizon spacecraft is half way between Pluto and the Kuiper Belt objects.  We are hoping there is some more exploration left out there.
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-  There is still a Juno spacecraft orbiting Jupiter.
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-  There is the Dawn spacecraft orbiting the asteroid, now called  dwarf planet Ceres.
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-  There is the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the ExoMars orbiter studying that planet.  The Opportunity and Curiosity rovers are on the surface of Mars still doing their thing.
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-  “Lucy” is planned for 2021 to visit the Belt asteroids and the Trojan asteroids sharing the orbit with Jupiter.
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-  “Pshche” is an asteroid mission to launch in 2023 and visit a 130 mile wide iron and nickel asteroid in 2030.  Astronomers believe this asteroid is the left over core of a planetesimal from our early Solar System formation.  This mission is scheduled to last for 20 month duration.
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-  These several asteroid missions are designed to help us learn how the Solar System came to be.
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-  Here at home the Event Horizon Telescope that internet connects several radio telescopes around the world to photograph the shadow of the Blackhole at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.
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-  August 21, 2017 the Moon will provide a total eclipse of the Sun on a 70 mile wide path across the US.
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-  Note (1):  See Review # 1921 to learn what happened in Particle Physics in 2016.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Sunday, January 22, 2017  -----
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How do galaxies form?

-  1919  -  How did planets form?  Theory is that gas and dust orbiting the star ( our Sun ) coalesced and multiple collisions created little planets ( planetesimals) that with further collisions created the large planets.  Stars form into galaxies much the same way.
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-

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-----------------------------  1919  -  How did galaxies form?
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-  How many galaxies are there?  How much does our Milky Way Galaxy weigh?  Science trying to use the planet formation model in computer simulations find that simple collisions of material are not enough energy to form planetesimals and galaxies.  There must be other processes involved.
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-  Large galaxies devour smaller galaxies.  It is a story of cosmic cannibalism.  The Universe is littered with disembodied streams of stars, gas, and dust resulting from galaxy collisions.
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-  Our Milky Way Galaxy is a cannibal of smaller dwarf galaxies in our neighborhood.  One well documented example is the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy that is now a barely discernible pile of stars.   There have recently been discovered a dozen long  streams of stars that have been pulled apart by the Milky Way’s immense gravity.
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-  The Canis Major dwarf galaxy is likely the next target to be devoured by our Galaxy.  This would add another 1,000,000,000 stars to the Milky Way.
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-  The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds are actually dwarf galaxies that are candidates in our Local Group of galaxies that might be next to merge with the Milky Way.
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-  The Milky Way Galaxy may one day be itself prey to a larger galaxy.  In 4 to 5 billion years the Andromeda Galaxy may begin to merge with the Milky Way.  Today it is 2,500,000 lightyears away but it is hurtling towards us at 250,000 miles per  hour.
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-  Andromeda Galaxy out weighs our Galaxy two to one.  Andromeda will absorb the Milky Way like eating a candy bar.  A new greater galaxy will emerge, the “Milkomeda Galaxy”.  Dozens of other dwarf galaxies in our Local Group will also merge with Milkomeda.  But, this is at least 4 billion years from now.  Don’t hold your breath.
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-  When it is all over there will be one giant elliptical galaxy formerly  known  as the “Local Group”.
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-  Cannibal galaxies are messy eaters.  Not all the material torn from victims is consumed.  Some escape into empty space to become orphaned stars and star clusters.
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-  It is not just galaxies that collide, planets and planetesimals collide as well.  New evidence is coming together on how our Mother Earth suffered multiple collisions.
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-  Astrophysics has revised the estimate of the number of galaxies in the “Observable Universe” from 200 billion to 2,000 billion, or 2 trillion.
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-  The Observable Universe is measured to be 13.8 billion lightyears in all directions.  That distance is the edge as far as we can see.  It takes light that long to reach us, so, that edge today is 46 billion light years away.  But, we can not see it yet.
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-  It is space that keeps stretching out and expanding the Universe.  The light photons themselves get stretched out passing through this medium so that visible light and ultraviolet light from the past is stretched into infrared and even microwave wavelengths.
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-  Given the volume of the “Observable Universe” with a radius of 13.8 billion lightyears , and, the calculated density of the Universe would put the mass of the Universe at 3.4*10^54 kilograms.  This mass calculation  includes both Ordinary Matter and Dark Matter.
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-  Now divide the total mass by the average galaxy mass and you get 200 billion galaxies.  How did we more recently get a number 10 times greater?
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-  Astronomers used the Hubble Telescope “ Ultra Deep Field” image.  This is one spot in the sky with a very long time exposure.  Convert the number of galaxies exposed into a
 3 - dimensional map.  Then astronomers compared that to a 3-D image of galaxies closet to home which could include the smaller and dimmer dwarf galaxies that would not show up in the Deep Field image.
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-  So, the result is not that the Universe is not bigger it just contains more galaxies that have fewer stars in them.  The total number of stars in the Observable Universe comes out to the same number when astronomers create a smooth distribution curve from the big galaxies to the tiny dwarf galaxies.
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-  The galaxies we can see are just the “ tip of the iceberg”.  There are another 9 smaller , fainter galaxies that we can not see.  Also, at great distances the light from these galaxies is red-shifted beyond the visible spectrum into the infrared spectrum that we can not see.  If we could see all the way into the microwave wavelengths the Universe would glow with stars in all directions.
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-  There are 2 trillion galaxies out there you just can’t see then all.
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-  The Milky Way Galaxy is  between 4*10^11 to 5.8 * 10^11 Solar Mass.  We weighed it.  That is between 400 to 500 billion Sun-size stars, on average.  That particular measure uses the radius to be 311*10^18 miles.  If you go out to 746 *10^18 miles you get a mass of 900 billion Solar Mass.  This mass includes stars, planets, moons, gases, and dust, AND Dark Matter.
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-  These mass calculations are  being made by using the velocities and positions of globular star clusters that orbit our Galaxy.  Velocities must be measured in 2 directions, one along our line of sight, the other across the plane of the sky ( proper motion ).  The math uses Bayesian Statistics in a model using 572 parameters to reduce the uncertainties of such a complex measurement.  How much does our Galaxy weight?   Now you know.
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-  Stay tuned.  There is much  more to learn..  An announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Note (1):    There are 9 more reviews on the Milky Way starting with 1889 and a listing of 8 more.  Also available upon request.
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How do Blackholes and galaxies evolve?

-  1918  -  Blackholes and Galaxies?  How do galaxies evolve?  Which came first the central Blackhole or the galaxy?   Is there a direct correlation between the size of the central Blackhole and the size of the galaxy ?
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-----------------------------  1918  -  Blackholes and Galaxies?
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- The first super-massive Blackholes were discovered in 1963.  The first discovery had a red-shift that indicated it was receding at 16% the speed of light.   It became known as  a “Quasar” and soon hundreds more were discovered.
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-  These Quasars can shine brighter then their entire host galaxy, or, other whole galaxies.  The rapid variations in brightness implied that the actual light radiation was coming from something smaller than our Solar System.  These small centers of galaxies were spewing jets of ionized gas millions of lightyears into space from their rotational poles.  The jets were plasma that smashed into gas surrounding the galaxy heating the gas to many millions of degrees Kelvin.  The hot gas emitted X-rays.
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-  The gas was falling into the Blackhole circling to velocities nearly the speed of light.  The friction within the gas creates the heat that emit’s the X-ray radiation.
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-  In 2002 astronomers observing the motion of individual stars surrounding the Blackhole at the center of our Milky Way Galaxy proved that the center was a mass of 4.3 million Solar Mass.  The area emitting this radiation was so small it had to be the concentrated energy of a Blackhole.
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-  In 2005 the same type analysis confirmed the size of the Blackhole at the center of the Andromeda Galaxy.
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-  Blackholes appear to control the evolution of all the large galaxies.  But how?  We need to explain why the mass of a central Blackhole does not correlate with the mass of the galaxy disk.  For similar size galaxies, one can have a Blackhole of 1,500 Solar Mass.  Another can have a Blackhole of 1,000,000,000 Solar Mass.  Something else is going on?
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-  When the Universe was 2 to 6 billion years old,  during the era of rapid  Quasar development, many smaller Blackholes merged into larger Blackholes.
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-  A Blackhole is a pit in the fabric of space-time.  Space and Time are interchangeable. You can not have one without the other.
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-  Blackholes are places in space where the density of matter grows so high that all matter is crushed into a single point, a Singularity.  The Singularity is the center.  The rim of the Blackhole is the Event Horizon.  The Event Horizon is the edge where even light photons, get turned around by the pull of gravity and sent back into the Singularity.
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-  There are two types of Blackholes.  Stellar Blackholes that form from a single massive star.  And, Galactic Blackholes that are the centers of most galaxies and have a mass of million, or billions, Solar Mass.
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-  Spinning Blackholes have an additional kinetic energy in addition to the gravitational energy.  Spinning Blackholes can power jets of gas and dust exiting out of their rotational poles.
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-  The rotational velocity of a spinning Blackhole can be calculated :
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-------------------  Rotational Velocity  =  v  =  a * c /  ( 1  + ( 1 - a^2) ^ ½  )
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---------------------  c  =  the speed of light  =  186,000 miles per second
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---------------------  a  =  the angular momentum
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-  If the spin is 31.3% of its maximum.  Then:
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----------------------  v  =  0.16 *c  =  16% the speed of light.
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-  There are 3 ways astronomers can measure the mass of a Blackhole.  If stars can be seen orbiting the Blackhole the speed and radius distance can be used to calculate the mass.
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-  If the light from the Accretion Disk flickers the duration of the flicker corresponds to how long light took to travel from one side to the other side of the disk.  Light speed and duration time can be used to calculate distance across the disk.  The size of the Accretion Disk can be used to correlate with other Blackholes to estimate the mass.
-
-  If the above data can not be collected, astronomers can us the brightness alone of the Accretion Disk to estimate the mass of the Blackhole.
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-   We need a lot of estimating to measure something we can not see.
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-  Blackhole folklore gives the impression that Blackholes are enormous beasts devouring everything in their cosmic neighborhood.
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-  Astronomers can get very sure of the thing that they think they are very sure of.  Actually  Blackholes are surprisingly tiny spheres of influence.    Their gravitational reach is surprisingly small, only a few lightyears.  Stars can whisk by within a few thousandths of a lightyear and survive unscathed.
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-  If a galaxy were the size of the Earth the central Blackhole would be the size of a penny.

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-  Defining the correlation between the size of the Central Blackhole and the size of the galaxy as proven to be difficult.  There appear to be many  different factors involved.
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-  Blackhole evolution could have a feedback system , a cosmic thermostat, that shuts off development.  Rotating hot gas creates jets shooting out the poles and inflating bubbles that create eddies and turbulence that could cut off further star formation in the galaxy.
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-  Cold gas makes stars and feeds Blackholes.  10 to 12 billion years ago galaxies were 50% gas.  Today, large galaxies are only 5 to 15% gas.
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-  At lower masses the galaxy population is dominated by spiral galaxies.
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-  A galaxy can evolve as a ball ( elliptical ) or a disk depending on where it is born and how the cosmic web is feeding it.
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-  The study is still open ended trying to explain the correlation between the size of Blackholes and the size of their host galaxies. Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.  Or, maybe astronomy will just give us more mysteries to solve.
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-  See Reviews #1908  -  How the  mass of the Blackhole is calculated
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-  #1891  -    The Blackhole is inescapable for stars greater than 20 Solar Mass.
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-  # 1882  -  Could  Blackholes explain Dark Matter?
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-  #1869  -  How big can Blackholes get?
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-  #1843  -  Great Walls in space with  Blackholes.
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-  # 1819  -  The history of discovery of Blackholes.  This review also lists 21 other Reviews on the subject of Blackholes.  All the way back to #592 dated December, 2005.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Saturday, January 14, 2017  -----
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How “ Entropy” controls the fate of the Universe?

-  1917  -  How “ Entropy” controls the fate of the Universe?   Entropy always increases, it never decreases in a system.  Can science speculate scenarios for the future of the Universe and still hold to this law in physics?
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-  See Review #1914 and #1915 to learn more about “ Entropy”
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-  This Review #1917 tells what happens to the Universe because entropy controls our fate.
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-----------------------  1917  -  How “ Entropy” controls the fate of the Universe?  
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-  The Universe we observe today is full of stars, galaxies, Blackholes, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, and radiation.   It has clumps, clusters, and giant voids.  It is expanding and cooling.
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-  Due to the constant and finite speed of light when we look into the distant Universe we are looking into the past and we observe a Universe that is smoother, hotter, denser, less clumpy, more energetic and more uniform.
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-  So, what we see today would indicate that the future Universe will be clumpier, frozen, sparser, less energetic, and emptier.
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-  To wrap our heads around this evolution of the Universe as we understand it we adopt the concept of “ Entropy”.  Entropy is a mathematical concept employing statistics of large numbers.  We can even calculate the Entropy for the entire Universe:
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---------------------------  Entropy  =  10^104  *  BK
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-------------------------  BK  is Boltzmann’s Constant
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-------------------------  BK  =  1.38  * 10^-23  Joules  /  degrees Kelvin
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-  (  See Review #1915 to learn about Boltzmann’s Constant )
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-  The Entropy of the Blackhole at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is 10^91 *BK .  Most of the Entropy in the Universe is due to many, many Blackholes.
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-  When the Universe was very young the Entropy was much lower.  Not many Blackholes had formed yet.  In the far future the Entropy will be much higher, When Blackholes decay due to Hawking Radiation, Blackholes eventually evaporate causing Entropy to increase even further.
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-  When the early Universe was dominated by radiation the Entropy was :
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---------------------------  E  =  10^88  *  BK
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-  This is less than the single Blackhole at the center of our Galaxy.  Entropy was much less 13.8 billion years ago.
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-  In the far future, after all the Blackholes evaporate the entropy will be:
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--------------------------   E  =  10^123  *  BK
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-  Could the Universe expand forever, continue to accelerate until it rips entirely apart?
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-  Could the Universe reverse and re-collapse, moving backwards until it becomes a single point, a “ Singularity”.
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-  Could the Universe have originality stated out as a Singularity?  None of the math tells us what could have happened before 10^-33 seconds closer to the beginning of  time and space.  Math calculations become infinities with no answers.
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-  If an Inflationary State existed before the hot Big Bang the Entropy could have been:
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--------------------------  E  =   10^15  *  BK
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--------------------------  E  =  10^15  *  1.38 * 10^-23
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------------------------  E  =  1.38  * 10^-8  Joules per Kelvin
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-  But the temperature could have been billions of degrees Kelvin.  So, we can not calculate the Entropy at the beginning.  It could be zero.
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-  The math in the theory of General Relativity takes us to a Singularity.  If we introduce some other theories, quantum theories of gravity, then other scenarios can be calculated.
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-  Using the math  in “ Loop Quantum Gravity”, String Theory,  Brane Cosmology, we can derive 4 other possibilities that are not a Singularity.
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-  The Universe could go through a cycle, a stringy bounce.  The Universe expands, reaches some maximum size, contracts, and re-collapses while the Entropy is increasing the entire time.
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-  Another possibility is that gravity changes.  gravity could get turned off for a period of time and cosmology could go into hibernation.
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-  Another possibility assumes that space-time pre-exists in a variety of locations and properties.  There could be multi-universes and we just happen to be in one of them.
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-  One of the challenges astronomers have is to create one of these scenarios where by Entropy is continuously increasing.  Most hold on to this fact the the 2nd law of Thermodynamics can never be violated.  Of the 4 scenarios presented the “ multi-verse”, or  “reproducing cosmology” scenario easily avoids the increasing Entropy problem,  the other scenarios do not adhere to the 2nd law of Thermodynamics.
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-  We are convinced that the Universe is expanding at an accelerating rate.  But,  within the system there are fluctuations in this expansion.  These uneven fluctuations are what created the structure we observe today.  This “Inflation” of space, creating more and more space at an exponential rate, must continue with overall Entropy of the entire system never decreasing.  The multi-verse scenario is the only one to avoid this problem, so far
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-  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.  Request the following reviews if interested to learn more.
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-   #1914  -  Entropy is the arrow of time.  The entropy of this room is 546 Joules per Kelvin.
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-  #770  -  Too much information.  A cubic centimeter of water contains 100,000 billion, billion atoms.  Each atom can contain a bit of information.  4,000,000,000 years ago organisms learned of cull useful bits out of the cosmic noise.
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-  #530 -  Entropy and Evolution.  Good mutations win out in evolution because they are the ones that survive.  Things naturally and eventually always get worse.  When you get to the last heartbeat you’re done.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 12, 2017  -----
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