- 2363 - Math - index of Reviews available. To learn more math, request any of these reviews:
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- 2362 - How to calculate the odds in Poker.
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- 2222 - The power of combinations. The power of teamwork, networking, and the world-wide-web are demonstrated.
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- 2095 - Math through the ages.
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- 2092 - Math through the decades.
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- 2076 - Math and the Golden Ratio. Math relationships that come out of nature.
-
- 2068 - Math causes confusing interpretations. Jokes in the English language.
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- 2012 - Math is food for the brain.
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- 1966 - Math the easy way.
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- 1963 - Math with “Fibonacci’s number sequence.
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- 1953 - Math was invented to solve problems.
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- 1952 - Transcendental numbers “ e” and “pi”. This Review covers imaginary numbers. “Pi” is an irrational number. Compound interest uses “e”. e^i *pi +1 = 0 is world’s most amazing equation.
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- 1935 - How fast is the satellite? How to calculate the speed to be 18,557 miles per hour
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- 1865 - Equations are just another language. There are a least 6 differed proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem. Logarithms are designed to make the math simpler. Calculus ws invented to calculate rates of change. Fourier transforms describe time as a function of frequency. Chaos Theory models copulation growth.
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- 1844 - Pascal’s Wager on climate change. Decision Theory - what is the best and the worst with any two alternatives.
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- 1780 - How fast to orbit? The same math as Review 1935.
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- 1750 - Math for fun. Short cuts you can do in your head for math calculations. How to add up all the numbers in a multiplication tale up to 100? The answer = 3,025. Pick any 4-digit number, scramble the order of the digits, subtract, add, the answer you get is always “9”.
-
- 1661 - Math is food for the brain. The sum of he cubes of a series of numbers is equal to the square of the sum of those numbers. How to win at craps and roulette tables, Blackjack and Poker. What is your probabilities when gambling?
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- 1649 - The power of combinations. Factorials is multiplication is a descending sequence of numbers down to the number one. When you get 23 people in a room the probability is 49% that none have the same birthday, 51% that 2 of them do have the same birthday.
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- 1638 - Should I rent or buy, do the math
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- 1565 - How fast is that satellite?
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- 1521 - Math’s most powerful equations. E=mc^2. and FV=PV( 1+i )^t
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- 1493 - Puzzles in astronomy
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- 1467 - The growth and decay of money . Interest is really the price of money. Put one penny in a kitchen jar on December 1st and double it every day.. How much will you have by Christmas? $117,772 and you could buy an airplane.
-
- 1459 - Modular math to find the day of the week.
-
- 1344 - Math for a rocket launch
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- 1329 - Most important math you will ever learn. Compound interest.
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- 1324 - How politicians use math. They tend to use math to get the numbers they want. 2008 financial crisis at Lehman Brothers and AIG - Presidential poles. I don’t believe the poles but the math is fun.
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- 1284 - Why does string theory need 8 dimensions in numbers?
- 1235 - Equations are sentences in short hand. Frequency times wavelength equals a constant = 300,000,000 . Energy divided by frequency equals a constant = 6.6*10^-34. The force of gravity times distance squared equals a constant = 79*10^43.
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- 1213 - became Review 2362. - How to calculate odds for poker hands. The logic for these calculations is “ combinations. There is a “rule of sums” and “ rule of products”. The odds of a Flush are 0.198%.
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- 1086 - Formulas for space time, velocity, galaxies, solar systems, light , atoms, Quantum Mechanics, Energy, Action, Work, Momentum, Geometry, and more.
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- 1095 - Math is a learned discipline.
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- 1042 - Calculate areas by connecting the dots, Pick’s Theorem
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- 1041 - The star with the golden ratio. (a /b ) = (a + b) / a 1/1.618 = 1.618
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- 853 - Math, the golden ratio
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- 805 - Gambling, math for craps, roulette, blackjack.
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- 803 - Transcendental numbers, “e” and “pi”.
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- 796 - Science and Math, Part I
- 798 - Science and Math, Part II.
- 799 - Science and Math, Part III.
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- 745 - The calculus of a circle.
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- 649 - The Greeks invented numbers.
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- Transcendental - is a function that is not an algebraic function. It is a number that is real but not an algebraic with rational roots.
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- Irrational - not expressible as a ratio of two integers having an infinite and nonrecurring expansion when expressed as a decimal.
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- Rational - number expressed as a quotient, a fraction, a ratio.
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- May 13, 2019.
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----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Monday, May 13, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Monday, May 13, 2019
How to Calculate Odds for Poker Hands.
- 2362 - - Calculating Poker odds becomes a calculation of combinations that can be drawn from a 52 card deck. It is Discrete Math of integers that defines rules for combinations, permutations, sequences, and arrangements of whole numbers. It is the basis of binary logic used in computers. Here we use a simple subset that deals with combinations of cards important to the game of poker.
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-
-
---------------------------- - 2362 - How to Calculate Odds for Poker Hands.
-
- The logic of calculations in poker are calculations of “ combinations“. For a Full House you need a combination of 3 of a kind and 2 of a kind in 5 card draw The calculations us the rule of “product“. That is what multiplication is. It uses the rule of product.
-
- Whenever you have a choice, and, followed by another choice, and, followed by another choice you get the “combination” of the number of ways the result can turn out by multiplying the choices together. The rule of product is the function of “ and’s”. This happens and this happens and this happens, what are the number of ways the result can happen.
-
- (There is another rule called the rule of “sums”. We do not us that in poker, but, it is the function of “or’s. This happens or this happens you “add’ the two together to get the number of ways the results could happen.)
-
- Poker uses “combinations” which uses the “rule of product“.
-
- For example, with a deck of cards. You first have a choice of numbers, 1 through 13, that is ace through king. Then, and followed by, a choice of suits, 1 of 4: clubs, hearts, spades, diamonds. The number of combinations is their product 13 * 4 = 52. Therefore poker uses a deck of 52 cards.
-
- The rule of combinations requires that repetitions not be allowed and the order of choices does not matter. This is true in poker. Each card is unique, no repetitions. You can form a Straight in your 5 card hand regardless of the order you received them. So, the rule of combinations applies.
-
- To give you the bigger picture there could be choices where order does matter and repetitions are allowed. ZIP codes for example, 95405. This is the rule of “arrangements” and it has different formulas. Poker is the rule of combinations, not arrangements.
-
- How many combinations of 5 card hands can you get from a 52 card deck?
- ----------- 52 cards choose 5
-
------------ This is the rule of “n” choose “k”
-
------------ “n” cards choose “k” for your hand.
-
----------- The formula for combinations is: -----------n choose k = n! / k! * ( n - k)!
-
------------ “n!” is n “factorial”
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------------ “n!” is 52 * 51 * 50 * 49 * ……….. 5* 4* 3* 2* 1
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------------ “k”, k factorial is 5* 4* 3* 2* 1
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------------ ”(n-k)” is 47!
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------------ Plug these values of “52 choose 5” into the formula for combinations:
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-------------- 52! / 5! * 47! = 52 * 51 * 50 * 49 * 48 * 47! / 5* 4* 3* 2* 1 * 47!
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----------- = 52 * 51 10 * 49 * 2 = 2,598,960
-
- Therefore, there are over 2 ½ million possible poker hands
-
- 52 cards choose 5 = 2,598,960 combinations.
-
-
- What are the odds of drawing a Full House? That is 3 of a kind and 2 of a kind. The rule for 52 cards choose 5 being a Full House is the product rule of the 1st card drawn times the 2nd card drawn times the 3rd card drawn, times the 4th card drawn, times the 5th card drawn with the result being 3 numbers the same and 2 numbers the same.
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- Your first card has 13 choices of numbers, Ace through King, and that is going to be paired, 13 choose 1.
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- Your second card has now 12 choices of numbers since the 3 of a kind can not be the same numbers as the pair, 12 choose 1.
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- Next you have 4 suits to choose 3 that are the same number as the second card.
------------ 4 choose 3 = n! / k! * ( n - k )! = 4! / 3! * (1)!
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------------ 4 choose 3 = 4 combinations.
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- Next you have 4 suits to choose 2 that match the number of your first card.
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------------ 4 choose 2 = 4! / 2! * (2)! = 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 / 2 * 2 = 6
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------------ 4 choose 2 = 6 combinations.:
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- Now you use the product rule to multiple them all together.
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------------ 13 * 12 * 4 * 6 = 3,744 combinations to get a Full House.
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- There are 2,598,960 possible poker hands. The are 3,744 combinations that will be a Full House So your odds are 0.144% of getting a Full House. That is a little over 1 chance in 1,000 of getting a Full House on a 5 card draw. Good Luck.
-
-
We use the same logic to determine the odds of drawing a Straight. A Straight is a consecutive sequence of 5 numbers. Let the Ace be a one or a 14. Low or High. There are 10 possible Straights.
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---------- 1 ----------1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
---------- 2 --------- 2 3 4 5 6
---------- 3 ---------- 3 4 5 6 7
---------- 4 ---------- 4 5 6 7 8
---------- 5 ---------- 5 6 7 8 9
---------- 6 ---------- 6 7 8 9 10
---------- 7 ---------- 7 8 9 10 11 (Jack)
---------- 8 ---------- 8 9 10 11 12 (Queen)
---------- 9 ---------- 9 10 11 12 13 (King)
---------- 10 ---------- 10 11 12 13 14 (Ace)
-
- So, there are 10 possible 5 card Straights.
-
- Those are the numbers but each card has to choose a suit, 4 choose 1.
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------------------ 4 choose 1 = 4! /1! * 3! = 4
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------------------ Product rule 10 * 4* 4* 4 * 4 * 4 =10,240 combinations.
-
- What are the odds of drawing a Straight = 10,240 / 2,598,960 = 0.394%
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- The odds are 3 times better than a Full House, so a Full House beats a Straight.
Good Luck.
-
-
- Does a Flush beat a Straight? What are the odds of drawing a Flush? All 5 the same suit.
-
----------- To choose the first card it is 4 choose 1, that is the 1 to decide the suit for the Flush.
-
------------ For the numbers you need 13 choose 5 of the same suit
-
-------------- 13! / 5! - 8! = 13 * 12 *11 * 10 * 9 * 8! / 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 8! = 5,148 combinations.
-
- So, there are half as many combinations to give us a Flush as to give us a Straight, 5,148 versus 10,240. So, a Flush beats a Straight.
-
- The odds of drawing a Flush are 5,148 / 2,598,960 = 0.198% chance, Good Luck.
-
-
- What are the odds of drawing a single Pair?
-
- The first card is 13 choose 1 = 13
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- Out of the 4 suits choose 2 = 4 * 3 * 2 / 2 * 2 = 6 combinations.
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- To get a single pair the other cards can’t match so those odds are 12 choose 3
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--------- 12 choose 3 = 12! /3! * ( 12-3)! = 12 * 11 * 10 * 9! / 3 * 2 * 9! = 13 * 6 * 220 for the numbers = 17,160 combinations.
-
- Now choose the suit for the last 3 cards, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1 = 4 * 4 * 4 = 64 combinations.
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----------17,160 * 64 = 1,098,240
-
- There are over 1 million ways to draw a single pair.
- The odds are 1,098,240 / 2,598,960 = 42.3%
-
- The probability of drawing a single pair is 42%, still less than a 50 : 50 chance.
-
-
OK, here is the last one: What are the odds of getting all “ garbage”?
-
- The odds of not getting a single pair are 13 choose 5:
-
----------- 13! / 5! * (13-5)! = 13 * 12 * 11 * 10 * 9 * 8! / % * 4 * 3 * 2 * 8! = 1,287 for the numbers.
-
---------- 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1 for each of the 5 cards to get suits.
-
------------ 1,287 * 1024 = 1,317,888
-
- Now this is over counted for the number of Straights in the no pair possibilities. So we need to subtract the number of Straights. 1,317,888 - 10,240 = 1,307,648
-
- And we need to subtract the number of Flushes in the no pair possibilities. 1,307,648 - 5,148 = 1,302,500
-
- However, a Straight Flush has been counted twice, once in the Straights and once in the Flushes. Add 10 * 4 = 40. 1,302,500 + 40 = 1,302,540
-
- Therefore, the odds of getting “garbage are 1,302,540 / 2,598,960 = 50,1%
-
- You always knew this. There is over 50% chance of getting all” garbage” in a 5 card draw of Poker.
-
- There is another way to look at the above problem. For the numbers there are (13 choose 5 for the numbers - 10 Straights) * For the suits there are ( 4*4*4*4*4 - 4 for that Straight Flush) = (1,287 - 10 ) * ( 1,024 - 4) = (1,277) * ( 1,020) = 1,302,540, the same answer for the combinations of 5 cards that are Garbage. Good Luck.
-
- Yes, best of luck. Now you know your chances of beating the odds.
-
- May 13, 2019. 1213
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Monday, May 13, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
---------------------------- - 2362 - How to Calculate Odds for Poker Hands.
-
- The logic of calculations in poker are calculations of “ combinations“. For a Full House you need a combination of 3 of a kind and 2 of a kind in 5 card draw The calculations us the rule of “product“. That is what multiplication is. It uses the rule of product.
-
- Whenever you have a choice, and, followed by another choice, and, followed by another choice you get the “combination” of the number of ways the result can turn out by multiplying the choices together. The rule of product is the function of “ and’s”. This happens and this happens and this happens, what are the number of ways the result can happen.
-
- (There is another rule called the rule of “sums”. We do not us that in poker, but, it is the function of “or’s. This happens or this happens you “add’ the two together to get the number of ways the results could happen.)
-
- Poker uses “combinations” which uses the “rule of product“.
-
- For example, with a deck of cards. You first have a choice of numbers, 1 through 13, that is ace through king. Then, and followed by, a choice of suits, 1 of 4: clubs, hearts, spades, diamonds. The number of combinations is their product 13 * 4 = 52. Therefore poker uses a deck of 52 cards.
-
- The rule of combinations requires that repetitions not be allowed and the order of choices does not matter. This is true in poker. Each card is unique, no repetitions. You can form a Straight in your 5 card hand regardless of the order you received them. So, the rule of combinations applies.
-
- To give you the bigger picture there could be choices where order does matter and repetitions are allowed. ZIP codes for example, 95405. This is the rule of “arrangements” and it has different formulas. Poker is the rule of combinations, not arrangements.
-
- How many combinations of 5 card hands can you get from a 52 card deck?
- ----------- 52 cards choose 5
-
------------ This is the rule of “n” choose “k”
-
------------ “n” cards choose “k” for your hand.
-
----------- The formula for combinations is: -----------n choose k = n! / k! * ( n - k)!
-
------------ “n!” is n “factorial”
-
------------ “n!” is 52 * 51 * 50 * 49 * ……….. 5* 4* 3* 2* 1
-
------------ “k”, k factorial is 5* 4* 3* 2* 1
-
------------ ”(n-k)” is 47!
-
------------ Plug these values of “52 choose 5” into the formula for combinations:
-
-------------- 52! / 5! * 47! = 52 * 51 * 50 * 49 * 48 * 47! / 5* 4* 3* 2* 1 * 47!
-
----------- = 52 * 51 10 * 49 * 2 = 2,598,960
-
- Therefore, there are over 2 ½ million possible poker hands
-
- 52 cards choose 5 = 2,598,960 combinations.
-
-
- What are the odds of drawing a Full House? That is 3 of a kind and 2 of a kind. The rule for 52 cards choose 5 being a Full House is the product rule of the 1st card drawn times the 2nd card drawn times the 3rd card drawn, times the 4th card drawn, times the 5th card drawn with the result being 3 numbers the same and 2 numbers the same.
-
- Your first card has 13 choices of numbers, Ace through King, and that is going to be paired, 13 choose 1.
-
- Your second card has now 12 choices of numbers since the 3 of a kind can not be the same numbers as the pair, 12 choose 1.
-
- Next you have 4 suits to choose 3 that are the same number as the second card.
------------ 4 choose 3 = n! / k! * ( n - k )! = 4! / 3! * (1)!
-
------------ 4 choose 3 = 4 combinations.
-
- Next you have 4 suits to choose 2 that match the number of your first card.
-
------------ 4 choose 2 = 4! / 2! * (2)! = 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 / 2 * 2 = 6
-
------------ 4 choose 2 = 6 combinations.:
-
- Now you use the product rule to multiple them all together.
-
------------ 13 * 12 * 4 * 6 = 3,744 combinations to get a Full House.
-
- There are 2,598,960 possible poker hands. The are 3,744 combinations that will be a Full House So your odds are 0.144% of getting a Full House. That is a little over 1 chance in 1,000 of getting a Full House on a 5 card draw. Good Luck.
-
-
We use the same logic to determine the odds of drawing a Straight. A Straight is a consecutive sequence of 5 numbers. Let the Ace be a one or a 14. Low or High. There are 10 possible Straights.
-
---------- 1 ----------1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
---------- 2 --------- 2 3 4 5 6
---------- 3 ---------- 3 4 5 6 7
---------- 4 ---------- 4 5 6 7 8
---------- 5 ---------- 5 6 7 8 9
---------- 6 ---------- 6 7 8 9 10
---------- 7 ---------- 7 8 9 10 11 (Jack)
---------- 8 ---------- 8 9 10 11 12 (Queen)
---------- 9 ---------- 9 10 11 12 13 (King)
---------- 10 ---------- 10 11 12 13 14 (Ace)
-
- So, there are 10 possible 5 card Straights.
-
- Those are the numbers but each card has to choose a suit, 4 choose 1.
-
------------------ 4 choose 1 = 4! /1! * 3! = 4
-
------------------ Product rule 10 * 4* 4* 4 * 4 * 4 =10,240 combinations.
-
- What are the odds of drawing a Straight = 10,240 / 2,598,960 = 0.394%
-
- The odds are 3 times better than a Full House, so a Full House beats a Straight.
Good Luck.
-
-
- Does a Flush beat a Straight? What are the odds of drawing a Flush? All 5 the same suit.
-
----------- To choose the first card it is 4 choose 1, that is the 1 to decide the suit for the Flush.
-
------------ For the numbers you need 13 choose 5 of the same suit
-
-------------- 13! / 5! - 8! = 13 * 12 *11 * 10 * 9 * 8! / 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 8! = 5,148 combinations.
-
- So, there are half as many combinations to give us a Flush as to give us a Straight, 5,148 versus 10,240. So, a Flush beats a Straight.
-
- The odds of drawing a Flush are 5,148 / 2,598,960 = 0.198% chance, Good Luck.
-
-
- What are the odds of drawing a single Pair?
-
- The first card is 13 choose 1 = 13
-
- Out of the 4 suits choose 2 = 4 * 3 * 2 / 2 * 2 = 6 combinations.
-
- To get a single pair the other cards can’t match so those odds are 12 choose 3
-
--------- 12 choose 3 = 12! /3! * ( 12-3)! = 12 * 11 * 10 * 9! / 3 * 2 * 9! = 13 * 6 * 220 for the numbers = 17,160 combinations.
-
- Now choose the suit for the last 3 cards, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1 = 4 * 4 * 4 = 64 combinations.
-
----------17,160 * 64 = 1,098,240
-
- There are over 1 million ways to draw a single pair.
- The odds are 1,098,240 / 2,598,960 = 42.3%
-
- The probability of drawing a single pair is 42%, still less than a 50 : 50 chance.
-
-
OK, here is the last one: What are the odds of getting all “ garbage”?
-
- The odds of not getting a single pair are 13 choose 5:
-
----------- 13! / 5! * (13-5)! = 13 * 12 * 11 * 10 * 9 * 8! / % * 4 * 3 * 2 * 8! = 1,287 for the numbers.
-
---------- 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1, 4 choose 1 for each of the 5 cards to get suits.
-
------------ 1,287 * 1024 = 1,317,888
-
- Now this is over counted for the number of Straights in the no pair possibilities. So we need to subtract the number of Straights. 1,317,888 - 10,240 = 1,307,648
-
- And we need to subtract the number of Flushes in the no pair possibilities. 1,307,648 - 5,148 = 1,302,500
-
- However, a Straight Flush has been counted twice, once in the Straights and once in the Flushes. Add 10 * 4 = 40. 1,302,500 + 40 = 1,302,540
-
- Therefore, the odds of getting “garbage are 1,302,540 / 2,598,960 = 50,1%
-
- You always knew this. There is over 50% chance of getting all” garbage” in a 5 card draw of Poker.
-
- There is another way to look at the above problem. For the numbers there are (13 choose 5 for the numbers - 10 Straights) * For the suits there are ( 4*4*4*4*4 - 4 for that Straight Flush) = (1,287 - 10 ) * ( 1,024 - 4) = (1,277) * ( 1,020) = 1,302,540, the same answer for the combinations of 5 cards that are Garbage. Good Luck.
-
- Yes, best of luck. Now you know your chances of beating the odds.
-
- May 13, 2019. 1213
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Monday, May 13, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sunday, May 12, 2019
How Did God Start Life on Earth?
- 2361 - How did life get started. If geological processes somehow push particles into higher energy states they would naturally seek to return to their ground state. Maybe life is here to help nature solve nature’s energy problems. Living systems use chemical reactions to get down to lower energies. That is how living things work.
-
-
-
---------------------- 2361 - How Did God Start Life on Earth?
-
- When the Earth and the Solar System first formed 4,600,000,000 years ago life soon followed. We have deduced that years ago life comes from life. But, how did life come from chemistry? Somehow Earth’s environment in the first billion years turned chemistry into biology.
-
- All the elements on Earth originally came from star dust. Interstellar dust collected and gravity pulled it to a center with a spinning accretion disk circling the center core. All the chemical elements except for hydrogen, helium, and lithium came from fusion and the explosion of earlier supernovae stars.
-
- The larger stars formed first, burned their hydrogen and helium quickly, and exploded into supernovae spreading their expanding gas and dust in amongst the stars. The 116 chemical elements we find in our chemistry books were in this dust after repeated star formations.
-
- The dust ring circling the Sun became the planets, asteroids, and comets that orbit the Sun today. On our planet it started with this non-living matter. How did non-living matter become living matter?
-
- Science has struggled with this question since the beginning of science. Back in 1953 an experiment in a glass-bulb started the search in earnest. Water, hydrogen, ammonia, and methane in the glass bulb were selected to match the atmosphere of early Earth. Heat to simulate the Sun and electric sparks to simulate the lightning resulted in a brownish-red residue inside the bulb. In the residue were found amino acids known to be essential in life’s chemistry.
-
- Since that time science has found these same amino acids in meteorites, comets, even the interstellar dust itself. The stuff that life is made of is abundant.
-
- Science has focused on life evolving from some form of primordial soup containing these elements. The theory was that somewhere a tide pool of these molecules were just right to begin reproducing themselves as single living cells.
-
- In 1984 science again got very excited when a Mars meteorite was found and thought to contain a microscopic fossil of life forms. After much fanfare the later conclusions were that the structures were formed by mineral deposits, not fossils. But, maybe the mineral deposit structures helped to support early life? The excitement restarted the search for life in new places.
-
- Science was pursuing two avenues of research. First, life was “ accidental”. That molecules swirled around at random. They came together in the first primitive cell in a single unrepeated event. From this beginning living cells multiplied.
-
- The second avenue is that life evolves from some predefined “theory”. There are physical laws that drive some reaction pathway in preference to others that produce a predictable outcome. Life is a predictable outcome of these natural laws. Laws we have yet to discover.
-
- The natural laws got close when it was discovered that ribonucleic acid, RNA, used in life to translate the genetic code of deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, could turn into enzymes that in turn make proteins. The question was could RNA molecules make the enzymes according to ordinary laws of chemistry, yet missing the codes of DNA?
-
- At first science thought life’s start needed a particular environment, a tidal pool, a deep sea volcanic vent, and surely at minimum liquid water. However, another theory came along that said, not necessarily.
-
- Metabolism uses 11 basic molecules in our body to breakdown the large molecules in food in order to generate energy. This is how we digest our food. Maybe, in the first primitive cells this process worked in reverse. Somehow energy was used to assemble larger molecules. Whatever the mechanism most science believes life had a simple beginning and evolved its complexity through “natural selection“.
-
- If you push these theories far enough you get a Universe that not only allows life but requires it. Our world relies on the chemistry of elements. Elements are atoms in their ground state that are in their lowest energy levels. Energy always seeks its lowest level. Energy can not be created or destroyed it can only be transformed. The idea here is that life does transform energy keeping it at ground level.
- This is not just electrons at their lowest energy levels for the elements. The fundamental particles at ground level are Up-Quarks, Down-Quarks, electrons and photons.
-
- Nature has higher energy levels that exist for some reason we do not understand. Adding energy to fundamental particles creates Strange-Quarks, Charm Quarks and Muons that quickly decay to the ground state particles. Adding more energy creates Top-Quarks, Bottom-Quarks, and Taus that also quickly decay to the lower energy states.
-
- If geological processes somehow push particles into higher energy states they would naturally seek to return to their ground state. Maybe life is here to help nature solve nature’s energy problems. Living systems use chemical reactions to get down to lower energies. That is how living things work. If this is a natural law then life could evolve anywhere in the Cosmos. Anywhere normal geological process can be found.
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- We don’t know. The mystery remains how it all started. Let alone, how did it get so complex as nature is today. How did conscientiousness appear in the brain? Am I really here thinking about these things? What a miracle that I can even write this, let alone think this. How did it all happen? God only knows.
-
- May 12, 2019 1151
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
- to: ------- jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
-------------------------- Sunday, May 12, 2019 --------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
---------------------- 2361 - How Did God Start Life on Earth?
-
- When the Earth and the Solar System first formed 4,600,000,000 years ago life soon followed. We have deduced that years ago life comes from life. But, how did life come from chemistry? Somehow Earth’s environment in the first billion years turned chemistry into biology.
-
- All the elements on Earth originally came from star dust. Interstellar dust collected and gravity pulled it to a center with a spinning accretion disk circling the center core. All the chemical elements except for hydrogen, helium, and lithium came from fusion and the explosion of earlier supernovae stars.
-
- The larger stars formed first, burned their hydrogen and helium quickly, and exploded into supernovae spreading their expanding gas and dust in amongst the stars. The 116 chemical elements we find in our chemistry books were in this dust after repeated star formations.
-
- The dust ring circling the Sun became the planets, asteroids, and comets that orbit the Sun today. On our planet it started with this non-living matter. How did non-living matter become living matter?
-
- Science has struggled with this question since the beginning of science. Back in 1953 an experiment in a glass-bulb started the search in earnest. Water, hydrogen, ammonia, and methane in the glass bulb were selected to match the atmosphere of early Earth. Heat to simulate the Sun and electric sparks to simulate the lightning resulted in a brownish-red residue inside the bulb. In the residue were found amino acids known to be essential in life’s chemistry.
-
- Since that time science has found these same amino acids in meteorites, comets, even the interstellar dust itself. The stuff that life is made of is abundant.
-
- Science has focused on life evolving from some form of primordial soup containing these elements. The theory was that somewhere a tide pool of these molecules were just right to begin reproducing themselves as single living cells.
-
- In 1984 science again got very excited when a Mars meteorite was found and thought to contain a microscopic fossil of life forms. After much fanfare the later conclusions were that the structures were formed by mineral deposits, not fossils. But, maybe the mineral deposit structures helped to support early life? The excitement restarted the search for life in new places.
-
- Science was pursuing two avenues of research. First, life was “ accidental”. That molecules swirled around at random. They came together in the first primitive cell in a single unrepeated event. From this beginning living cells multiplied.
-
- The second avenue is that life evolves from some predefined “theory”. There are physical laws that drive some reaction pathway in preference to others that produce a predictable outcome. Life is a predictable outcome of these natural laws. Laws we have yet to discover.
-
- The natural laws got close when it was discovered that ribonucleic acid, RNA, used in life to translate the genetic code of deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, could turn into enzymes that in turn make proteins. The question was could RNA molecules make the enzymes according to ordinary laws of chemistry, yet missing the codes of DNA?
-
- At first science thought life’s start needed a particular environment, a tidal pool, a deep sea volcanic vent, and surely at minimum liquid water. However, another theory came along that said, not necessarily.
-
- Metabolism uses 11 basic molecules in our body to breakdown the large molecules in food in order to generate energy. This is how we digest our food. Maybe, in the first primitive cells this process worked in reverse. Somehow energy was used to assemble larger molecules. Whatever the mechanism most science believes life had a simple beginning and evolved its complexity through “natural selection“.
-
- If you push these theories far enough you get a Universe that not only allows life but requires it. Our world relies on the chemistry of elements. Elements are atoms in their ground state that are in their lowest energy levels. Energy always seeks its lowest level. Energy can not be created or destroyed it can only be transformed. The idea here is that life does transform energy keeping it at ground level.
- This is not just electrons at their lowest energy levels for the elements. The fundamental particles at ground level are Up-Quarks, Down-Quarks, electrons and photons.
-
- Nature has higher energy levels that exist for some reason we do not understand. Adding energy to fundamental particles creates Strange-Quarks, Charm Quarks and Muons that quickly decay to the ground state particles. Adding more energy creates Top-Quarks, Bottom-Quarks, and Taus that also quickly decay to the lower energy states.
-
- If geological processes somehow push particles into higher energy states they would naturally seek to return to their ground state. Maybe life is here to help nature solve nature’s energy problems. Living systems use chemical reactions to get down to lower energies. That is how living things work. If this is a natural law then life could evolve anywhere in the Cosmos. Anywhere normal geological process can be found.
-
- We don’t know. The mystery remains how it all started. Let alone, how did it get so complex as nature is today. How did conscientiousness appear in the brain? Am I really here thinking about these things? What a miracle that I can even write this, let alone think this. How did it all happen? God only knows.
-
- May 12, 2019 1151
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
- to: ------- jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
-------------------------- Sunday, May 12, 2019 --------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thursday, May 9, 2019
Big Bang - called the Primeval Atom
- 2360 - Primeval means the first age. The atom that existed during the first age was hot, dense, and with energy beyond belief. This atom of energy did create matter and began to expand and cool dissipating its energy as it expanded. The matter created was approximately 80% hydrogen and 20% helium.
-
-
-
---------------------------- - 2360 - Big Bang - called the Primeval Atom
-
- The Primeval Atom was later renamed with the misnomer, the Big Bang. But, the name stuck. It is a misnomer because the Universe is expanding it is not exploding. The matter in the expansion is actually standing still. It is the space in between the matter that is expanding. The expanding space drags the matter along with it.
-
- As the Universe expands matter gets spread out thinner and thinner through the vacuum of space. The density of matter gets less and less. As the density gets less the gravity needed to stop the expansion becomes less and less powerful.
-
- The matter in the form of galaxies are accelerating faster the more distant they are from us. Another way to look at this expansion is to decide if the accelerating galaxies have reached the velocity greater than the escape velocity for the total amount of the gravity in the Universe.
-
- Astronomers have calculated the amount of density to have the amount of gravity to prevent the galaxies from continuing to accelerate outside the Observable Universe. This density, called the Critical Density, is equal to 1 proton per cubic meter.
-
- This does not seem like much matter but remember there is a lot of space out there. At the exact Critical Density the Universe expansion would slowly come to a stop after an infinite amount of time.
-
- The problem that quickly arises for astronomers is that if they count all the matter they can see they come up with only 4% of that Critical Density, 1 proton/m^3. All the stars and planets are only 0.5% of the Critical Density needed.
-
- To stop the never ending expansion of the Primeval Atom we need a lot more mass. All the galaxies are moving at a velocity far above the escape velocity and will ultimately fly outside the Observable Universe.
-
- The next problem astronomers encountered was a counter balance to this first problem.
-
- When the rotational velocities of galaxies is studied the rotational velocities are constant no matter how far from the center of the galaxy the measurements are made. The laws of physics require that the far out objects must have slower velocities than those close in objects if they are to remain in orbit.
-
- ( For example: Neptune has a rotational velocity of 12,080 miles per hour. Mercury has a rotational velocity of 107,152 miles per hour. )
-
- The only way for astronomers to explain a “constant rotational velocity” in galaxies is that there is a much higher amount of mass in the galaxy than what we can see. Galaxies appear to have a halo of “Dark Matter” that is 90% of the mass of the galaxy.
-
- We could tell dark matter exists although we can not see it because we do see the effect of gravity. Imagine that the Earth was always and everywhere covered by clouds we would never see the Moon to know that it exists. However, astronomers could study the tides and conclude that a moon exists and know big it has to be.
-
- So we need to add this Dark Matter to the Ordinary Matter to calculate the density relative to the Critical Density. Doing this astronomers again can only come up with 30% of the Critical Density. 70% must be something else.
-
- One source of data con the expanding Universe came from Type 1A Supernovae that were true explosions observed some 10,000,000,000 lightyears away. Astronomers use the known luminosity to determine the distance away from us. Then, they use the redshift of the receding light source to determine its velocity.
-
- ( An analogy here is similar to standing in a perfectly dark, straight highway and observing a car’s red taillights fade the distance as the car speeds away. We can measure the redshift of the red taillights to determine the velocity of the car to be 60 miles per hour. But, how can we tell how far the car is away at that moment?
-
- We can’t unless we know the intrinsic brightness of the taillight. If we know we are observing a 10 watt light bulb, we know exactly how much light it produces at the source, and, we can calculate the distance to the light source by how much dimmer they known light appears at a distance.)
-
- The same process as our analogy is used for the Type 1A supernovae. We know that this type supernovae explodes with a critical mass of 1.4 Solar Mass. We therefore can calculate its absolute luminosity. With this we calculate the distance to be 10,000,000,000 lightyears. We calculate the velocity with the redshift of the starlight. The Hubble Constant then becomes 70 kilometers/second per mega parsec and the age of the Universe becomes 13,700,000,000 years.
-
- After some 300 of these supernova measurements scientists conclude the Universe is expanding at an accelerating rate. The Dark Energy, or Vacuum Energy, needed to explain this expansion rate comprises 74% of the mass of the Universe. Dark Matter comprises 22% and the rest is Ordinary Matter.
-
- Dark Matter is the gravitational energy that brakes the expansion of the Universe. Dark Energy, on the other hand, is the anti-gravity, the vacuum repulsive force that accelerates the expansion of the Universe. Overtime the proportions of each effect has changed. Here is the data over 54.8 billion years of this tug-of-war :
-
-------- Age of Universe -------------- Dark ----------- Ordinary ------------- Vacuum
-------- Billions of years -------------- Matter ----------- Matter ------------- Energy
-
-------- 3.4 -------------------------- 75% ----------- 20% ------------- 5%
-------- 6.7 -------------------------- 60% ----------- 15% ------------- 25%
-------- 13.7 today ------------------ 22% ----------- 4% ------------- 74%
-------- 27.4 -------------------------- 2% ----------- 1% ------------- 97%
-------- 54.8-------------------------- 1% ----------- .5% ------------- 98.5%
-
- Summary: The Primeval Atom started out with the creation of all matter that is in the Universe. As the matter spreads out the Observable Universe has less and less matter in it. The density of the Universe becomes a greater and greater proportion of Vacuum energy of space with little matter left.
-
- We need to learn what Dark energy is? What forces create this vacuum repulsive energy? If the amount of vacuum energy is constant then the density of vacuum energy in an expanding Universe will decrease and eventually what little matter is left will have the gravity pull needed to slow down the acceleration, stop expansion, and put the Universe is reverse for a “ Big Crunch”.
-
- On the other hand , if the density of vacuum energy is constant then the universe will continue to accelerate in its expansion an we end up in a “ Big Chill”. A cold, dark, lifeless Universe.
-
- We need to learn more before we can decide the fate of the Universe. A Big Crunch or a Big Chill? Will there ever be another Big Bang? When matter changes into energy according to E=mc^2, where does gravity go?
-
- Are matter and energy really the same things? Did energy really create matter? Is all matter returning back to pure energy? Stay tuned , there is more to learn!
-
- May 9, 2019. 712
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Thursday, May 9, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
---------------------------- - 2360 - Big Bang - called the Primeval Atom
-
- The Primeval Atom was later renamed with the misnomer, the Big Bang. But, the name stuck. It is a misnomer because the Universe is expanding it is not exploding. The matter in the expansion is actually standing still. It is the space in between the matter that is expanding. The expanding space drags the matter along with it.
-
- As the Universe expands matter gets spread out thinner and thinner through the vacuum of space. The density of matter gets less and less. As the density gets less the gravity needed to stop the expansion becomes less and less powerful.
-
- The matter in the form of galaxies are accelerating faster the more distant they are from us. Another way to look at this expansion is to decide if the accelerating galaxies have reached the velocity greater than the escape velocity for the total amount of the gravity in the Universe.
-
- Astronomers have calculated the amount of density to have the amount of gravity to prevent the galaxies from continuing to accelerate outside the Observable Universe. This density, called the Critical Density, is equal to 1 proton per cubic meter.
-
- This does not seem like much matter but remember there is a lot of space out there. At the exact Critical Density the Universe expansion would slowly come to a stop after an infinite amount of time.
-
- The problem that quickly arises for astronomers is that if they count all the matter they can see they come up with only 4% of that Critical Density, 1 proton/m^3. All the stars and planets are only 0.5% of the Critical Density needed.
-
- To stop the never ending expansion of the Primeval Atom we need a lot more mass. All the galaxies are moving at a velocity far above the escape velocity and will ultimately fly outside the Observable Universe.
-
- The next problem astronomers encountered was a counter balance to this first problem.
-
- When the rotational velocities of galaxies is studied the rotational velocities are constant no matter how far from the center of the galaxy the measurements are made. The laws of physics require that the far out objects must have slower velocities than those close in objects if they are to remain in orbit.
-
- ( For example: Neptune has a rotational velocity of 12,080 miles per hour. Mercury has a rotational velocity of 107,152 miles per hour. )
-
- The only way for astronomers to explain a “constant rotational velocity” in galaxies is that there is a much higher amount of mass in the galaxy than what we can see. Galaxies appear to have a halo of “Dark Matter” that is 90% of the mass of the galaxy.
-
- We could tell dark matter exists although we can not see it because we do see the effect of gravity. Imagine that the Earth was always and everywhere covered by clouds we would never see the Moon to know that it exists. However, astronomers could study the tides and conclude that a moon exists and know big it has to be.
-
- So we need to add this Dark Matter to the Ordinary Matter to calculate the density relative to the Critical Density. Doing this astronomers again can only come up with 30% of the Critical Density. 70% must be something else.
-
- One source of data con the expanding Universe came from Type 1A Supernovae that were true explosions observed some 10,000,000,000 lightyears away. Astronomers use the known luminosity to determine the distance away from us. Then, they use the redshift of the receding light source to determine its velocity.
-
- ( An analogy here is similar to standing in a perfectly dark, straight highway and observing a car’s red taillights fade the distance as the car speeds away. We can measure the redshift of the red taillights to determine the velocity of the car to be 60 miles per hour. But, how can we tell how far the car is away at that moment?
-
- We can’t unless we know the intrinsic brightness of the taillight. If we know we are observing a 10 watt light bulb, we know exactly how much light it produces at the source, and, we can calculate the distance to the light source by how much dimmer they known light appears at a distance.)
-
- The same process as our analogy is used for the Type 1A supernovae. We know that this type supernovae explodes with a critical mass of 1.4 Solar Mass. We therefore can calculate its absolute luminosity. With this we calculate the distance to be 10,000,000,000 lightyears. We calculate the velocity with the redshift of the starlight. The Hubble Constant then becomes 70 kilometers/second per mega parsec and the age of the Universe becomes 13,700,000,000 years.
-
- After some 300 of these supernova measurements scientists conclude the Universe is expanding at an accelerating rate. The Dark Energy, or Vacuum Energy, needed to explain this expansion rate comprises 74% of the mass of the Universe. Dark Matter comprises 22% and the rest is Ordinary Matter.
-
- Dark Matter is the gravitational energy that brakes the expansion of the Universe. Dark Energy, on the other hand, is the anti-gravity, the vacuum repulsive force that accelerates the expansion of the Universe. Overtime the proportions of each effect has changed. Here is the data over 54.8 billion years of this tug-of-war :
-
-------- Age of Universe -------------- Dark ----------- Ordinary ------------- Vacuum
-------- Billions of years -------------- Matter ----------- Matter ------------- Energy
-
-------- 3.4 -------------------------- 75% ----------- 20% ------------- 5%
-------- 6.7 -------------------------- 60% ----------- 15% ------------- 25%
-------- 13.7 today ------------------ 22% ----------- 4% ------------- 74%
-------- 27.4 -------------------------- 2% ----------- 1% ------------- 97%
-------- 54.8-------------------------- 1% ----------- .5% ------------- 98.5%
-
- Summary: The Primeval Atom started out with the creation of all matter that is in the Universe. As the matter spreads out the Observable Universe has less and less matter in it. The density of the Universe becomes a greater and greater proportion of Vacuum energy of space with little matter left.
-
- We need to learn what Dark energy is? What forces create this vacuum repulsive energy? If the amount of vacuum energy is constant then the density of vacuum energy in an expanding Universe will decrease and eventually what little matter is left will have the gravity pull needed to slow down the acceleration, stop expansion, and put the Universe is reverse for a “ Big Crunch”.
-
- On the other hand , if the density of vacuum energy is constant then the universe will continue to accelerate in its expansion an we end up in a “ Big Chill”. A cold, dark, lifeless Universe.
-
- We need to learn more before we can decide the fate of the Universe. A Big Crunch or a Big Chill? Will there ever be another Big Bang? When matter changes into energy according to E=mc^2, where does gravity go?
-
- Are matter and energy really the same things? Did energy really create matter? Is all matter returning back to pure energy? Stay tuned , there is more to learn!
-
- May 9, 2019. 712
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Thursday, May 9, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Wednesday, May 8, 2019
Quasars are Blackholes with Personalities.
- 2359 - Quasars are Blackholes with Personalities. Quasars are high-energy sources in the heavens that astronomers discovered 80 years ago. They have remained mysteries to this day, however we certainly know a lot more about them.
-
-
-
---------------------------- - 2359 - Quasars - The Island Universe
-
- A quasar is a galaxy with a blackhole at its center. A super massive blackhole that is consuming enormous quantities of hot gas. It is the fifth wonder of the Universe.
-
- The orbiting accretion disk of hot gas is spiraling into the black hole emitting enormous radiation of X-rays which are easily detected here on Earth.
-
- Astronomers estimate there are 10,000,000 quasars in the visible Universe, most of them billions of light years away.
-
- Astronomers studying these extreme events in the earliest moments of the birth of our Universe are convinced the same laws of physics apply. The laws are the same as we experience here on Earth.
-
- The brightest quasar we can see with our backyard telescope is 3C273 which appears as a nondescript, bluish star in the night sky.
-
- A quasar can emit more energy in one second than our Sun can emit in 200 years.
-
- (Solar luminosity = 3.8 * 10^26 watts = 3.8 * 10^26 joules / second * 3.16 8 10^7 seconds / year * 200 years = 2.4 * 10^36 joules = 2.4 * 10^45 ergs.)
-
- Grote Reber discovered quasars in 1936 from his backyard in Illinois. Grote had built the first radio telescope and soon detected high-energy radio emissions coming from several of the constellations.
-
- Quasar is an acronym, QSRS, for “quasi-stellar radio source“.
-
- More than 13,000 quasars have now been discovered. Astronomers expect to discover over 100,000 in future surveys. All quasars are redshifted greater that .06 nanometers, indicating a receding velocity of 9% the speed of light.
-
- This formula is for redshift, or change in wavelength, of a quasar moving away from us at some radial or recession velocity. It is radial because it measures only that component of motion that is on the radius, straight line, between us and the quasar. The change is wavelength / normal wavelength = radial velocity / velocity of light.
-
----------------------------- .06 nm / 656.285nm = radial velocity / 300,000 km/sec
-
----------------------------- velocity = 27.43 km / sec = 9.14 % the speed of light
-
- A Quasar named PKS 2000-330 is so highly redshifted the spectral emission lines in the far-ultraviolet are seen at visible wavelengths. This would mean that the source was 13,000,000,000 light-years away and traveling 95 % the speed of light. , we are seeing objects that appeared when our Universe was only 6 % its current age ( 800,000,000 years old out of its 14,000,000,000-year lifetime).
-
-( If you believe the Hubble constant is 72 km / sec / Mpc is truly constant and stays constant across the universe. )
-
- The Hubble constant of the straight line plotting velocity versus distance in Megaparsecs. The slope of the line is a constant 70 kilometers / second / megaparsec.
-
-------------------------- velocity = Ho * distance = 72 km /sec / Mpc * 13 * 10 to the 9 LY / 3.262 * 10 to the 6 LY / Mpc = 286,900 km/sec = 95.6 % speed of light.
-
- We believe that quasars are the result of emissions from supermassive blackholes located in the centers of most galaxies, including the center of our own Milky Way Galaxy. ( See Review 31 – Sagittarius, the Center of Our Milky Way Galaxy ).
-
- All quasars are redshifted and very bright. This tells us they are very far away and have enormous energy. The quasar in Cygnus A is redshifted 14,000 km/sec ( approximately 5% the speed of light), indicating that the source is 634,000,000 light years away.
-
------------------ Hubble’s law = recession velocity = Hubble’s constant, Ho / Distance
-
------------------ Hubble’s constant, Ho = 72 km / sec / megaparsec
-
------------------ Parsec is a distance of 3.262 light-years
-
------------------ Megaparsec is 3,262,000 light-years distance.
-
- This formula says that as you go out in space every 3.262 million light-years things are accelerating 72 km /sec faster. That is 161,060 miles per hour faster.
-
-------------------- Distance = (14,000 km/sec) / (72 km / sec / Mpc) * = 194.4 Mpc
-
------------------- 194.4 Mpc * 3.262 * 10 to the 6 LY / Mpc = 634,000,000 LY.
-
- Cygnus A quasar shines with radio luminosity that is 10,000,000 times more than the whole Andromeda galaxy, M31. The Andromeda galaxy can be seen with the naked eye, has a sky area 5 times larger the a full moon and contains more than 200,000,000 stars.
-
- The redshift of quasar named 3C 48 is so great ( 219 nm ) making it 4,500,000,000 light-years away and traveling at 33% the speed of light.
-
------------------- 33% * 300,000 km / sec = 100,000 km / sec / 72 km /sec /Mpc = 1389 Mpc 3.626 LY / Mpc = 4,530,555,556 light-years.
-
------------------ Redshifted 219 nm from orange into the far infrared = 100,000 / 300,000 = 219 nm / 656.285 nm for orange light.
-
- Many quasars vary in brightness over a few months or days, with light variation periods as rapid as 3 hours. An object cannot vary in brightness faster than it takes light to travel across that object.
-
- This rapid, 3 hour, flickering means the source of that energy must be quite small. It is producing the luminosity of 100 galaxies from a volume, with a diameter smaller that of our solar system.
-
------------------- one hour * 671 million miles / hour = 671,000,000 miles = about the diameter of our Jupiter’s orbit.
-
------------------- Jupiter’s orbit diameter is 10.4 astronomical units * 93 million miles / AU = 967 million miles . 70% of Jupiter’s orbit.
-
- X-ray measurements reveal that some quasars can turn the energy output of 10,000,000,000 Suns on and off, all within a span of 1 hour.
-
- If a shell of mass is one light-day in diameter and it brightens all at once the light from the near side reaches your eye one day before the light change from the far side. So, it takes one day to change brightness, thus it is one light-day in diameter.
-
- Quasars emit x-ray radiation because gas is exposed to very high temperatures, radio-emitting jets shoot out in highly directional rays, material shoots out escaping at nearly the speed of light. All this suggests that an enormous blackhole is the energy engine at the source.
-
- An enormous Blackhole is one that has billions solar mass, a billion times the mass of our Sun. Gas close to the event horizon would circle and flatten into a disk. Collisions among atoms in this disk that is orbiting at nearly the speed of light would create the high temperatures.
-
- This rotation of charged atoms would become a giant dynamo creating huge magnetic fields along the spin axis. These huge magnetic fields could launch the concentrated jets of material at light speeds.
-
- Maybe most galaxies were quasars in their youth. And, Blackholes might be at the bottom of many other galactic observations. It could be that the different appearance astronomers identify could be the same Blackholes at different sizes and viewed from different orientations.
-
- If you are looking directly into and perpendicular to the disk you observe quasar jets head on. If you are observing at an angle you see x-rays from the hot gases in the rotating disk. If you observe at right angles to the axis of rotation you see the toroid around the center axis that appears as a loud radio source. What we are seeing and measuring could just be from the way we are looking at it.
-
- What would happen if a Blackhole swallowed another Blackhole? Could this be the Gamma Ray Burster? Another article if you’re interested. What’s a Gamma Ray Burster? They are being discovered in all directions ( all over the celestial sphere) at the rate of about one a day.
-
- Bursters are 12,000,000,000 light-years away and emit energy in 100 seconds what our Sun will emit over its entire 10,000,000,000 year lifetime.
-
- How was the Blackhole at the center of our Milky Way measured at 3,500,000 solar masses?
-
- If quasars appeared so quickly after the big bang, how could these blackholes grow so massive so quickly?
-
- Astronomy has always more to learn.
-
- May 8, 2019. 5 595
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Wednesday, May 8, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
---------------------------- - 2359 - Quasars - The Island Universe
-
- A quasar is a galaxy with a blackhole at its center. A super massive blackhole that is consuming enormous quantities of hot gas. It is the fifth wonder of the Universe.
-
- The orbiting accretion disk of hot gas is spiraling into the black hole emitting enormous radiation of X-rays which are easily detected here on Earth.
-
- Astronomers estimate there are 10,000,000 quasars in the visible Universe, most of them billions of light years away.
-
- Astronomers studying these extreme events in the earliest moments of the birth of our Universe are convinced the same laws of physics apply. The laws are the same as we experience here on Earth.
-
- The brightest quasar we can see with our backyard telescope is 3C273 which appears as a nondescript, bluish star in the night sky.
-
- A quasar can emit more energy in one second than our Sun can emit in 200 years.
-
- (Solar luminosity = 3.8 * 10^26 watts = 3.8 * 10^26 joules / second * 3.16 8 10^7 seconds / year * 200 years = 2.4 * 10^36 joules = 2.4 * 10^45 ergs.)
-
- Grote Reber discovered quasars in 1936 from his backyard in Illinois. Grote had built the first radio telescope and soon detected high-energy radio emissions coming from several of the constellations.
-
- Quasar is an acronym, QSRS, for “quasi-stellar radio source“.
-
- More than 13,000 quasars have now been discovered. Astronomers expect to discover over 100,000 in future surveys. All quasars are redshifted greater that .06 nanometers, indicating a receding velocity of 9% the speed of light.
-
- This formula is for redshift, or change in wavelength, of a quasar moving away from us at some radial or recession velocity. It is radial because it measures only that component of motion that is on the radius, straight line, between us and the quasar. The change is wavelength / normal wavelength = radial velocity / velocity of light.
-
----------------------------- .06 nm / 656.285nm = radial velocity / 300,000 km/sec
-
----------------------------- velocity = 27.43 km / sec = 9.14 % the speed of light
-
- A Quasar named PKS 2000-330 is so highly redshifted the spectral emission lines in the far-ultraviolet are seen at visible wavelengths. This would mean that the source was 13,000,000,000 light-years away and traveling 95 % the speed of light. , we are seeing objects that appeared when our Universe was only 6 % its current age ( 800,000,000 years old out of its 14,000,000,000-year lifetime).
-
-( If you believe the Hubble constant is 72 km / sec / Mpc is truly constant and stays constant across the universe. )
-
- The Hubble constant of the straight line plotting velocity versus distance in Megaparsecs. The slope of the line is a constant 70 kilometers / second / megaparsec.
-
-------------------------- velocity = Ho * distance = 72 km /sec / Mpc * 13 * 10 to the 9 LY / 3.262 * 10 to the 6 LY / Mpc = 286,900 km/sec = 95.6 % speed of light.
-
- We believe that quasars are the result of emissions from supermassive blackholes located in the centers of most galaxies, including the center of our own Milky Way Galaxy. ( See Review 31 – Sagittarius, the Center of Our Milky Way Galaxy ).
-
- All quasars are redshifted and very bright. This tells us they are very far away and have enormous energy. The quasar in Cygnus A is redshifted 14,000 km/sec ( approximately 5% the speed of light), indicating that the source is 634,000,000 light years away.
-
------------------ Hubble’s law = recession velocity = Hubble’s constant, Ho / Distance
-
------------------ Hubble’s constant, Ho = 72 km / sec / megaparsec
-
------------------ Parsec is a distance of 3.262 light-years
-
------------------ Megaparsec is 3,262,000 light-years distance.
-
- This formula says that as you go out in space every 3.262 million light-years things are accelerating 72 km /sec faster. That is 161,060 miles per hour faster.
-
-------------------- Distance = (14,000 km/sec) / (72 km / sec / Mpc) * = 194.4 Mpc
-
------------------- 194.4 Mpc * 3.262 * 10 to the 6 LY / Mpc = 634,000,000 LY.
-
- Cygnus A quasar shines with radio luminosity that is 10,000,000 times more than the whole Andromeda galaxy, M31. The Andromeda galaxy can be seen with the naked eye, has a sky area 5 times larger the a full moon and contains more than 200,000,000 stars.
-
- The redshift of quasar named 3C 48 is so great ( 219 nm ) making it 4,500,000,000 light-years away and traveling at 33% the speed of light.
-
------------------- 33% * 300,000 km / sec = 100,000 km / sec / 72 km /sec /Mpc = 1389 Mpc 3.626 LY / Mpc = 4,530,555,556 light-years.
-
------------------ Redshifted 219 nm from orange into the far infrared = 100,000 / 300,000 = 219 nm / 656.285 nm for orange light.
-
- Many quasars vary in brightness over a few months or days, with light variation periods as rapid as 3 hours. An object cannot vary in brightness faster than it takes light to travel across that object.
-
- This rapid, 3 hour, flickering means the source of that energy must be quite small. It is producing the luminosity of 100 galaxies from a volume, with a diameter smaller that of our solar system.
-
------------------- one hour * 671 million miles / hour = 671,000,000 miles = about the diameter of our Jupiter’s orbit.
-
------------------- Jupiter’s orbit diameter is 10.4 astronomical units * 93 million miles / AU = 967 million miles . 70% of Jupiter’s orbit.
-
- X-ray measurements reveal that some quasars can turn the energy output of 10,000,000,000 Suns on and off, all within a span of 1 hour.
-
- If a shell of mass is one light-day in diameter and it brightens all at once the light from the near side reaches your eye one day before the light change from the far side. So, it takes one day to change brightness, thus it is one light-day in diameter.
-
- Quasars emit x-ray radiation because gas is exposed to very high temperatures, radio-emitting jets shoot out in highly directional rays, material shoots out escaping at nearly the speed of light. All this suggests that an enormous blackhole is the energy engine at the source.
-
- An enormous Blackhole is one that has billions solar mass, a billion times the mass of our Sun. Gas close to the event horizon would circle and flatten into a disk. Collisions among atoms in this disk that is orbiting at nearly the speed of light would create the high temperatures.
-
- This rotation of charged atoms would become a giant dynamo creating huge magnetic fields along the spin axis. These huge magnetic fields could launch the concentrated jets of material at light speeds.
-
- Maybe most galaxies were quasars in their youth. And, Blackholes might be at the bottom of many other galactic observations. It could be that the different appearance astronomers identify could be the same Blackholes at different sizes and viewed from different orientations.
-
- If you are looking directly into and perpendicular to the disk you observe quasar jets head on. If you are observing at an angle you see x-rays from the hot gases in the rotating disk. If you observe at right angles to the axis of rotation you see the toroid around the center axis that appears as a loud radio source. What we are seeing and measuring could just be from the way we are looking at it.
-
- What would happen if a Blackhole swallowed another Blackhole? Could this be the Gamma Ray Burster? Another article if you’re interested. What’s a Gamma Ray Burster? They are being discovered in all directions ( all over the celestial sphere) at the rate of about one a day.
-
- Bursters are 12,000,000,000 light-years away and emit energy in 100 seconds what our Sun will emit over its entire 10,000,000,000 year lifetime.
-
- How was the Blackhole at the center of our Milky Way measured at 3,500,000 solar masses?
-
- If quasars appeared so quickly after the big bang, how could these blackholes grow so massive so quickly?
-
- Astronomy has always more to learn.
-
- May 8, 2019. 5 595
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Wednesday, May 8, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
- 2358 - Cause and effect can not be certain. In fact, there is a mathematical relationship that describes this degree of uncertainty. It is called the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
-
-
-
---------------------------- - 2358 - Life is Uncertain
-
- No really. It is.
-
- It is a physical thing. Right down to the atomic level. Cause and effect can not be certain. In fact, there is a mathematical relationship that describes this degree of uncertainty. It is called the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
-
- This uncertainty is not intuitive. We think that we can measure mass and velocity with as much precision as our measurement instruments will allow. However, there is a physical limit, or at least a “physics” limit.
-
- We can only measure mass and velocity as precise as nature will allow. When you get down to the smallest dimensions the measurement itself always disturbs the system. Ultimately the measurement becomes part of the system and can not be separated.
-
- We say we can measure mass to be so many grams plus or minus a certain amount of uncertainty in grams. The same with measuring velocity in meters per second. Distance in meters and time in seconds can only be measured with a certain amount of accuracy, or uncertainty, depending on the precision of the instruments used in the measurement. To get a more accurate measurement you simply need a more accurate instrument.
-
- At the atomic level of measurement you get down to the photon as the carrier of any measurement information. If you are trying to measure an electron the photon will bump into the electron and bounce back telling you the electron is in one place but it just bumped it into a different place and you no longer know exactly where the electron is or how fast it is moving.
-
- If you are trying to measure the electron’s velocity when the photon bumps into it the velocity will change. What the photon tells you when it comes back will not be the right answer.
-
- We can not measure more precisely than the wavelength of the radiation we use to locate it. Visible light has a wavelength of 0.0005 millimeters. Sound has a wavelength of one meter.
-
- So how can a bat catch a bug if his measurement error is one meter? That is why the bat uses a high pitched squeak. Bats use 35,000 cycles per second in the search mode, giving them 1 centimeter wavelength resolution. When they go into the kill mode they go up to 90,000 cycles per second, which gets them to 4 millimeters of their target.
-
- There is a formula that describes the uncertainty trade off being made between knowing the momentum, which is mass times velocity, and the position of an atomic particle. Position is a distance measurement. An action is momentum moving over some distance. Therefore, Planck’s Constant becomes the minimum possible uncertainty of any atomic action:
-
------------------- Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty >= Planck’s Constant
-
------------------- Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty >= h / 4 * pi
-
------------------- A photon’s momentum = Planck’s Constant / Wavelength
-
------------------- h is Planck’s constant. It is a very small number.
-
-------------------- h = 4.136^10-15 electron-volt-seconds
-
------------------- Or, h = 6.625 * 10^-34 kg * m^2 / seconds
-
------------------- Pi is 3.1416 from the geometry of a circle
-
------------------- Uncertainty is measured in standard deviations
-
------------------- Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty >=
-
----- 0.00000000000000000000000000000000005272 kilogram * meter^2 / seconds
-
- Standard deviation is the difference between observation and the true value ( or, the nearest known value). It is mathematically the square root of the average of squares of the deviations of all the measurements.
-
- The uncertainties are the range of results you get when you make the measurement over and over again. For example, let’s measure the book on your desk. You get 23.6 centimeters. You measure it again and get 23.7 centimeters. Since the markings on your ruler are only 1 millimeter intervals repeated measurements will be between 23.5 and 23.7 centimeters with 23.6 as the average value after many measurements. The measurement uncertainty is plus or minus one millimeter.
-
- The distribution of measurements will be a normal distribution. Sometimes this is called the Bell Curve. It is the same distribution you expect to get when you grade your tests at school. You create the bell curve of the class’s distribution of scores before you divide up the scores between A,B,C,D,F. I always wondered why the left out the E? A normal distribution is considered a random distribution.
-
- Mathematically, one standard deviation about the class average encompasses 68% of the scores. Two standard deviations around the average takes in 95% of the scores and three standard deviations 99.7% of the scores. If you are not within three standard deviations of the class average you are pretty much off the curve.
-
- With these definitions, let’s go back and look at the Uncertainty formula:
-
------------------- Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty >= h / 4 * pi
-
--------------(Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty) - (Momentum Uncertainty *
Position Uncertainty) does not equal zero, it equals Planck’s Constant
-
-------------------- Position = distance measurement
-
-------------------- Momentum = mass * velocity = mass * distance / time
-
-------------------- Action = distance * momentum = distance * mass * distance / time
-
-------------------- Photon’s momentum = Planck’s constant / wavelength
-
-------------------- The Uncertainty Principle and the wave properties of light are two expressions for the same thing. But, it applies to all particles, not just light.
-
- You should be able to subtract something from itself and get zero. But not, at the atomic scale. Here you always get this small constant Planck number.
-
- Let’s say we measure the position of an electron with great accuracy, so the Position Uncertainty is a very small number. Since Position Uncertainty is in an inverse relationship and the Momentum Uncertainty becomes a very large uncertainty in order for their product to remain the small Planck‘s Constant.
-
- In fact, if your position measurement gets so accurate approaching zero uncertainty the Mass*Velocity Uncertainty becomes infinitely large. Once you approach infinity, momentum uncertainty becomes completely undefined.
-
- The mass of an electron may remain 9.9 * 10^-31 kilograms, but you have completely lost track of its velocity, and therefore its momentum.
-
- All measurements must involve some exchange of energy, some exchange of information. It is a little like measuring the tire pressure on your bicycle. When you get the pounds per square inch you lose a little air due to the use of the tire gage. So, the pressure in the tire ends up being a little less in order to determine what it is.
-
- A thermometer measuring temperature warms up in order to take a measurement thus removing a little heat from what it is measuring. These measurement errors are so small you can ignore them. However, at the atomic level they have a significant affect.
-
- The effect on a single electron is enormous. If we were to measure the position of a free electron to within the width of an atom, the momentum uncertainty would instantly fling the electron away at such a high speed in one second the electron could be anywhere in several miles radius.
-
- When you delve into this uncertainty relationship you run into some very strange things. One result is that you can not absolutely predict where a particle will be with 100% certainty.
-
- A mathematical description of position of a particle must always be given in probabilities. The electron is in this position with 99% probability. But, there is still a 1% probability that it will be somewhere else.
-
- Momentum and position are a pair of trade-offs. You must always trade-off one against the other when making precise atomic measurements. This same trade-off relationship occurs between measuring energy and time, or mass and time, since Einstein showed that mass and energy were different forms of the same thing.
-
------------------- Energy Uncertainty * Time Uncertainty = h / 4 * pi
-
- We use probabilities to describe these trade-offs in uncertainties, and that works for modeling and describing what is actually going on. But, scientists are not certain this is how the Universe actually works.
-
- We can model it with probabilities but maybe there is a deeper understanding still needed to explain how the Universe is working in this probabilistic manner. The effects of Uncertainty Principle are not apparent with large systems because Planck’s constant is extremely small. However, at the atomic scale it becomes fundamentally important in understanding the behavior of atoms.
-
--------- The diameter of electron is 0.000000000000005.6 meters (5.6*10^-15 m).
-
- The Planck length is 0.0000000000000000000000000000000001 meters (10^-34 m)
-
- The Planck time interval is 0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 seconds ( 10^-42 sec.)
-
- So, you see we are dealing with some really small numbers here.
-
- The Uncertainty Principle is used to explain the inherent width of spectral lines ( See Review 36 “The Electromagnetic Spectrum” ). If the lifetime of a particular atom is very short in the excited state there is a large uncertainty in its energy and the spectral line is broad.
-
- In contrast if the lifetime in the excited state is long the energy uncertainty is small and the spectral line is fine.
-
- Stephen Hawkings used the Uncertainty Principle to show that blackholes eventually evaporate and have a finite lifetime. The principle was used to show why White Dwarfs and Neutron Stars do not collapse into a single point. The Uncertainty Principle keeps the electrons applying an outward pressure that prevents the collapse.
-
- What happens to gravity in these small dimensions? There is a fifth grader somewhere that will probably be telling us the answer to this question in another 20 years.
-
- Professor Richard Feynman said,” If anyone claims to know what the quantum theory is all about, they haven’t understood it.”
-
- The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is named after its discovery by Werner Karl Heisenberg who was a German physicist born in 1901. His father was a history and humanities professor.
-
- Werner got his Ph.D. from University of Munich in 1923. At that time there was much debate about the structure of the atom and whether to treat electrons and particles of waves. Physicists were studying the elements using spectral lines. No one at that time could explain how the spectral lines were created.
-
- In 1927 Werner went on vacation to a North Sea island to escape the discomfort of his hay fever. While on vacation he developed the mathematics that define the wavelengths of an elements spectral lines. Shortly after that he developed the uncertainty principle which states the uncertainties of the determination of momentum and position, when multiplied yielded a value approximately that of Planck’s constant.
-
- His principle of uncertainties and the need to use probabilities to explain natural events threw a big uproar in the scientific community. Tradition had taught scientists that there was a direct relationship between cause and effect. Werner’s principle was counter to that. Even Einstein had problems with using probabilities. As he said, “ God does not play dice” to show his distrust in these theories.
-
- Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932. He worked for the Nazi’s in WWII and was in charge of the German research on the atomic bomb.
-
- In February 1940 Heisenberg had completed a full report on how to construct a workable atomic bomb. It is an amazing story how the allies prevented him from being successful ( Let me know if you want to learn it).
-
- After the war he became the director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics.
-
- May 8, 2019. 40
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Wednesday, May 8, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
---------------------------- - 2358 - Life is Uncertain
-
- No really. It is.
-
- It is a physical thing. Right down to the atomic level. Cause and effect can not be certain. In fact, there is a mathematical relationship that describes this degree of uncertainty. It is called the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
-
- This uncertainty is not intuitive. We think that we can measure mass and velocity with as much precision as our measurement instruments will allow. However, there is a physical limit, or at least a “physics” limit.
-
- We can only measure mass and velocity as precise as nature will allow. When you get down to the smallest dimensions the measurement itself always disturbs the system. Ultimately the measurement becomes part of the system and can not be separated.
-
- We say we can measure mass to be so many grams plus or minus a certain amount of uncertainty in grams. The same with measuring velocity in meters per second. Distance in meters and time in seconds can only be measured with a certain amount of accuracy, or uncertainty, depending on the precision of the instruments used in the measurement. To get a more accurate measurement you simply need a more accurate instrument.
-
- At the atomic level of measurement you get down to the photon as the carrier of any measurement information. If you are trying to measure an electron the photon will bump into the electron and bounce back telling you the electron is in one place but it just bumped it into a different place and you no longer know exactly where the electron is or how fast it is moving.
-
- If you are trying to measure the electron’s velocity when the photon bumps into it the velocity will change. What the photon tells you when it comes back will not be the right answer.
-
- We can not measure more precisely than the wavelength of the radiation we use to locate it. Visible light has a wavelength of 0.0005 millimeters. Sound has a wavelength of one meter.
-
- So how can a bat catch a bug if his measurement error is one meter? That is why the bat uses a high pitched squeak. Bats use 35,000 cycles per second in the search mode, giving them 1 centimeter wavelength resolution. When they go into the kill mode they go up to 90,000 cycles per second, which gets them to 4 millimeters of their target.
-
- There is a formula that describes the uncertainty trade off being made between knowing the momentum, which is mass times velocity, and the position of an atomic particle. Position is a distance measurement. An action is momentum moving over some distance. Therefore, Planck’s Constant becomes the minimum possible uncertainty of any atomic action:
-
------------------- Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty >= Planck’s Constant
-
------------------- Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty >= h / 4 * pi
-
------------------- A photon’s momentum = Planck’s Constant / Wavelength
-
------------------- h is Planck’s constant. It is a very small number.
-
-------------------- h = 4.136^10-15 electron-volt-seconds
-
------------------- Or, h = 6.625 * 10^-34 kg * m^2 / seconds
-
------------------- Pi is 3.1416 from the geometry of a circle
-
------------------- Uncertainty is measured in standard deviations
-
------------------- Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty >=
-
----- 0.00000000000000000000000000000000005272 kilogram * meter^2 / seconds
-
- Standard deviation is the difference between observation and the true value ( or, the nearest known value). It is mathematically the square root of the average of squares of the deviations of all the measurements.
-
- The uncertainties are the range of results you get when you make the measurement over and over again. For example, let’s measure the book on your desk. You get 23.6 centimeters. You measure it again and get 23.7 centimeters. Since the markings on your ruler are only 1 millimeter intervals repeated measurements will be between 23.5 and 23.7 centimeters with 23.6 as the average value after many measurements. The measurement uncertainty is plus or minus one millimeter.
-
- The distribution of measurements will be a normal distribution. Sometimes this is called the Bell Curve. It is the same distribution you expect to get when you grade your tests at school. You create the bell curve of the class’s distribution of scores before you divide up the scores between A,B,C,D,F. I always wondered why the left out the E? A normal distribution is considered a random distribution.
-
- Mathematically, one standard deviation about the class average encompasses 68% of the scores. Two standard deviations around the average takes in 95% of the scores and three standard deviations 99.7% of the scores. If you are not within three standard deviations of the class average you are pretty much off the curve.
-
- With these definitions, let’s go back and look at the Uncertainty formula:
-
------------------- Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty >= h / 4 * pi
-
--------------(Momentum Uncertainty * Position Uncertainty) - (Momentum Uncertainty *
Position Uncertainty) does not equal zero, it equals Planck’s Constant
-
-------------------- Position = distance measurement
-
-------------------- Momentum = mass * velocity = mass * distance / time
-
-------------------- Action = distance * momentum = distance * mass * distance / time
-
-------------------- Photon’s momentum = Planck’s constant / wavelength
-
-------------------- The Uncertainty Principle and the wave properties of light are two expressions for the same thing. But, it applies to all particles, not just light.
-
- You should be able to subtract something from itself and get zero. But not, at the atomic scale. Here you always get this small constant Planck number.
-
- Let’s say we measure the position of an electron with great accuracy, so the Position Uncertainty is a very small number. Since Position Uncertainty is in an inverse relationship and the Momentum Uncertainty becomes a very large uncertainty in order for their product to remain the small Planck‘s Constant.
-
- In fact, if your position measurement gets so accurate approaching zero uncertainty the Mass*Velocity Uncertainty becomes infinitely large. Once you approach infinity, momentum uncertainty becomes completely undefined.
-
- The mass of an electron may remain 9.9 * 10^-31 kilograms, but you have completely lost track of its velocity, and therefore its momentum.
-
- All measurements must involve some exchange of energy, some exchange of information. It is a little like measuring the tire pressure on your bicycle. When you get the pounds per square inch you lose a little air due to the use of the tire gage. So, the pressure in the tire ends up being a little less in order to determine what it is.
-
- A thermometer measuring temperature warms up in order to take a measurement thus removing a little heat from what it is measuring. These measurement errors are so small you can ignore them. However, at the atomic level they have a significant affect.
-
- The effect on a single electron is enormous. If we were to measure the position of a free electron to within the width of an atom, the momentum uncertainty would instantly fling the electron away at such a high speed in one second the electron could be anywhere in several miles radius.
-
- When you delve into this uncertainty relationship you run into some very strange things. One result is that you can not absolutely predict where a particle will be with 100% certainty.
-
- A mathematical description of position of a particle must always be given in probabilities. The electron is in this position with 99% probability. But, there is still a 1% probability that it will be somewhere else.
-
- Momentum and position are a pair of trade-offs. You must always trade-off one against the other when making precise atomic measurements. This same trade-off relationship occurs between measuring energy and time, or mass and time, since Einstein showed that mass and energy were different forms of the same thing.
-
------------------- Energy Uncertainty * Time Uncertainty = h / 4 * pi
-
- We use probabilities to describe these trade-offs in uncertainties, and that works for modeling and describing what is actually going on. But, scientists are not certain this is how the Universe actually works.
-
- We can model it with probabilities but maybe there is a deeper understanding still needed to explain how the Universe is working in this probabilistic manner. The effects of Uncertainty Principle are not apparent with large systems because Planck’s constant is extremely small. However, at the atomic scale it becomes fundamentally important in understanding the behavior of atoms.
-
--------- The diameter of electron is 0.000000000000005.6 meters (5.6*10^-15 m).
-
- The Planck length is 0.0000000000000000000000000000000001 meters (10^-34 m)
-
- The Planck time interval is 0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 seconds ( 10^-42 sec.)
-
- So, you see we are dealing with some really small numbers here.
-
- The Uncertainty Principle is used to explain the inherent width of spectral lines ( See Review 36 “The Electromagnetic Spectrum” ). If the lifetime of a particular atom is very short in the excited state there is a large uncertainty in its energy and the spectral line is broad.
-
- In contrast if the lifetime in the excited state is long the energy uncertainty is small and the spectral line is fine.
-
- Stephen Hawkings used the Uncertainty Principle to show that blackholes eventually evaporate and have a finite lifetime. The principle was used to show why White Dwarfs and Neutron Stars do not collapse into a single point. The Uncertainty Principle keeps the electrons applying an outward pressure that prevents the collapse.
-
- What happens to gravity in these small dimensions? There is a fifth grader somewhere that will probably be telling us the answer to this question in another 20 years.
-
- Professor Richard Feynman said,” If anyone claims to know what the quantum theory is all about, they haven’t understood it.”
-
- The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is named after its discovery by Werner Karl Heisenberg who was a German physicist born in 1901. His father was a history and humanities professor.
-
- Werner got his Ph.D. from University of Munich in 1923. At that time there was much debate about the structure of the atom and whether to treat electrons and particles of waves. Physicists were studying the elements using spectral lines. No one at that time could explain how the spectral lines were created.
-
- In 1927 Werner went on vacation to a North Sea island to escape the discomfort of his hay fever. While on vacation he developed the mathematics that define the wavelengths of an elements spectral lines. Shortly after that he developed the uncertainty principle which states the uncertainties of the determination of momentum and position, when multiplied yielded a value approximately that of Planck’s constant.
-
- His principle of uncertainties and the need to use probabilities to explain natural events threw a big uproar in the scientific community. Tradition had taught scientists that there was a direct relationship between cause and effect. Werner’s principle was counter to that. Even Einstein had problems with using probabilities. As he said, “ God does not play dice” to show his distrust in these theories.
-
- Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932. He worked for the Nazi’s in WWII and was in charge of the German research on the atomic bomb.
-
- In February 1940 Heisenberg had completed a full report on how to construct a workable atomic bomb. It is an amazing story how the allies prevented him from being successful ( Let me know if you want to learn it).
-
- After the war he became the director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics.
-
- May 8, 2019. 40
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Wednesday, May 8, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tuesday, May 7, 2019
Cosmology - What is Physics Telling Us?
- 2357 - Cosmology is telling us the expansion of he Universe is causing galaxies to be flying apart from each other. This is not the case. The correct interpretation is that space itself is expanding and the galaxies are embedded in this space, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread.
-
-
-
---------------------------- - 2357 - Cosmology - What is Physics Telling Us?
-
- Cosmology is that branch of physics that studies the evolution, structure, and nature of the Universe as a whole.
-
- Isaac Newton started the study of cosmology with his vision in 1660 that the Universe was static and all matter was uniformly spread throughout infinite space.
-
- In 1826 Olber’s paradox brought this vision in to question. If there is an infinite number of stars in all directions, “why is the sky dark?” Good question.
-
- Olber’s paradox says that if we had infinite number of stars uniformly distributed in space the night sky should glow with uniform brightness. The explanation that came later is that we see the Observable Universe so some of the stars are so far away their light has not reached us yet. And, the galaxies of stars farthest away are receding so fast their light is redshifted causing their brightness in the optical wavelengths to be greatly diminished.
-
- Albert Einstein proposed an even more dramatic vision in 1915 with his general theory of relativity which gave the Universe four dimensions, in a continuum of space-time.
-
- In 1929 Hubble finally changed the vision of a static universe. He discovered that the Universe was actually, dynamically, expanding and that the further away a galaxy was the greater the speed of recession.
-
- This expansion is often misinterpreted as the result of a giant explosion, the Big Bang, causing galaxies to still be flying apart from each other. This is not the case. The correct interpretation is that space itself is expanding and the galaxies are embedded in this expanding space.
-
- Except, there is no center. No galaxy is at a center of the Universe. The view from all galaxies is the same. This condition is why the Universe is said to be homogeneous and isotropic.
-
- Homogeneous means the Universe looks the same in all directions regardless where the observer is standing.
-
- Isotropic technically means the Universe’s permittivity, susceptibility, and elastic constants do not vary with direction. In other words the speed, or rate of recession of expanding space is the same in all directions.
-
- Here is what cosmology has taught us about the Universe:
-
- In one measurement astronomers had determined the rate of recession of space, known as Hubble’s Constant, to be 65 + or - 7 kilometers/second per megaparsec.
-
- This is how fast the space is expanding between the galaxies. For every megaparsec, which is 3.26 * 10^6 lightyears, you go out into space the galaxies are receding 65,000 meters per second faster. That is 145,400 miles per hour faster as you go deeper into space every 19,175,700 million million-miles.
-
------------------ The Hubble Constant = 65 kilometer/second/megaparsec
-
------------------ A megaparsec = 10^6 parsecs = 3.26 million lightyears
-
------------------ A parsec = 3.09 * 10^13 kilometers = 3.26 lightyears
-
------------------ A parsec is an astronomical unit of length that is equal to a baseline of an astronomical unit subtends an angle of one second of arc. An astronomical unit is the average distance between the Earth and the Sun, 149,600,000 kilometers.
-
------------------ Hubble Constant = 65 * 10^-6 km * pc / 3.09 * 10^13 km * sec
-
------------------ Hubble Constant = 21.04 * 10^-19 / second
-
- By inverting the Hubble Constant we collapse backward to determine the age of the Universe.
-
------------------ Age = 1 / Hubble Constant = 1 / 21.04 * 10^-19 seconds
-
------------------ Age = 0.0475 * 10^19 seconds * year / 3.16 * 10^7 seconds
-
------------------ Age = 15.5 * 10^9 years
-
------------------ Age = 15.5 billion years.
-
- But, this simple equation assumes the Universe is not influenced by gravity slowing down the expansion. If the Universe is nearly flat and the actual density is nearly equal to the critical density then the age of the Universe is about 2/3 the Hubble Time.
-
------------------ Hubble Time = 15.5 billion years
-
------------------ 2/3 Hubble Time = Age = 10.35 billion years.
-
- But, this does not include the effects of Inflation that occurred between 10^-34 seconds and 10^-32 seconds after the Big Bang. This is when the Universe went through an extremely accelerated expansion caused by the separation of the fundamental force into the three individual forces: electromagnetic, strong and weak forces. If we take Inflation into account we get to an:
-
----------------------------- Age of the Universe = 13.7 billion years.
-
- In the year 2019 Astronomy has 2 disputed measurements that put the expansion rate at 67.4 and 73.5. Several different techniques are currently trying to reconcile the results to come up with the most accurate rate of expansion for the Universe. This Review uses just one of the early techniques used.
-
- If this is the case what does it tell us about the past, present, and future of our Universe?
-
- The Big Bang is a unique, hot, dense phase in our past that accounts for our present phase of an expanding universe.
-
- Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity is the right theory of gravitation. It says that space is curved by the presence of matter. Therefore the density of matter in the Universe determines its curvature. The critical density is the amount of matter per cubic meter that would just stop the expansion due to gravity over an infinite time.
-
- If the actual density of matter in the Universe is larger than the critical density then the Universe is sphere-like and has a positive curvature. The Universe would in this case eventually slow down, stop expanding, and begin to contract. Hubble’s law would be in reverse until the Universe crushed back into a singularity.
-
- If the actual density of matter in the Universe is less than the critical density then the Universe is saddle-like and has negative curvature. The Universe in this case would expand forever.
-
- If the actual density of matter in the Universe is equal to the critical density then the Universe is flat.
-
- Our conclusion is that the Universe is “nearly flat“. We live in a low-mass universe with a substantial cosmological constant.
-
- In the Big Bang, conditions were very hot. It was too hot for elements heavier than lithium to live very long. Higher level elements were almost immediately torn apart by the radiation of photons.
-
- Then, with Inflation, the Universe cooled very quickly, over just a few hundred seconds. As soon as it was cool enough for heavier elements to survive, it was too cool to make them. Therefore, the ratio of hydrogen to helium to lithium in the Universe today is a very good supporting data for the Big Bang and Inflation.
-
- Space is called space for a good reason, because it is mostly empty. The critical density is extremely small = 9.75 * 10^-24 grams per cubic meter.
-
- If the Hubble Constant is 65 Km/sec/Mpc and the critical density is 9.75 * 10^-27 kg/m^3, how much mass would be enclosed in a sphere with the radius of the Earth’s orbit?
-
------------------------- Volume of the sphere with radius of one astronomical unit
-
------------------------- Volume = 4/3 pi radius
-
------------------------- Volume = 4/3 * 3.14 * (1.5 * 10^11 m)^3
-
------------------------- Volume = 14.137 * 10^33 m^3
-
------------------------- Mass = density * volume
-
------------------------- Mass = 9.75 * 1-^-27 kg/m^3 * 14.137 * 10^33 m^3
-
------------------------- Mass = 137 * 10^6 kg.
-
- The mass enclosed in a sphere of radius 1 AU is 137 million kilograms.
The mass of the Earth alone is 600,000,000,000,000,000 million kilograms. This means that the Universe is a very low density.
-
- The Universe is not slowing down detectably and is most likely be speeding up its expansion.
-
-------------------------- The Universe is 13,700,000,000 years old.
-
- If we observe a galaxy 500 mega parsecs away moving away from us at 35,000 kilometers/second, when does that suggest the Big Bang occurred? This is just one of many of the calculations used.
-
-------------------------- Time = Distance / Velocity
-
- Time = 500 Mpc * sec * 3.09 * 10^19 km * year / 35,000 km * Mpc* 3.16 * 10^7 sec
-
-------------------------- Time = 13,970,000,000 years
-
- The density of matter in all forms normalized to the critical density is 30% + or - 10%. 25% is Dark Matter and 5% is ordinary matter.
-
- The density of ordinary matter, the sort of matter we are made of, is 4% + or - 1%. This is the type of matter that is the elements in the periodic table from hydrogen to uranium. Most of ordinary matter is the hot gas in and between the clusters of galaxies.
-
- We can conclude that we humans are not made of the dominant stuff in the Universe.
-
- Einstein showed that mass and energy are the same. Energy = a constant * mass. The constant is the speed of light squared. If the Universe is flat the sum of mass and energy, normalized to the critical density, must be equal to one.
-
- Therefore 65% + or - 10% of the Universe must be Dark Energy. This is also called the Cosmological Constant, or sometimes the Vacuum Energy Density. But, since we do not know what it is, let’s call it Dark Energy and it is whatever stuff is causing the Universe to expand at an accelerating rate.
-
- The amplitude and slope of the spectrum of primodial bumps and wiggles in the Cosmic Background Radiation = 1 + or - .2, 2 + or - .5 , normalized to the large angular scales found in the Microwave Background Radiation pattern. This pattern grew into the superclusters and voids that accounts for the distribution of galaxies in our Universe.
-
- The Hubble Constant is large and the density is small causing the Universe to keep expanding indefinitely. Under this scenario what is the future of our Universe?
-
- Eventually binary stars and galaxies clusters will collapse into each other. Stars will gradually burn out and form black holes. On time scales of 10^32 years, protons will decay into radiation. All particles and black holes will eventually evaporate.
-
- All the mass in the Universe will disappear. All that will be left is radiation which reddens and weakens forever. Yet, the total energy in the Universe remains unchanged inside this infinite space.
-
- Of course, we are basing these conclusions on the 5% of the information of what we know. If we add up Dark Matter 25% and Dark Energy 75% we total 95% which we do not have an explanation for.
-
- We and everything we see and know is made up of the remaining 5% of the Observable Universe. No doubt we all have a lot more to learn.
-
- May 7, 2019. 50
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Tuesday, May 7, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
---------------------------- - 2357 - Cosmology - What is Physics Telling Us?
-
- Cosmology is that branch of physics that studies the evolution, structure, and nature of the Universe as a whole.
-
- Isaac Newton started the study of cosmology with his vision in 1660 that the Universe was static and all matter was uniformly spread throughout infinite space.
-
- In 1826 Olber’s paradox brought this vision in to question. If there is an infinite number of stars in all directions, “why is the sky dark?” Good question.
-
- Olber’s paradox says that if we had infinite number of stars uniformly distributed in space the night sky should glow with uniform brightness. The explanation that came later is that we see the Observable Universe so some of the stars are so far away their light has not reached us yet. And, the galaxies of stars farthest away are receding so fast their light is redshifted causing their brightness in the optical wavelengths to be greatly diminished.
-
- Albert Einstein proposed an even more dramatic vision in 1915 with his general theory of relativity which gave the Universe four dimensions, in a continuum of space-time.
-
- In 1929 Hubble finally changed the vision of a static universe. He discovered that the Universe was actually, dynamically, expanding and that the further away a galaxy was the greater the speed of recession.
-
- This expansion is often misinterpreted as the result of a giant explosion, the Big Bang, causing galaxies to still be flying apart from each other. This is not the case. The correct interpretation is that space itself is expanding and the galaxies are embedded in this expanding space.
-
- Except, there is no center. No galaxy is at a center of the Universe. The view from all galaxies is the same. This condition is why the Universe is said to be homogeneous and isotropic.
-
- Homogeneous means the Universe looks the same in all directions regardless where the observer is standing.
-
- Isotropic technically means the Universe’s permittivity, susceptibility, and elastic constants do not vary with direction. In other words the speed, or rate of recession of expanding space is the same in all directions.
-
- Here is what cosmology has taught us about the Universe:
-
- In one measurement astronomers had determined the rate of recession of space, known as Hubble’s Constant, to be 65 + or - 7 kilometers/second per megaparsec.
-
- This is how fast the space is expanding between the galaxies. For every megaparsec, which is 3.26 * 10^6 lightyears, you go out into space the galaxies are receding 65,000 meters per second faster. That is 145,400 miles per hour faster as you go deeper into space every 19,175,700 million million-miles.
-
------------------ The Hubble Constant = 65 kilometer/second/megaparsec
-
------------------ A megaparsec = 10^6 parsecs = 3.26 million lightyears
-
------------------ A parsec = 3.09 * 10^13 kilometers = 3.26 lightyears
-
------------------ A parsec is an astronomical unit of length that is equal to a baseline of an astronomical unit subtends an angle of one second of arc. An astronomical unit is the average distance between the Earth and the Sun, 149,600,000 kilometers.
-
------------------ Hubble Constant = 65 * 10^-6 km * pc / 3.09 * 10^13 km * sec
-
------------------ Hubble Constant = 21.04 * 10^-19 / second
-
- By inverting the Hubble Constant we collapse backward to determine the age of the Universe.
-
------------------ Age = 1 / Hubble Constant = 1 / 21.04 * 10^-19 seconds
-
------------------ Age = 0.0475 * 10^19 seconds * year / 3.16 * 10^7 seconds
-
------------------ Age = 15.5 * 10^9 years
-
------------------ Age = 15.5 billion years.
-
- But, this simple equation assumes the Universe is not influenced by gravity slowing down the expansion. If the Universe is nearly flat and the actual density is nearly equal to the critical density then the age of the Universe is about 2/3 the Hubble Time.
-
------------------ Hubble Time = 15.5 billion years
-
------------------ 2/3 Hubble Time = Age = 10.35 billion years.
-
- But, this does not include the effects of Inflation that occurred between 10^-34 seconds and 10^-32 seconds after the Big Bang. This is when the Universe went through an extremely accelerated expansion caused by the separation of the fundamental force into the three individual forces: electromagnetic, strong and weak forces. If we take Inflation into account we get to an:
-
----------------------------- Age of the Universe = 13.7 billion years.
-
- In the year 2019 Astronomy has 2 disputed measurements that put the expansion rate at 67.4 and 73.5. Several different techniques are currently trying to reconcile the results to come up with the most accurate rate of expansion for the Universe. This Review uses just one of the early techniques used.
-
- If this is the case what does it tell us about the past, present, and future of our Universe?
-
- The Big Bang is a unique, hot, dense phase in our past that accounts for our present phase of an expanding universe.
-
- Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity is the right theory of gravitation. It says that space is curved by the presence of matter. Therefore the density of matter in the Universe determines its curvature. The critical density is the amount of matter per cubic meter that would just stop the expansion due to gravity over an infinite time.
-
- If the actual density of matter in the Universe is larger than the critical density then the Universe is sphere-like and has a positive curvature. The Universe would in this case eventually slow down, stop expanding, and begin to contract. Hubble’s law would be in reverse until the Universe crushed back into a singularity.
-
- If the actual density of matter in the Universe is less than the critical density then the Universe is saddle-like and has negative curvature. The Universe in this case would expand forever.
-
- If the actual density of matter in the Universe is equal to the critical density then the Universe is flat.
-
- Our conclusion is that the Universe is “nearly flat“. We live in a low-mass universe with a substantial cosmological constant.
-
- In the Big Bang, conditions were very hot. It was too hot for elements heavier than lithium to live very long. Higher level elements were almost immediately torn apart by the radiation of photons.
-
- Then, with Inflation, the Universe cooled very quickly, over just a few hundred seconds. As soon as it was cool enough for heavier elements to survive, it was too cool to make them. Therefore, the ratio of hydrogen to helium to lithium in the Universe today is a very good supporting data for the Big Bang and Inflation.
-
- Space is called space for a good reason, because it is mostly empty. The critical density is extremely small = 9.75 * 10^-24 grams per cubic meter.
-
- If the Hubble Constant is 65 Km/sec/Mpc and the critical density is 9.75 * 10^-27 kg/m^3, how much mass would be enclosed in a sphere with the radius of the Earth’s orbit?
-
------------------------- Volume of the sphere with radius of one astronomical unit
-
------------------------- Volume = 4/3 pi radius
-
------------------------- Volume = 4/3 * 3.14 * (1.5 * 10^11 m)^3
-
------------------------- Volume = 14.137 * 10^33 m^3
-
------------------------- Mass = density * volume
-
------------------------- Mass = 9.75 * 1-^-27 kg/m^3 * 14.137 * 10^33 m^3
-
------------------------- Mass = 137 * 10^6 kg.
-
- The mass enclosed in a sphere of radius 1 AU is 137 million kilograms.
The mass of the Earth alone is 600,000,000,000,000,000 million kilograms. This means that the Universe is a very low density.
-
- The Universe is not slowing down detectably and is most likely be speeding up its expansion.
-
-------------------------- The Universe is 13,700,000,000 years old.
-
- If we observe a galaxy 500 mega parsecs away moving away from us at 35,000 kilometers/second, when does that suggest the Big Bang occurred? This is just one of many of the calculations used.
-
-------------------------- Time = Distance / Velocity
-
- Time = 500 Mpc * sec * 3.09 * 10^19 km * year / 35,000 km * Mpc* 3.16 * 10^7 sec
-
-------------------------- Time = 13,970,000,000 years
-
- The density of matter in all forms normalized to the critical density is 30% + or - 10%. 25% is Dark Matter and 5% is ordinary matter.
-
- The density of ordinary matter, the sort of matter we are made of, is 4% + or - 1%. This is the type of matter that is the elements in the periodic table from hydrogen to uranium. Most of ordinary matter is the hot gas in and between the clusters of galaxies.
-
- We can conclude that we humans are not made of the dominant stuff in the Universe.
-
- Einstein showed that mass and energy are the same. Energy = a constant * mass. The constant is the speed of light squared. If the Universe is flat the sum of mass and energy, normalized to the critical density, must be equal to one.
-
- Therefore 65% + or - 10% of the Universe must be Dark Energy. This is also called the Cosmological Constant, or sometimes the Vacuum Energy Density. But, since we do not know what it is, let’s call it Dark Energy and it is whatever stuff is causing the Universe to expand at an accelerating rate.
-
- The amplitude and slope of the spectrum of primodial bumps and wiggles in the Cosmic Background Radiation = 1 + or - .2, 2 + or - .5 , normalized to the large angular scales found in the Microwave Background Radiation pattern. This pattern grew into the superclusters and voids that accounts for the distribution of galaxies in our Universe.
-
- The Hubble Constant is large and the density is small causing the Universe to keep expanding indefinitely. Under this scenario what is the future of our Universe?
-
- Eventually binary stars and galaxies clusters will collapse into each other. Stars will gradually burn out and form black holes. On time scales of 10^32 years, protons will decay into radiation. All particles and black holes will eventually evaporate.
-
- All the mass in the Universe will disappear. All that will be left is radiation which reddens and weakens forever. Yet, the total energy in the Universe remains unchanged inside this infinite space.
-
- Of course, we are basing these conclusions on the 5% of the information of what we know. If we add up Dark Matter 25% and Dark Energy 75% we total 95% which we do not have an explanation for.
-
- We and everything we see and know is made up of the remaining 5% of the Observable Universe. No doubt we all have a lot more to learn.
-
- May 7, 2019. 50
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------
- https://plus.google.com/u/0/ -- www.facebook.com -- www.twitter.com
--------------------- Tuesday, May 7, 2019 -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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