American Enterprise

-  1668  -  American Enterprise.  What does it mean to be a corporation?  How do corporations help the economy?  Why does the government need to be restrained from taking entrepreneurship away from private industry?
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---------------------  -  1668  -  American Enterprise
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-  “Entrepreneur” means a person who undertakes, manages, and assumes the risk of a new business.
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-.  The “corporation” was one of the great inventions of the 1600’s.  The Corporation allowed people to invest in the business without running the risk of losing their personal property if the business failed.
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-.  Corporations came part of the law in 1811.
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-.  A corporation is a separate legal personality, meaning the corporation has access to tort and contract law the same as a person.  It has limited liability to the shareholders, limited to the value of the shares in the corporation.  Shares are traded on a stock exchange to determine their value.  A Board of Directors delegates day-to-day management to executives.  The Board is responsible to manage the company for the benefit of the investors, with reasonable skill, care, and diligence.
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-.  In 1901 Andrew Carnegie became the richest man in the world when he sold his Steel Manufacturing company to J.P. Morgan.
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-.  The first American patent was issued in 1646 for a device to make knives and sickles.  This started a whirlwind of inventions:  bifocal glasses, cotton gin, flour mills, high-pressure steam engines, the McCormick reaper, the airplane, Coca-Cola, and the inexpensive Ford automobile……………….
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-.  When Twitter went public in 2013 it produced no fewer than 1,600 new millionaires.
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-.  People in government will always try to help those who are powerful at the expense of those who might become powerful.  Nevertheless America has allowed the freedom to take risks, which also means the freedom to fail.
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-.  Wall Street had a strong interest in knowing the truth about corporations whose securities are traded and underwritten.  As a result they began imposing regular accounting rules and quarterly, audited reports.  This resulted in a huge rise in entrepreneurship.
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-.  Governments Interstate Commerce commission and the Civil Aeronautics Board lost their rate-setting and route- allocating powers in the 1970’s.  The resulting competition allowed lower prices for almost all goods and entrepreneurship returned to the transportation industry.
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-.  The opportunities for people with ideas and a willingness to take risks are plentiful in America.  If we can only restrain an overbearing government bent on fairness and income redistribution. The truth is, policies that institute fairness result in crony capitalism and rich politicians.
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-.  Unfortunately, “creative destruction” does not exist in government as it does in private industry.  Government is a monopoly that protects and grows itself.  Today it is trying to take over one sixth of the economy, the medical industry, just as our demographics are becoming more dependent on it.
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-.  Once people are dependent on government it is hard to give it up.  Unfortunately for the government, it eventually runs out of “other people's money“.  Taxes by their very nature are anti-entrepreneurs.  By the way, the word is French, it means “undertakers“, which itself has a double reading.
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-.  From John Steele Gordon's book , “An Empire of Wealth“.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Monday, March 31, 2014  ---
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Dating Earth’s oldest Rocks.

-  1667  -  Dating Earth’s oldest Rocks.  Hudson Bay, Canada, has the oldest rocks found so far.  What can they tell us about the evolution of our planet?  How does radioactive dating work?
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---------------------  -  1667  -  Dating Earth’s oldest Rocks
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-  I have heard of dating a nerd.  Even dating a geek.  But, dating a rock?  What’s that all about?
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-.  It's about dating Nuvvuagittug rocks.  It's about radioactive dating.  These rocks are about 20 miles from the Inukjuak.  And, that happens to be the northeast edge of the Hudson Bay in Canada.
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-.  The rocks are exposed because ancient ice age glaciers have carved out the land.  Some geologists have dated  rocks to be 3.8 billion years old.  Another team of geologists say they have found rocks 4.4 billion years old.  If this is true this age is close to Earth's earliest formation.  Studies here should help science learn about the earliest evolution of our planet.
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-. 4,468,000,000 years was when the first rain filled the oceans.  It was when the continents heaved up out of the waters to create dry land.  Comets and asteroids were impacting Earth's surface.  The biggest impact was the size of the planet Mars.  That impact splashed the Earth's crust into orbit.  The orbiting debris coalesced into what we now have as our Moon.
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-.  These are major events in Earth's early evolution.  Dating these rocks precisely could tell science the timing of what occurred when.  There are thousands of acres of minerals to be studied in the Hudson Bay. The minerals contain the chemistry of the earliest oceans.  Even the chemistry of the earliest atmosphere.  This coupled with the studies of Moon rocks are treasures in geology.
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-.  Most of Earth’s surface has been covered with sedimentary rock, or, it has become molten magma cooling and crystallizing into igneous rock.  Only this tiny portion  of rock on the Hudson Bay appears to have remained intact throughout Earth's history.  Almost all the ancient rock everywhere else has been destroyed in one way or another.
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-.  The second oldest rocks were found on the tundra in Canada's Northwest Territories dated to be 3,920,000,000  years old.
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-  Some of the clues of Earth's early history have come from Zircon crystals.  These crystals form in cooling magma.  Zircon crystals can trap radioactive atoms such as uranium.  Measuring the decay rates of the radioactive isotopes allow the age of the Zircon's to be calculated.
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-.  Some of the Zircon crystals found in the outback's of Australia have been dated to be 4,400,000,000 years old.  But, these are the crystals themselves and not the surrounding rock.
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-.  The radioactive isotopes in the rocks decay over time at a clocklike pace.  Measuring the ratios of the levels of atoms and isotopes reveals the age of the rocks.
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------------------------------  Neodymium  142  breaks down to
------------------------------  Samarium 146 , which has a half-life of 68 million years.
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-  Samarium 146 was injected into the Earth's chemistry by the supernova that exploded and produced the shockwaves that condensed the gases and dust to allow gravity to produce a Sun and the Solar System.  But, with the short half-life Samarium 146 would have decayed away in 500,000,000 years.
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-.  The Hudson Bay rocks have specific proportions of Neodymium 142 to other Neodymium isotopes, indicating the rocks formed when Samarium 146 was still around  These proportions give a date of 4,280,000,000 years old.  Other samples found since 2008 have been dated at 4,400,000,000 years old.  Other geologists studying Zircon crystals date the Hudson Bay rocks at 3,750,000,000 years old.
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-.  Who is right?
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-.  Another study of Quartzite containing Zircon crystals was dated to be 3,800,000,000 years old.  Next, they studied the decay of Lutetium into Hafnium and got an age of 3,800,000,000 years old
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-.  Uranium and Lead combinations found in rock would give the most reliable dating.  The hunt is on for this combination of elements. The history is important.  Right now fossil life dates back to 3,500,000,000 years.  That is where bacteria were found preserved in ancient rocks.
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-.  `Bacteria feed on carbon.  There is a balance of carbon isotopes in the atmosphere.  These comparisons have dated the earliest life found in the rocks to be 3,800,000,000 years old.
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-.  How did life form?
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-.  Could these old rocks reveal the story?
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-  Over millions of years radioactive isotopes slowly break down at a steady, clocklike rate, unique to each element
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------------------------  Samarium 147 decays into Neodymium 143.
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-The ratio of the number of atoms of Samarium gradually decreases.  Number of atoms of Neodymium 143 gradually increases.  The amount of decay as a function of time is a logarithmic  function.
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-.  Neodymium 144 is a stable atom and it does not break down at all , its levels of abundance stay constant.  Plotting the ratios of these decaying atoms to stable atoms creates a linear slope with time.  The ratio of a decay is constant, but, the original sample of parent atoms that are decaying is decreasing and reapplying the constant rate creates a logarithmic decay curve of the ratio with time.
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-.  Other ratios for dating include Uranium 238 decaying to Lead 206
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-.  Ratios of Uranium 235 decaying to Lead 207.
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-.  Carbon-14 isotope is the most familiar carbon-dating mechanism but it has a more rapid decay rate that only goes back 60,000 years.
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-.  Quantum mechanics makes predictions only about probabilities of different outcomes.  An example occurs with this radioactive dating.  The probabilities become statistics with very large numbers of atoms,  making the calculation results very reliable.
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-  Atomic nucleus decays to some lower energy by the emission of electrons, helium nuclei, or  photons.
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---------------------------  No  =  number of radioactive nuclei to start with.
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----------------------------  t  =  after time t
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---------------------------  N  =  the number of radioactive nuclei left
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----------------------------  N /  No    =   e ^ ( -t / R)
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----------------------------  R  =  the mean lifetime of the radioactive nuclei.
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-.  To learn how this is used in radioactive dating consider a piece of wood  found in a cave used in an agent campfire.
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-.  When a tree dies its wood stops breathing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
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-.  Carbon-14 that is in the atmosphere decays to Carbon-12 with a lifetime of 8,270 years.
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---------------------------- .  When  “R”  equals  “t” ------  e^-1  =   N / No  =  ,  0.37
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-.  The ratio of “N / No”  equals 37 %, which means 37 % of the C14 atoms have decayed to C12 atoms over the mean lifetime of the decay.  Every 8,270 years the ratio decays by 37 %.  37 % of the C14 atoms , which contain 6 protons and 8 neutrons loose 2  neutrons that Beta Decay into a helium nucleus of  2 protons, an electron and an anti-neutrino that go flying out of the sample.   C12 carbon atoms having 6 protons and 6 neutrons are left behind.
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-.  Carbon dating would not work for Moon rocks because with a mean lifetime of only 8,270 years all the C14 would have disappeared over the lifetime of the Moon.  However, Uranium decays into the Lead much more slowly.  Uranium-238 decays into Lead-206 over a half-life of 4,500,000,000 years meaning half of the atoms have decayed over that time span.
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-.  Rock samples from the Moon were found to have about equal amounts of U238 and Pb206, which would mean that Moon rocks are about 4,500,000,000 years old.   (A more precise study put them at 4,400,000,000 years)
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-  Since this answer for the age is intuitively correct.  Let’s use the radioactive decay formula to see if we get the same answer?
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------------------------------  (N /  No )  /  1/2   =   e ^ ( -t / R)
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------------------------------  ln (N /  No )  /  ln (½)   =   -t / R
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-------------------------------  (0.69 )  /  ( 0.69 )   =   t / 4.5
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--------------------------------  t  =  4.5 billion years
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-.  Most decay ratios are specified as half-life's.  For example: Potassium 40 into Argon 40 has a half-life of 1,250,000,000 years.  We can measure decay rates for isotopes very precisely in the laboratory.  Knowing the rate of decay and the ratio of the decaying elements we can calculate the time span the decaying has occurred.  For example:
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-----------------------------  If we find rock to  have a ratio of radioactive elements to be:
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-----------------------------  Potassium 40  =  0.85 units
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-----------------------------  Argon 40  =  9.15 units
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-------------------Original amount of Potassium 40   =  No  = 0.85 + 9.15  =  10 units
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--------------------------  time  /  half-life  =  ln (N / No)  /  ln ( ½)
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--------------------------  time  /  1.25  =  ln (0.85 / 10)  /  ln (0.5)
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--------------------------  time  /  1.25  =  - 2.47 /  - 0.69
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--------------------------  time  /  1.25  =  3.58
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---------------------------- time  =  4.45 billion years
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-  If this is the ratio of the isotopes found in the rocks, the rocks are 4,450,000,000 years old.  Which is about the same time that the Moon was formed.  Dating rocks can be very rewarding.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Sunday, March 30, 2014  ---
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The Auburn Automobile Plant’s Duesenberg.

-  1666  -  The Auburn Automobile Plant’s Duesenberg.
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---------------------  -  1666  -  The Auburn Automobile Plant’s Duesenberg.
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-  The automobile plant in Auburn ,Indiana, my hometown, built and sold 3 models of cars in the “Roaring 1920’s“, the Auburn, Cord , and Duesenberg.
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-.  The Auburn was the cheapest model.
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-.  The Cord was a sports model.
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-.  The Duesenberg was the expensive model.  The model “J” cost $8,500, but, you had to pay an extra $2,500 for the “coachwork“, bodywork and interior.  Only 470 were produced.
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-.  The name came from the brothers Fred and August, “Auggie” Duesenberg.  Eric L. Cord purchased the struggling Duesenberg Motor Company in 1926.   Cord owned the Auburn Motor Company.
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-.  Duesenberg race cars had the land speed record at Daytona Beach in 1920.  The car won the Le Mans race in France in 1921.  And, the Indianapolis 500 in 1924, 1925, and 1927.
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-.  Cord’s idea was to build the pinnacle in a luxury class car.  The model “J” was presented at the New York Auto Show in 1928.
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-------------------  .  420 cubic inch straight 8  cylinder engine.
--------------------  .  Dual overhead cam shafts.
--------------------  .  4 valves per cylinder
--------------------  .  Aluminum alloy pistons, rods, and crankshaft.
--------------------  .  3  speed synchromesh manual transmission.
--------------------  .  15 inch hydraulic drum brakes.
--------------------  .  An instrument panel including a tachometer, stopwatch, altimeter , and a barometer.
--------------------  .  .  The coachwork that the owner paid $2,500 extra for included touring sedans, dual cowl phaetons, 4-door convertibles, 2-seater roadsters.
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-.  The Model J weighed 5,500 pounds, but, had a top speed of 100 miles per hour.
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-.  In 1932 the Model “SJ” was introduced that was supercharged, 5.2 to 1 compression ratio.  320 horsepower.  Top speed was 129 miles per hour.
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-  The Model SJ had the 4 chromed exhaust pipes exiting the engine cover.
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-.  The shorter wheelbase model “SSJ“, only two were built, owned by Clark Gable and Gary Cooper.  The car became known as “ It's a Doozy “.
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-.  In 1932 Fred Duesenberg died of pneumonia.  The last model J and SJ Duesenberg's came off the assembly line in 1934.  In 1935 E.L. Cord shutdown all automobile operations.  My Dad had hung differentials on the assemble line and  alcohol rubbed the multiple coat lacquer finishes when he worked at the auto plant.  The brick building is still there today as an automobile Museum.
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-.  My dad's friend, Bill Fitzsimmons, was a test driver for every car that came off the assembly line.  As it came off the line “Wild Bill” drove it around a track that was behind the brick building.  Over ramps and bumps he came back and instructed the mechanics on any adjustments that were still needed.  Bill was also an airplane pilot who once flew his plane through the open front and rear doors of the airplane hangar.  My boss, Earl Summers and my Dad watched from Earl’s stucco farmhouse that was next door to the Auburn Airfield.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Saturday, March 29, 2014  ---
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Universe - How it all started? How on Earth do we know that?

-  1665  -  Universe - How it all started?  How on Earth do we know that?
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---------------------  -  1665  -  Universe - How it all started
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-  For the first 400,000 years the universe was a pea soup fog of charged particles, protons and electrons.  After 400,000 years the universe cooled to where the positive and negative charges could combine into neutral atoms.
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-.  The pea soup fog was exceedingly bright with light.  When the hydrogen atoms became neutral the universe became dark as photons escaped into expanding space.  No stars had a chance to form yet.  Later, when the first stars did form they were so hot they shown mostly in the ultraviolet light spectrum, not in visible light.  The hydrogen gas atoms quickly absorbed the ultraviolet photons as electrons jumped into their highest energy levels.
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-.  The first stars were made mostly of hydrogen because the heavier elements had not yet formed in the core of stars………..   hydrogen formed into helium, carbon fusion, oxygen fusion, neon fusion, magnesium fusion, silicon fusion, then at the core inert iron. All of these heavier elements were blown into interstellar space with each supernovae explosion.
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-.  These first stars could have been a million times larger than our sun.  It is also possible that many of these large star formations fragmented into many smaller stars, maybe each only 10 times larger than our sun.
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-.  Giant stars greater than 100 solar mass burn out quickly and explode into supernovae after very short lifetimes.  The smaller stars on the other hand can burn for hundreds of millions of years before running out of fuel and exploding as supernovae.
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-.  Most all of the stars would have been large enough to have collapsed in blackholes after shedding their outer layers of heavier elements into outer space.  When these blackholes are spinning, jets of escaping hot gas exits from the poles.  We see these jets as rotating beams of light today as quasars.
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-.  The first quasar discovered (3C – 273) had a redshift of 0.16 which meant it was 2,000,000,000 light-years away.  Astronomers began searching for more quasars.  Soon quasars were found having a red shift of 2.0 , meaning their light had traveled for more than 10,000,000,000 years.  Redshifts of 4.9 were later detected meaning these quasars were 12,500,000,000 light-years away.
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-  Quasars are difficult to find because we only see them if their powerful light beams are pointed at, or sweeping by, our direct line of sight.  The intense jets peak between the redshifts of 2.0 to 3.0 , when most galaxies were the richest in interstellar gas.
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-.  In the year 2000 the Sloan Digital Sky Survey identified 40 quasars beyond a redshift of 5.5.  The record was a redshift of 7.085.  This quasar started shining just  770,000,000 years after the Big Bang.  It is estimated that the quasar was a massive 1 billion solar mass star.
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-.  Quasars are the blackholes at the center of galaxies, or extremely large stars.  Since 1995, with the Hubble deep field images, time exposures of 30 hours staring at single point in space, allowed astronomers to begin seeing the galaxies themselves , where these quasars were located.
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-.  In 2009 modifications to the Hubble Space Telescope added infrared cameras able to see hundreds of galaxies exceeding redshifts of 7.0.  The most distant redshift was 11.9.  This galaxy existed only 400,000,000 years after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion light-years away.
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-.  140 orbits of Hubble ,with each orbit taking 90 minutes, providing 45 minutes of viewing time.  That is a time exposure of 63 hours to collect photons from the most distant galaxies.  On top of that 250 galaxies with redshifts greater than 6.0 have been located behind foreground “galaxy clusters“.  These massive clusters of mass provide “gravitational lensing” that further magnifies these distant galaxies.
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-.  Gamma Ray Burst are another light source that allows astronomers to probe into the early universe.  Gamma Ray Bursts are short blasts of high-energy radiation that occur when the supernova explosions of massive stars collapse into blackholes.  The spinning blackholes have accretion disks and spew jets of Gamma Rays out the rotational poles.  The escaping Gamma Rays slam into the interstellar gas in space creating infrared light that astronomers can detect.
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-.  These Gamma Ray Bursts outshine the galaxies by 1,000,000 times and outshine quasars by 10 to 100 times.  These bursts allow the capability to measure redshifts out to 15 or 20, less than 200,000,000 years after the Big Bang.  This has be close to when the very first stars were shining.
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-  Because Gamma Ray Bursts are created by jets off the poles ,  99 % of them are pointed away from the Earth.  We still see about  one Burst per day, detected by satellites.
-
-.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-.  Footnote 1.  Redshifts occur when a light source is moving away from you and the wavelength of the light gets stretched out to a larger wavelength, or a lower frequency, shifting  towards the red end of the spectrum.  In the case of deep space it is not a separation of velocities but a separation caused by the expansion of space as light travels great distances over wide expanses of space the expansion lengthens the wavelength, causing the redshift.
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-.  Footnote 2:.  The Dark Age of the Universe.   http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0307396
-   The First Stars in the Universe and Cosmic Reionization.   .   http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0608450
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-.  Footnote 3:  -------------------- Big Bang time            =       zero

--------------------------------------plasma to neutral hydrogen     =  380,000 years
--------------------------------------first stars   =           100,000,000
--------------------------------------first galaxies     =    500,000,000
--------------------------------------quasars   =              700,000,000
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-  Footnote 4:   Redshifts of hydrogen's Lyman - alpha spectral line is a wavelength of 120 nanometers.  Over the distance of expanding space the wavelength is stretched out to 1029 nanometers.
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-----------------------------  1029  -  121  =  980 nanometers is the amount of wavelength stretched by expanding space.
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-----------------------------  Redshift  =  908  /  121  =  7.5
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-----------------------  Redshift  =  wavelength observed   -   wavelength at rest  /  wavelength at rest
------------------------  z  =  (wo  -  ws)  /  ws
-------------------------  1 + z  =  wo / ws
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---------------------  The distance in billion lightyears  =  12.65  +  0.06( Redshift)
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---------------------  The distance in lightyears  =  12.65  +  0.06( 7.5)

---------------------  The distance in lightyears  =  13.1 billion years
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----------------------The Big Bang occurred at 13.82 billion years
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- The source of the light for a Redshift of 7.5 occurred 720,000,000 years after the Big Bang.
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-  Footnote 5: ------ 13,820,000,000 years ago for the Big Bang
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-----------------------  10^-32 milliseconds later the Cosmic Inflation occurred expanding the Universe to the size of a golf ball.
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----------------------  0.01 milliseconds Quarks combine into protons
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---------------------   to 200 seconds  hydrogen and helium nuclei form
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---------------------  380,000 years.  Nuclei capture electrons and form neutral atoms of hydrogen and helium.  The Universe has expanded to 0.09% of its current size.
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--------------------  to 300,000,000 years.  The Cosmic Background Radiation is the only “ light”.  The Universe is 10% of its current size.
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--------------------  300,000,000 to today dense gas clouds collapse into stars.
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---------------------10,000,000,000 years.  Dark Energy overcomes gravity and the Universe begins expanding at an ever increasing rate.  The Universe is 77% of its current size.
-
--------------------13,820,000,000 years  that is today, March 25, 2014.  My dog Molly’s birthday.  She is 2 years old.  The Universe is at its present size.
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-  Footnote 6:  See review #1603, #1550, #1551, #835, for more of the math involved in these calculations.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Tuesday, March 25, 2014  ---
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Computer simulations of the human cell.

-  1664  -  Computer Simulations of the Human Cell.  modeling cells could speed up medical research enormously.  Nanotechnology and physics are entering biology science.
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---------------------  -  1664  -  Computer Simulations of the Human Cell.  
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-Can science create a computer model of a living cell.  After all computer games are looking more and more like reality.  Modeling a single cell would not be that hard?
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-.  If such a program existed many experiments in biological research, drug development, bioengineering, etc., can be done on a computer without experimenting with the real thing.  We would save the lives of many mice and monkeys.  It should make the process faster and cheaper.
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-.  While it might make sense to start with the simplest cell, not the human cell.  So a good candidate would be an individual germ.  A single cell of bacterium
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--------------------------------   Mycoplasma Genitalium
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-.  Before you even get into the bacterium cell let's first learn more about cells in general.
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-.  The nanotechnology of physics in the DNA of biology are finally starting to merge.  Atomic theory is beginning to be applied to cell theory.
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-.  The typical plant or animal cell is between 5,000 and 40,000 nanometers.  Human eye can maybe see the 100,000 nanometers.  So cells are beyond our vision.
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-.  Similar to the nucleus of the atom the cell has a nucleus.   Inside the nucleus is a chromosome, inside the chromosome is DNA and its double helix.
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-.  The egg and sperm cell each have half the number of chromosomes.  When the two cells combine they form a complete set of chromosomes.  The chromosomes look like a tangled mess of spaghetti with 23 pairs of chromosomes.   Chromosomes are X-shaped because they are dividing.  Females have XX chromosomes , males have XY chromosomes.
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-.  From the fertilized egg cells divide and re-divide and differentiate into liver cells, skin cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, kidney cells, etc.  This is so amazing beyond comprehension.
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-.  Each chromosome is a collection of genes.  A single chromosome can contain 20,000 to 90,000 genes.  Each chromosome is a structure of DNA found in cells.  The structure also contains RNA and proteins.  The DNA molecule can contain up to 3,750,000,000 nucleotides in a long chain.
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-------------------------.  Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes,
------------------------- -32,185 genes  ,    3,079,843,747 base pairs.
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---------------------.  Wheat bread has  42 chromosomes
---------------------.  Earthworms have 36 chromosomes
---------------------.  Elephants have 56 chromosomes
---------------------.  Dogs have 78 chromosomes
---------------------.  Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs.
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- So you can see that the number of chromosomes , or genes, does not necessarily mean greater complex life.

-.------------------    DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid
--------------------   RNA is ribonucleic acid

-The Mycoplasma Genitalium bacteria undergoing the computer simulation has 525 genes compared to human cell that has 32,185 genes,  The human cell is 60 times more complex to model.
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-.  Once the software model is complete every experiment that can be conducted in the laboratory can first be conducted on the computer.   Programmers express a cells processes as equations.  To verify the math the experiments must agree accurately with the computer simulations.
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-  Genes exert their effects using enzymes.  Enzymes determine the color of your eyes , the color of your hair and skin.  The absence of a single enzyme can cause a child to be an albino.
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-   Nuclear acids are universal materials found in all living cells.  If DNA is a key to heredity it must have a complex structure a genetic code
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----------------------  A equals  Adenine  ,  A connects to T
----------------------- G equals  Guanine,  G  connects to  C
----------------------- T equals  Thymine
----------------------- C equals  Cytosine
-
-.  The chromosome is a string of DNA molecules in the form of a double helix.   The two chains unwind themselves from each other.  Each chain is half a molecule which becomes the template for putting units together in the proper order.  In this way it can rebuild a complete double helix DNA molecule.   Carried out by all the DNA down the length of the chromosome will create two chromosomes that are exactly like.
-
-.  The equations in the simulations had to represent the flow of energy, nutrients, and reaction products throughout the cell.  This is called “metabolism“.    Equations had to represent the synthesis and decay of DNA, RNA, and proteins.
-
-.  Once functions of the cell are defined they had to be integrated into a single system.  Once all this was put together a contain over 1,700 variables.  To be biologically accurate the correct numbers had to be assigned to each variable.
-
-.  A typical cell of this bacterium divides every 10 hours, ranging from 6 hours to 15 hours.  These limits of doubling every critical variable help to put proper limits on the values of the variables.
-
-.  To divide the problem the whole cell model was spit into 28 distinct models.  Then, the life of the modules were stepped in one second intervals.  Every run of this simulator over the life of a single cell produced 500 megabytes of data.
-
-.  All of these simulations, source code, knowledge base, visualization code and experimental data are available online modeling the single bacterium in a software program.  Anyone can access it to do their own computer simulations.
-
-.---------  Modeling a single bacterium , Mycoplasma Genitalium ,  is the first step.
-
-.  Human cell is 60 times as many genes packed into sets of chromosomes.  Before we get to human cells a  next step is to model a most complex bacteria like
-
-------------------------  E. coli.
-------------------------.  Then a yeast cell.
------------------------.  Then I macrophage,   and immune cell from a mouse.
------------------------.  Then a human cell,  starting with a macrophage immune cell.
-
-.  Then why stop with a single cell.  Why not develop a computer simulator for the entire brain.  Soon a computer will simulate life on the screen.  The announcement will be made shortly stay tuned.
-  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Friday, March 21, 2014  ---
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The Theory of General Relativity from simple math?

-  1663  -  The General Theory of Relativity from simple math.  Everyone learned the binominal theorem in the 5th grade.  This review uses it to derive E = mc^2.  
-

---------------------  -  1663  -  The General Theory of Relativity from simple math    .  
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-  If a charged particle like a proton is racing around a particle accelerator at nearly the speed of light, it gets shorter and heavier.  Let's assume the gain in the mass of a speeding charge particle is result of motion.
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-.  Now suppose it was impossible to measure “absolute motion“.  Suppose all motion is “relative“.  Suppose it all depends on your “frame of reference“.
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-.  At this moment I am moving east at 700 miles per hour.  So is my dog Molly.  But we both are at rest unless we change our reference to account for how fast the Earth is rotating.
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-.  Now it is logical to assume that velocities of motion add up.  If a jet plane is going 700 miles per hour east and fires a rocket 700 miles per hour also due east the rocket should be traveling 1,400 miles per hour east.  Right?
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------------------------  v  =  v1  +  v2  =  700  +  700  =  1,400
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-.  Now, if we change the “v” to the velocity of light which is “c“, and, we increase the velocity “v1”  to near the speed of light, the velocities no longer add up to “v1” plus “v2“.  In order to keep velocity constant when it reaches “c” we need to change the equation to read:
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------------------  v  = ( v1  +  v2 )  /    ( 1  + v1*v2  /  c^2 )

-.  You can see how the equation works by letting “v1” equal to “c“.
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-------------------  v  = ( c  +  v2 )  /    ( 1  + c*v2  /  c^2 )    =  ( c  +  v2 )* c^2  /   ( c^2  + c*v2 )    =  ( c  +  v2 ) *c  /    ( c  + v2  )    =  c
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-  If you increase “v1”  to “c” the whole expression reduces back to “c”, the speed of light is  constant stop for velocity.
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-.  These equations are symbols.  The symbols say if you let one velocity reach the speed of light add another velocity to it , it still leaves you with the speed of light.  You cannot escape it.  You cannot go faster than the speed of light, according to this simple equation.
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-.  Actually is something was going faster than the speed of light, it could happen, but we would never see it because the light would never reach us.  We can never measure something going faster than the speed of light.
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-.  So, maybe the correct way to say this is that we can never measure anything moving faster than speed of light.
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-.  Now, once these equations held the speed of light constant other things happened to other equations.
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-.  Not only charged particles gain mass with motion, everything does, even baseballs.
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-.  Again, measuring mass is relative.  In order to hold velocity constant the measured length of the object is shortened and the measured mass must increase.
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- Now we have arrived at another contradiction in science.  “Mass increases“.  The Conservation of Mass and Energy says  neither can be created nor destroyed.
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-.  Motion does not really create mass.  The energy of motion is kinetic energy and kinetic energy equals one half mass times velocity squared.
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------------------------------  K E  =  ½ m*v^2
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-.  Now, if we think of mass and energy being interchangeable, then thinking mass increases and energy decreases the combined mass -energy remains unchanged.  Conservation is maintained.  We can still abide by the Law of the Conservation of Mass- Energy.
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-.  How much does mass change to energy?
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-.  This answer gets right back to the velocity of light being constant.  The time for a light beam to travel in any direction is the same.
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----------------------  t1  /  t2  =    1 /  square root  (  1 - v^2 / c^2 )
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-.  This expression can be written using different math symbols.
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------------------------------  (  1 - v^2 / c^2 ) ^ -½
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-.  The minus sign “-”  in the exponent means reciprocal
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--------------------------  3 ^-1    =   1/3
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-.  The one half, “ ½”,  in the exponent means the square root.
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----------------------  3^½  = square root of 3  =  1.732
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-The expression ( x + y) is a  binomial, and expression with two numbers.
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-  5th graders recognize the expression:
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-------------------  ( x + y ) ^2  =  ( x + y ) * ( x + y )  =  x^2  + xy  +  y^2
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-.  Okay let's go to 12th grade.
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--------------------  ( x + y ) ^4  =  ( x + y ) * ( x + y ) *( x + y ) * ( x + y )   =  x^4  +4 x^3y  + 6x^2 y^2+   4 xy^3 +  y^4
 
-.  The binomial coefficients appear as entries in Pascal's triangle where each entry is the sum of two above:
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----------------------------------  1
---------------------------------  1  1
--------------------------------  1  2  1
-------------------------------  1  3  3  1
------------------------------  1  4  6  4  1
---------------------------  1  5  10  10  5  1
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-----------  note:  ( x+ y)^4  having he coefficients   1  4  6  4  1
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-.  Isaac Newton discovered the mathematical theorem called the “Binomial Theorem” where the binomial expression  ( 1 - x) ^-n can be expanded into a endless series.
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-.  BINOMIAL THEOREM:
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------------------  ( 1 - x) ^-n   =  1  +  nx  +  ( n(n+1) x^2  /  2!)  +   ( n(n+1)(n+2)x^3  /  3!)    +  ( n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)x^4  /  4!)  +  ……………………………
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-.  In the case of the binomial expression.
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-------------------------------  (  1 - v^2 / c^2 ) ^ -½
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------------------------------  “  n”  =  ½
-------------------------------  “x”  =  v^2  /  c^2
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--------  (  1 - v^2 / c^2 ) ^ -½   =  1  +  v^2 / 2 c^2  +  3 v^4 / 8 c^4  +  4v^5  /    24c^5  +  ……………………………….........
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-.  Once “v”   increases to “c” that is,   the velocity equals the speed of light, the binomial series coefficients become:
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----------------------  1  +  ½    3/8  +  4/24  +  5/120  +  ……………..
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-.  When velocity slows to one half the speed of light.
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-------------------  v  =  c/2
-
-.  The series becomes:
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------------------------------  1  +  1/8  +  3/128  + 4/  384  + 5/  3,840
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-.  When the velocity slows to one fourth the speed of light,  v  =  c/4
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-.  The series becomes:
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-----------------------------  1  +  1/32  +  3 /  2,048
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-.  Therefore , at ordinary velocities a very small fraction of the speed of light the series terms after the first two become exceedingly small.  The expression can be assumed to be nearly equal to the first two terms in the series.
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---------------------------  (  1 - v^2 / c^2 ) ^ -½   =  (1  +  v^2  / 2 c^2 )
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-  In the general sense this equation is expressed as ( 1+x^a  )  =  1 + ax,……………..  ……..  (approximately)

-.  Applying this expression to the increase in mass
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----------------  m1  =  m0  (1  +  v^2  / 2 c^2 )
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---------------  m1  =  m0  +  ½  m v^2 / c^2
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-.  The increase in mass is:

---------------- (m1 -  m0)  =   (½  m v^2 / c^2)
-
-. (½  m v^2 / c^2)  is the energy of a moving body, Kinetic Energy.  Let K.E.  =  “E”.  Let the change in mass just equal mass “m” .
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--------------------  m  =  E  / c^2
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-------------------  E  =  mc^2
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-.  Congratulations!
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-.  You are a genius!
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-.  You just derived the famous equation E = mc^2 using the binomial theorem. You can apply this same derivation for length shortening and time slowing.  Everything is relative.

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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Wednesday, March 19, 2014  ---
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Relativity for speed readers.

-  1662  -   Relativity for speed readers.  relativity happens when energy grows to infinity trying to move a body in motion faster and faster.  The lengths pancake to zero and time slows to a stop.    
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---------------------  -  1662  -   Relativity for speed readers.  Relativity happens when energy grows to infinity trying to move a body in motion faster and faster.  Lengths pancake to zero and time slows to a stop.  Mass increases to infinity.  To see the math see Review  # 1663.
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-.  In 1893 science learned that all matter contracts in the direction of motion and the amount of contraction increased with the rate of motion.
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-.  Nature conspires to keep us from measuring absolute motion.  All motion is measured only in relative terms.
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-.  How much contraction can we experience?
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-------------------------- VELOCITY  -----------------------  LENGTH SHRINKS  ------
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------------------------  7 meters per second  -----------------  2 parts in a billion  --------
-  (25,200 miles per hour, this is the velocity of a rocket ship escaping the gravitational pull of the Earth.  2 parts in 1,000,000,000 is not something astronauts are going to notice.)
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------------------------  93,000  mps  ----------------------  15%  ,  15 parts per 100  --------
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------------------------  163,000  mps ------------  50%  ,  1 foot ruler shrinks to 6 inches  -
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------------------------  186,282  mps -----------------------------  0  length -------------------
-  ( Motion can not go any faster because lengths can not be less than zero.)
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-  The same percentage changes work for  mass increasing and time slowing down.
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-.  186, 282 meters per second is the constant speed of light in a vacuum.  But, light does slow down in other medium like water.  The index of refraction in water is 1.3, 130 %.  Therefore the speed of light in water is 143, 000 meters per second

---------------------------  Water   186,282 / 130 %    = 143,000
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---------------------------  Glass is 150 %
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-------------------------  Diamond  is 240 %  The speed of light in a sparkling diamond is 78,000 meters per second.
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-.  Cerenkov  radiation occurs when a particle exceeds the medium’s light barrier.  Similar to a sound barrier, only in this case the shockwave is a wake of bluish light.  For example:   When cosmic rays (particles) pass through water exceeding 143,000 meters per second the blue light of Cerenkov radiation becomes visible.
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-.  In 1879 science determined the total radiation emitted by a material depended  only on its temperature, not in the material itself.
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-.  Radiation energy equals temperature to the fourth power,  E  =  T^4
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-.  Colors of the material change from red- hot to yellow- hot to white-hot.
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-.  Explaining this radiation phenomena created the Quantum Theory that radiation actually occurred in whole numbers.
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----------------------.  Energy   =    (whole number)   *   frequency (color)
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-.  The higher the frequency (shorter the wavelength) the greater the radiation energy.
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-.  The “whole number” is Planck's constant and is equal to 4.136  * 10^-15 electron volts * seconds / cycle.
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-.  The number is extremely small,   0.000,000,000,000,004,136
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-.   Light looks continuous to us but violet light contains twice as many energy quanta as red light.
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-.  In 1905 science discovered that light striking certain material caused an electric current to flow, the photoelectric effect.  What confused science was that adding more light intensity did not create more electricity.  But, changing the color of light did change the electric flow.  Blue light caused more electricity to flow than yellow light.
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- Einstein was a first scientist to explain this photoelectric effect.  To absorb enough energy to release an electron in the photoelectric metals atoms must be hit with a quantum of energy of a certain size.  Different atoms (materials) held electrons with different strengths and different light energy (quanta) was required to match it before and electron could jump from its orbit.
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-.  From this Einstein also proposed that light travels through space in this quantum form, called “photons“.  Somehow light contained two properties at once , both particle and wave properties.
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-.  Einstein further proposed that the speed of light in a vacuum never varied, regardless of the motion of the light source.
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-.  In order to make this statement true his equations had to require that mass increase with velocity.  The length or space had to shorten with velocity.  And it required time to slow down.  Velocity is equal space divided by time.  In order for the ratio to remain constant shortened length per slower time.  Space-time became relative.
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-.  In our frame of reference if one foot ruler shot past us at 163, 000 meters per second we would see a 6 inch has ruler go by, but, it would be twice as heavy.
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-.  The theory of relativity happens in extreme worlds.  Newton's theories of motion, time and space, work fine in our everyday world.  Our faster rockets go 7 meters per second.  We have a long way to go to reach 163,000 meters per second with rockets.
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-.  But, no problem in sending electrons and protons around in a particle accelerator at these relativistic speeds.  The mass of these fast-moving particles can be measured as increasing.  See how the math recovers  E = mc^2  from this occurrence,  Review #1663.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
----  email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ---------
 ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  , “Jim Detrick” ----- www.facebook.com  ---
 ---- www.twitter.com , ---   707-536-3272    ----   Tuesday, March 18, 2014  ---
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