GRAVITY - a property of space and time

---------------------------  2014  - GRAVITY  -  a property of space and time
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-  Gravity is a property of nature where by all things with energy are brought together with an attractive force.  Mass is concentrated energy and the greater the mass the greater the force of gravity bringing them together.  Gravity affects all mass from stars and galaxies to sub-atomic particles.
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-  Gravity creates energy through the fusion of hydrogen gas in the cores of stars.  On the surface Earth’s gravity gives “weight “ to all masses and causes the tides in the oceans.
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-  This attractive force of gravity decreases as the square of the distance of separation.  Although its range is infinite its effects get increasingly weaker on farther objects.  As a force, gravity is easier to recognize.  It was the genius of Albert Einstein that opened our minds to think of gravity as a curvature , warping, of space-time.  Objects falling due to the “ force” of gravity are actually following the path of least resistance in the warped medium of space and time.  It is hard to wrap your mind around that one.
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-  This “curvature” occurs whenever there is an uneven distribution of mass-energy.  The result is a gravity time dilation whereby time slows down in lower, stronger, gravitational potentials.
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-  This Einstein General Theory of Relativity becomes most relevant in strong energy-mass fields.  Isaac Newton’s approximation for the effects of gravity is adequately accurate for our everyday earthly activities.  Even for short journeys across our Solar System.  His equations worked fine to get us to the Moon and back.
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-  Put simply:  The attractive force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
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-------------------------  F  =  G * m * M  /  r^2
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-  There are 4 fundamental forces in Nature known so far.  Gravity is by far the weakest.   The Strong Force that holds the nucleus of atoms together is 38 magnitudes stronger than the force of gravity, 10^38 times.  It is 10^29 times weaker that the Weak Force that holds Neutrons together in the nucleus.
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-  That is:  0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001 weaker “force” of gravity.  For example: The electromagnetic force of the refrigerator magnet can easily overpower the gravity of the enormous mass of the Earth.
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-  At the sub-atomic distances Gravity has negligible effects.  At macro scale levels of familiar masses Gravity becomes the dominant force of the interactions we routinely observe.
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-  The “ Equivalence Principle” is the observation that all objects fall the same way and the effects are indistinguishable between gravity and the effects of acceleration ( a change in velocity).  This principle also equates the free-fall of inertial motion to the acceleration to the relative, non-inertial observers on the ground.
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-  Einstein’s explanation is that free-falling objects are moving along locally straight lines that are curved by space-time.  These “straight lines “ in curved space-time are called “ geodesics”.
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-  Einstein’s explanation also predicted that “ gravity waves” would propagate from the interactions of very massive objects ( like orbiting Neutron Stars, or Blackholes).  These waves were first detected by LIGO experiments in September, 2015.
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-  Using Newton’s equations for Gravity can not explain why the distribution of velocities of stars in spiral galaxies are faster on the outskirts of the galaxies.  At the velocities measured these stars should be ejected from the galaxy like the water from a lawn sprinkler.
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-  The same calculations apply to galaxies within a rotating cluster of galaxies.  The mystery is explained by the existence of “ Dark Matter” located in a “ halo” around the Normal visible matter.  It is the mass of Dark Matter that is holding everything together.
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-  The devil is in the details and the closer and farther we extend our observations of gravity the more we are convinced we have more to learn.  For example:  The planetary orbits are widening faster than the Sun is losing mass by radiating energy.  We can not explain why?
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-  Another example comes from photons traveling through the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation somehow carry twice as much energy as we calculate.
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-  And, there is the proposal that the gravity force is weaker because it exists in extra dimensions beyond the three “space” dimensions and the one “time” dimension we are familiar with.  Maybe there are 6 more dimensions that gravity is leaking into?
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-  Stay in school, we need more knowledge than we have if we are ever going to understand this stuff that we consider fundamental properties of Nature.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about gravity:
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-  #1875  -  Planck’s Constant, 6.625*10^-34 Joules*seconds, is the uniform ratio of the energy of one photon to electromagnetic radiation and the frequency of that radiation.
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-  #1875  -  Footnotes  list 17 other reviews about gravity, mass, and light.
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-  #1870  -  Are the smallest scales of gravity granular?  Are there force carrier particles called “ Gravitons”?
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-  #1751  -  Einstein’s Theory of Gravity.  A spinning massive body pulls space-time along with it like a spoon stirring honey.  The spinning system can radiate gravity waves.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about “space“:
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-  #1861  -  Today the curvature of space tells us that 96% of the Universe is composed of unknown Dark Matter and Dark Energy.
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-  #1861  -  Footnotes list 5 more reviews about space.
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-  #1831  The space between galaxies contains only a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.
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-  #1790  -  Space bends and time slows.
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-  #1407 -   Space is anything but empty.
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-  #1241  -  How can space and time even be related?  Space is what gives objects and events relative position and direction.  Space is part of a boundless 4 dimensional continuum of space-time
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-  #1241 -  Footnotes lists 14 other reviews about “ space-time”. 
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about “time“:
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-  #1774  -  Time, we can’t live without it.  Quantum uncertainties state the future is not determined until it happens.
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-  #1758  -  Time is a mystery.  The events in our lives undeniable for a uni-directional sequence.
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-  #1735  -  We are running out of time.  Optical clocks are so good we can see the effects of relativity slowing down time in the lab.
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-  #1735  -  Footnotes lists 16 other reviews about “ time”.  Are we really expanding into space or are we falling into something else?  Time is a measure of change and if nothing changes time is done.  Can time even exist without space?
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-  #842  Let’s say the Big Bang happened on January 1st and we compressed known history into the same year.  This review is the history of the Universe.
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-  #743  -  Time is what God created to keep everything from happening all at once.
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-  #1808  -  The Universal Calendar from 10^-43 seconds to 15 billion years in 5 pages.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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Think about it, what time is ?

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---------------------------  2012  -  Think about it, what time is ?
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-  7:32 A.M.
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-  No, not what time is it, What time is?
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-  Does time fly…………… or is it even moving?  Or, are we simply moving through it?  What is the it?
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-  Is time a structure in the Universe that has one dimension , flows in one direction , and unfolds sequentially to separate events?  Is time what keeps everything from happening all at once?
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-  Or, is time not actually an entity.  It is not like the entity space where we actually travel through it.
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-  By 1915 Einstein had showed the world that time is not the “constant” that everyone thought it was.  Time flows at different rates in different places in order to keep the speed of light constant.  Clocks just do not click the same everywhere.
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-  The speed of light, the gravitational constant , the mass of an electron are fundamentally “constants”.  Time is not constant.  Time changes with gravity and with rapid motion.
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-  We do not notice time is slowing down at our speeds because we are not traveling fast enough.  Once your speed is 87% the speed of light time is slowing to half its normal rate.  87% is still 583,450,000 miles per hour.  Orbital speeds are in the 17,000 to 25,000 miles per hour range.  Can they even notice time slowing down?
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-  The Global Positioning System, GPS, uses satellites orbiting Earth to beam down signals that calculate distances to triangulate and determine any position on the planet.  The satellites are traveling at high enough speeds that the calculations have to add time to account for the slower clocks in the satellites.  Higher speeds slower time.
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-  Then, because the satellites are in a weaker gravitational field in orbit we need to subtract some time because weaker gravity accelerates the clocks.  Lower gravity faster time.
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-  Then, there is the gravity differences for the different altitudes on the surface of the Earth.  Every location is a different distance from the center of the Earth.  A closer location to the center experiences slower clocks.
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-  Then, Earth is rotating at 1,040 miles per hour.  Different latitudes experience different rotational speeds.  Faster speeds slow down the clocks.
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-  Then,  the satellites have slightly elliptical orbits putting them at different distances from the center at different times in their orbits.
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-  All of these factors affect the flow of time.  Software in the calculation of distances must take each factor into account.  GPS triangulations to locate accurate positions on the surface of Earth must add and subtract the precise measurement data on location and speed.  If the factors are not included the positioning accuracy is within several miles.  With the calculations including the relativity factors the accuracy is within a few feet.
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-  Here are some other Reviews about time, available upon request:
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-  #1621  Time to Think.  -  Your brain has to do the same calculations to adjust positions with time, especially astronomer’s brains.  Everything seen through the telescope is younger as you see that it is at the time you see it.  It takes time for light to reach us,  especially at astronomical distances.  Light from the Sun is 8 minutes old, and that is the closest star.
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-  The next closest star is 4 ½ years younger as we see it.  It takes 4 ½ years for the light to reach us.
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-  #1341  Optical Lattice Clock.
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-  #1189  The Beginning of Time  -  If you could run the clocks backward 13,700,000,000 years you would reach the beginning of time.  Thought to be the creation of time and space.
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-  The end of time would be the end of endings.
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-  The boundaries of time seem to be the boundaries of our reasoning as well
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-  #1006  Is Time slowing Down?
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-  #910 Time to Think, again
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-  No two times are the same if they are separated in space.  Would time even still exist if there were no space?
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-  Does time have something to do with “ entropy”.  Entropy is the physic’s name for disorder, randomness.  Physic’s law states the entropy in the Universe is always increasing.  The Universe constantly marches toward an equilibrium state where everything is randomly the same.    We are always approaching that state of randomness.  It takes energy to reverse it and we are always dissipating energy.  The death of the Cosmos is the cold, random, equilibrium of our future.
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-  Randomness is the lowest energy state.  Nature is always seeking it.  we could say that time is a measure of “ change”.  And, if nothing changes , time is done.
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-  #854  Time, GPS, and Entropy
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-  #842  Pressed for Time
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-  #830  A 24 hour Day  -  Time -  How do you go from GPS time to Universal Time, just add 19 seconds.  Why?
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-  #814  Fast Speed and Short Time  -  The smallest fraction of time is 10^-43 seconds. That is how long it takes light to travel the smallest possible distance, 10^-35 meters.  If a distance got any smaller it would become a mini-blackhole (  See #724 and #734)
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-  #783  Time is what God created  - to prevent everything from happening all at once.
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-  #747  Why 60 minutes.
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-  #356  -  Time is Getting Short  -  Zeptosecond pulses ( 10^-21) are used to study nuclear events in side an atom.  We are not there yet with our technology.  Attoseconds ( 10^-18) is used to study electrons orbiting the nucleus in atoms.  Femtoseconds (10^-15) measures chemical reactions and the interactions of molecules.
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- #354  Jim’s Universal Calendar.  History from 10^-43 seconds to today summarized in 19 pages.
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-  #37  Deriving Time Dilation from the Pythagorean Theorem.  Sorry, that is all the time I have.  Bye for now, but, stay tuned there is more to learn.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 11, 2018  -----
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Math is food for the brain

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-  2012  - Math is food for the brain  .  This Review teaches you how to calculate gambling odds.  How to multiple squares and 2 numbers with short cuts. Delaney’s birthday is April 7, how old is she? 
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TO LEARN MORE, CLICK ON ADDRESS BELOW:  FEEDBACK ENCOURAGED
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---------------------  -  2012  - Math is food for the brain   
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-  After that here are some of the secrets of how he performs his magic.  I took one of his math courses by correspondence.  Math is food for the brain.  It helps you think precisely, decisively, and creatively.  And, it helps you look at the world from multiple perspectives.
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-  A teacher wants to take a break so she asks the class to add up all the numbers to 100.  Before she can get to her desk a student says 5,050.
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-  How did you know that answer?”   The other students had barely reached a sum of 14.
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-  Well numbers 1 to 100 come in pairs, 1 + 100  =  101,  2 + 99 =  101, 3 + 98  =  101, …..  50 + 51  =  101.  Do that 50 times and you get 50* 101  =  5,050.
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- …………..   ( actually the general formula is n( n+1) / 2  =  100 ( 101)  / 2  =  5,050)
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-  A little frustrated the teacher comes up with a new lesson plan.  Show me how the sum of cubes of a series of numbers is always equal to the square of the sum of those numbers:
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-------------------  Any series, but, let’s use 1,2,3
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-----------------  1^3  + 2^3  +  3^3  =  1  +  8  +  27  =  36
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----------------   ( 1+2+3)^2  =  6^2  =   36
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-  How does this always work for every series of positive numbers?
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-  Silence!
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-  Let’s say you walk into a casino with $60 and you say you will leave with $100 or go bust.  What are your odds with 50-50 fair play?  Well, the math is at the end of this review, but, it is easy with 50% odds, it’s 60 / 100 or 60%. 
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-  Casinos do not make money with 50% odds.
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-  At the craps table the odds are 49.3% .  Your chance of winning $100 is 28%.
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-  At the roulette table with odds of 47.3% your chance of winning $100 is 1.3%.
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-  If you are an expert at Blackjack and know when to hold them and when to fold them your odds could reach 51%.  In that case your chances of walking out with $100 are 93%.  If you must gamble learn to play Blackjack. 
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-  If you must gamble learn to do the math.  The formula is at the end of this review:
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-  If you square a number that ends in 5 you can do it in your head.  The answer ends in 25, always.  The first digits of the answer are the first digit of the original number times the next higher digit. 
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--------------------  35^2  =  3*4 = 12 ,     Answer =  1225
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--------------------- 55^2  =  5*6  = 30   Answer  =  3025
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------------------  65^2   =  6*7  =  42    Answer  =  4225    Remember this one we will use it later.
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-  Now let’s do the math for draw poker.  The rule is the number of ways to pick “k” objects from “n” objects when the order is not important :  Here is the formula:
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-------------------  n!  /  k! ( n - k )!
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----------------- “factorial” ,  “!”  is the series of multiplications  5!  =  5*4*3*2*1  = 120
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-  How many 5 card poker hands are possible in a 52 card deck?
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------------------  n!  /  k! ( n - k )!  =  52!  /  5!  ( 47!)  =  52*51*50*49*48  /  120
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-  The 47! cancel out  and the answer is 311,875,200  /  120   =  2,598,960
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-  There are over 2 ½ million poker hand combinations you can draw from a 52 card deck, where order is not important.
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-  What are your chances of drawing a” flush”?
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-  There are  4 suits of 13 cards in 52 cards.  So, there are 4 chances of getting 5, “ k”,  same suits out of 13 , “n”, cards.
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---------   4  *   n!  /  k! ( n - k )!  =  4 * 13! / 5! * 8!  =  4 * 13*12*11*10*9 / 5 *4*3*2*1!   =    617,760 / 120  =  5,148
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-  So, there are 5,148 chances for a flush out of 2,598,960 possible hands.  That is  0.2 % chance of getting a flush:
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---------  5,128  / 2,598,960  =  0.00198   That is 0.2 %
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-  What are the chances of drawing an ace?  Since there are 4 aces.  You could draw 1 ace, 2 aces, 3 aces, or 4 aces in 5 cards.  To make this problem easier, do the opposite.  What is the possibility of not drawing an ace, there are 48 of those chances.
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-------------------  n!  /  k! ( n-k )!  =  48!  / 5! * 43!  =  1,712,304
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-------------------- 2,598,960  -  1,712,304  =  886,656  which is 34%
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-   You have a 34% chance of drawing an ace in a poker hand when it comes out of 52 cards.
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-  Think of any number, double it, add 10, then divide by 2.  Now subtract your any original number.  What is the answer?  ………………………  5.
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-----------------  It is always 5.  why?
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----------------  2*n + 10  / 2  =  n + 5
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----------------  n + 5 - n  =  5
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-  On April 7, 2014 Delaney will be twice as old as James.  Two years ago Delaney was 3 times as old as James.  How old will Delaney be on her birthday in 2014?
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---------------------  Delaney  =  2 * James
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--------------------  Delaney - 2  =  3 ( James - 2 )
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--------------------  2 * James -2  =  3 James - 6
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---------------------  James  =  4
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-----------------  Delaney  = 2* James  = 8
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- Delaney will be 8 years old on April 7, 2014.
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-  Remember when we squared a number ending in 5:
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----------------  65^2  =  6*7  +  25  =  4, 225
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--------------  Where does this come from?
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---------------  (x + y) * (x - y)  =  x^2 - y^2
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-  This is a special case since the products “+ xy” and “- xy” cancel.   Normally, expanding this multiplication gives you x^2 +xy - xy + y^2.   And, 5 is half way between 0 and 10, so the y^2 is always 25.  See explanation at the end of this Review.
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-  What is the square of 13?
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-  Well think of it as ( 13 + 3 ) * (13- 3)  + 3^2   =  160  + 9  = 169
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----------------  This one works because x^2  =  x^2 - y^2  +  y^2
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---------------  But we have already shown that x^2 - y^2  =  (x + y) * (x - y)
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----------------  x^2  =  (x + y) * (x - y)  +  y^2
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---------------  13^2  =  (13 + 3) * (13 - 3)  +  3^2  =  16 * 10 + 9  =  169
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-  What is the square of 99?
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---------------  99^2  =  (  99 +1) * ( 99 - 1 ) + 1^2  =  100 * 98 + 1  =  9,801
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-  It is not always easy to have a “+y”  and a “-y” in your equation to arrive at easy numbers you can multiply in your head.  So, you can make it more general with the formula:  Try this several times, you need practice to do magic for your friends.:
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----------------  ( z + a ) * ( z + b )  =  z^2  +  za  +  zb  +  ab  =  z ( z + a + b )  +  ab
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-  To see how this works multiply 106 * 109:
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-----------------  ( z + a ) * ( z + b )  =  z ( z + a + b )  +  ab
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----------------  ( 100 + 6 ) * ( 100 + 9 )  =  100 ( 115 )  +  54  = 11,500  +  54  =  11,544

----------------------------  multiply 107 * 111:
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----------------  ( 100 + 7 ) * ( 100 + 11 )  =  100 ( 118 )  +  77  = 11,800  +  77  =  11,877
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----------------------------  multiply 97 * 106:
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----------------  ( 100 -3 ) * ( 100 + 6 )  =  100 ( 103 )  - 18  = 10,300  -18  =  10,282
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----------------------------  multiply 14 * 17:
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----------------  ( 10 + 4 ) * ( 10 + 7 )  =  10 ( 21 )  + 28  = 210  +  28  =  238
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----------------------------  multiply 62 * 68:
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----------------  ( 60 + 2 ) * ( 60 + 8 )  =  60 ( 70 )  + 16  = 4200  +  16  =  4,216
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----------------------------Remember  65^2  =  65 * 65:
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----------------  ( 60 + 5 ) * ( 60 + 5 )  =  60 ( 70 )  + 25  =   4,225
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-  Here is the probability for the gambling:
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--------------------------  “p”  =  probability with each bet that you win
-------------------------- “ (1-p)”  =    probability with each bet that you loose.
-------------------------  “d”  =  dollars that you start with, $60.
-------------------------  “n”  =  goal you reach to quit, $100
-----------------------  Your probability of reaching your goal:
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----------------------    1  -  (( 1-p) / p) ^d       /     1  -  (( 1-p) / p) ^n     
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----------------------    1  -  (( 0.49) / 0.51) ^60      /     1  -  (( 0.49) / 0.51) ^100 
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----------------------    1  -  (0.961) ^60      /     1  -  (0.961) ^100
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----------------------    1  -  0.091      /     1  -  0.187
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----------------------      0.909    /     0.981      =  93%   
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-  If you can play expert Blackjack with 51% chance of winning you have a 93% chance of using $60 to make $100.  Good Luck!
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-  Pick any  4-digit number.  Scramble those numbers into a different number. Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.  Add up the digits of that number, if necessary add the next set of digits, eventually you will end up with the number 9.  Trust me.
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-  Other Reviews available upon request:
-  1650  Power of combinations
-  1638  Rent or buy
-  1565  Speed of satellites
-  1521  Calculating interest
-  1467  Calculating growth and decay
-  1329  Exponential curve
-  1459  Modular math
-  1344  Rocket launch
-  1284  String theory
-  1281  Many more math examples.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Sunday, January 28, 2018  -----
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Particle Physics in a nutshell

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-  2011  -   -  This review is mostly about “particle physics” in a nutshell.  It starts out with the periodic table of about 100 elements.  That is not many elements when you think it represents everything that is around us and also everything in all the other stars and planets.  What are the elements that make up these elements?
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TO LEARN MORE, CLICK ON ADDRESS BELOW:  FEEDBACK ENCOURAGED
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-------------------------------------  2011  - Physics in a Nutshell.
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-  This review is mostly about “particle physics” in a nutshell.  It starts out with the periodic table of about 100 elements.  That is not many elements when you think it represents everything that is around us and also everything in all the other stars and planets.  The 100 elements along with the electromagnetic force and gravity force is most of what we experience in our macro world.
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-  The macro world is the world of chemistry.  The elements start with the hydrogen atom which has a single proton and a single electron and work their way up to uranium with 92 protons and 92 electrons.  Fusion is the process used to combine atoms together to build elements up from hydrogen to uranium.  Fission is the process where elements break down and are reduced down from uranium to hydrogen working through the 90 elements in between.
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-  Particle physics is about particles that are inside the atoms that make up the elements.  This takes us from the macro world to the micro world.  Here are the relative sizes of the particles we are talking about starting with the atom.  A solid about the size of a marble contains 600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. (Avagado’s Number for a Mole):
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----------------------  atom  --------------  10^-10 meters
----------------------  nucleus  -----------  10^-14 meters
----------------------  proton  ------------  10^-15 meters
----------------------  electron -----------  10^-18 meters
----------------------  quark --------------  10^-19 meters
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The quark, the fundamental particle inside the protons and neutrons in the nucleus is 1 billion times smaller than the atom.  To illustrate the relative size in dimensions we know say the quark is the size of a marble, then:
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----------------------  atom  --------------  distance of a 10 kilometer race, 6.2 miles.
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----------------------  nucleus  -----------  football stadium and parking lot
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----------------------  proton  ------------  football field
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----------------------  electron -----------  soccer ball
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----------------------  quark --------------  marble
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-  All atoms except hydrogen have neutrons as well as protons.  The number of protons determines the element and the number of neutrons determines the isotopes of each element.  Free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 885.7 seconds, about 15 minutes.  A neutron weighs 1.6749*10^-27 kilograms.  Inside the nucleus the neutrons are stable and held together by the strong and weak nuclear forces.  When a neutron decays it turns into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.
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-  A proton and an electron can combine, (fuse) and form a neutron.  A neutron can break apart (fission) and turn into a proton and an electron.  Each process of fusion or fission must follow the laws of Conservation and the laws of Thermodynamics.  Each process has some inefficiencies, entropy always increases, and other particles are involved to make the process more complicated and to maintain the laws of Conservation.
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-   A good example is the fusion that occurs in the thermonuclear reactions in the core of the Sun.  When 4 hydrogen nuclei (4 protons) fuse into 2 helium nuclei (2 protons and 2 neutrons each) a small amount of mass is left over.   The extra mass converts into energy in the form of gamma rays that radiate away from the core to heat up the Sun.  The radiating gamma rays are absorbed and reflected by other particles and this electromagnetic energy is transformed into kinetic energy of the particles, which we call heat.  The kinetic energy of particles is thermal energy, or heat that we measure as temperature.  Temperature is actually the average velocity of moving particles.
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-    Temperature is the average kinetic energy of billions of vibrating or moving particles.  In the case of the average temperature of a room, it is the average kinetic energy of air molecules.  The average room temperature is about 30C or 300 Kelvin.  At that temperature the average velocity of the air molecules is the velocity of the speed of sound or about 700 miles per hour.  If the temperature goes up the average velocity of the atoms increases.  If the temperature goes down the average velocity of the atoms decreases.  If the temperature goes down to zero Kelvin, absolute zero, the atoms almost stop moving.  Only quantum vibrations exit when the temperature is absolute zero (-273 C)
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-  Going the other direction when temperatures get hot enough then more processes of fusion and fission can occur.  Some of the fission processes can occur at room temperature.  Radioactivity is the fission process that occurs naturally in elements that have excess neutrons in the nucleus.
-
-  Cosmic Rays and Particle Accelerators accelerate particles into collisions that create extreme temperatures spraying  fission particles in an exploding shower.  There are hundreds of strange particles created in combination with the 100 elements and the 24 fundamental particles.  12 are the fundamental particles of ordinary matter and 12 are antiparticles.  The antiparticles are rare and short lived but they are exactly the counterpart of the particles except they have the opposite charge. 
-
-  All of these 24 particles and antiparticles have mass, although we do not know what causes a particle to have mass in the first place.  If a particle does not have mass it can not stand still, it can only travel at 186,000 miles per second.  The Photon is massless and it must always travel at light speed.
-
-  The 24 particles and antiparticles that have mass are called fermions and they all have ½ spins.  The massless particles like the photon are called bosons and they all have integral spins. (1,2,)  Let’s first talk about the fermions and we only need 12 because the antiparticles are exactly the same except with the opposite charge.  The 12 fermions come in 3 generations of four particles.  Each generation is a phase transition to higher energy particles.  Think of the phase transitions from solid , to liquid, to gas.  Think of ice, to water, to water vapor.
-
--------  1st generation ---------  up quark -------  down quark ---- electron ----- neutrino
-
--------  2nd generation ------  charm quark ----  strange quark ----muon ----- muon neutrino
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--------  3rd  generation -------  top quark ------  bottom quark ----- tau ------- tau neutrino
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-  For example:  the muon can be viewed as a phase transition to a heavier electron.  Remember mass and energy are the same thing according to E = mc^2.  So a muon is a high energy electron.  And, a tau is higher energy still.  Here are their energy levels in electron volts /c^2.
-
--------  1st generation -------   electron ----- 511,000 eV
-
--------  2nd generation ---------muon ------- 106,000,000 eV
-
--------  3rd  generation ---------- tau -------- 1,777,100,000 eV
-
(Charge -1 and spin ½, 3/2, 5/2, etc)
-
-  Physicists express mass in electron volts, but it is really electron volts / c^2.  They just ignore the c^2 for convenience.  These same particle masses can also be expressed in kilograms, but, like I say,  physicists don’t use these units in particle physics:
-
--------  1st generation -------   electron ----- 9.11 * 10^-31 kilograms
-
--------  2nd generation ---------muon -------  1.9 * 10^-30 kilo grams
-
--------  3rd  generation ---------- tau --------  3.2 * 10^-27 kilograms
-
-  The charm quark is simply a higher energy up quark.  And, a top quark higher still:
-
--------  1st generation -------   up quark ----- 300,000 eV
-
--------  2nd generation ---------charm quark------- 1,300,000,000 eV
-
--------  3rd  generation ---------- top quark------- 175,000,000,000 eV
-
(Charge +2/3, spin ½, 3/2, 5/2,etc)
-
-  I mentioned that radioactivity is a natural, room temperature, fission process that occurs in elements that have an excess of neutrons in the nucleus.  This is called Beta Decay when a neutron spontaneously decays into a proton, plus an electron, plus an anti-neutrino.
-
-  What happened inside the neutron was a down quark decayed into an up quark.  A neutron is composed of one up quark (+2/3) and two down quarks (-1/3).  Up quarks have +2/3 charge and down quarks have a -1/3 charge so the three quarks together have a neutral charge.  When a neutron’s down quark decays into a up quark the three quarks together  become a proton with two up quarks ( +2/3 +2/3) and one down quark(-1/3)  = +3/3  =   +1 charge for the proton.
-
-  Now, back to the massless particles called bosons that always travel at the speed of light.  These are the force carrier particles for the four fundamental forces.  The electromagnetic force and the gravity force carry over large distances but their strength decreases by the square of the distance.  The weak and strong nuclear forces work over very small distances limited to inside the nucleus.  So, to compare them we measure the strength at 3*10^-7 meters.  (These are all bosons and have an integral spin of 1,2,3, etc. times  6.6*10^-16 eV*sec /wavelength)
-
--------------  gravity force  ----------  graviton ----  10^-41  -------------  0 mass
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--------------  weak force  -------  W boson ---------  10^-4  --------  80,000,000,000 eV
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--------------  electromagnetic force  --  photon ------  1  ---------------  0 mass
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--------------  strong force  -----------  gluon ---------  60  ---------------  0 mass
-
-  Why do the +,- W bosons and the Z boson have such enormous mass?    Because of this enormous mass the particles can only act over a very short distance for the weak force. The weak force is the one responsible for Beta Decay or as we learned for the down quark decaying into the up quark when the neutron becomes a proton.  The rest of these bosons are massless and travel at the speed of light.
-
-  The photon is the most familiar of the massless particles.  It carries the electromagnetic energy for all wavelengths.  The amount of energy = 6.7*10^-34 times the frequency.   For visible light a single photon is around 4*10^-19 joules of energy, or about 2.5 eV.   Photons are emitted whenever an electric charge is accelerated.  A photon is emitted when an electron is dropped to a lower energy level inside the atom.  A photon is emitted when a particle and antiparticle annihilate each other.  A photon is absorbed in the opposite reactions to each of the processes above.
-
-  The photon carries spin and angular momentum and it can have two possible polarizations, Left-handed and Right-handed spin.  Photons do not experience time because they are traveling at the speed of light.  Left and Right-handedness is unique to particles that have no mass.
-
-  That is it in a nutshell.   Please let me known if there are any mistakes in this nutshell.  It is hard to simplify complex stuff.  These are the pearls as best I can condense them down into such a small space.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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Quantum Mechanics and Gravity with entanglement

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-------------------------  2010  -  Quantum Mechanics and Gravity. 
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-

-
-  Quantum Mechanics and Gravity approach the same physics from two different directions.  Gravity has the math of General Relativity.  Quantum Mechanics has the math that works with atoms and the smallest particles.  Neither math works successfully in the other’s territory.
-
-  That is the challenge for physics today, two current approaches to unify quantum theory and gravity involve new math found in String Theory, and Loop Quantum Gravity.
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-  String Theory has the premise that the smallest particles are “ strings” that may be closed loops onto themselves or have loose ends.  These strings can vibrate, stretch, join or split.  Various combinations form “manifolds” that are the matter and space-time that
we observe.
-
-  Loop Quantum Gravity involves the quantum properties of space-time.  In this theory space-time is a network with nodes and links of which quantum properties are assigned.
Space becomes discrete chunks.
-
-  String Theory requires space-time to have not 4 dimensions but 10 dimensions.  This Theory implies the existence of “ Supersymmetry”.  The 12 particles in the Standard Model of Quarks and Leptons have 12 higher energy counterparts for a total of 24 fundamental particles.  Add anti-particles and the total is 48.  None of the “super particles” have been discovered to date.
-
-  The two groups of theorists attend separate conferences.  Recent guests have tried to bring them together in search of the “ Theory of Everything”.  What both theories lack is experimental evidence to move forward.  Ideas in separate directions are going nowhere.
-
-  The General Theory of Relativity requires an objects length to contract depending on how fast the observer is moving relative to it.  Also, time slows down with the faster relative motion.  But, the laws of physics should be the same regardless of relative velocities.
-
-  Loop Quantum Gravity defines the behavior of space-time at the Planck scale ( 10^-43 meters).  As we zoom out to higher scales space-time smoothes out to a continuous geometry.
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-  The two theories are approaching the challenge explaining the behavior of Blackholes.  One theory creates a “ firewall” at the Event Horizon.  The other maintains that an observer has no way to tell if he had crossed the Horizon.
-
-  Is all Quantum information lost once it crosses the Horizon?
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-  Can the theory explain “particle entanglement”.?
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-  Do Blackholes eventually evaporate separating matter and anti-matter?
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-  Can Wormholes explain Blackhole behavior?
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-  Some maintain that Loop Quantum Gravity is a “ method” not a ‘theory”.  It is a new way to think of Quantum Mechanics and geometry.
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-  Some think that both theories are nice ideas but Nature is not like that.  “ God does not play dice.”
-
-  What most all are in agreement on is that theories to bring the Quantum world and the Cosmos world of Relativity together are “incomplete.”
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-  More evidence of incompleteness comes from “ entanglement”  All atomic particles appear to have this property.  But, it is best explained with 2 electrons.  The lowest energy level of all atoms contains 2 electrons ( except hydrogen that has only one electron ).  The “ Exclusion Principle” requires that the electrons not be in the same  “ state”.  One has spin-up , the other has spin-down.  If one switches up to down the other switches down to up, instantaneously.  They are “entangled“.
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-  They remain entangled regardless of the distance of separation after leaving the atom.  Even if one is sent to the Moon.  Flipping one spin, flips the other instantaneously.  Communications that must happen faster than the speed of light.  Entanglement remains to be disproven or explained.  Somehow the 2 electrons behave as one.
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-  It is a property of the Quantum world.  Take a measurement of one, it correlates with a measurement of the other with no time for communications between them.
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-  One explanation is that particle properties only come in to existence when we observe them.  It has something to do with the structure of the Universe.  If we see a yellow pencil we assume it was yellow even before we observed it. 
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-  Make two assumptions:  One is that particles have real properties (spin, color).  The other is that nothing travels faster than light.  One of these assumptions has to be wrong.
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-  Could higher dimensions, more that 3 of space and 1 of time, be part of the explanation?
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-  Or, do particles not have a property until we measure them.  Seeing them is a form of measurement.  Then both entangled particles have the property at the same time?  Reality does not exist until we see it?
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-  Whatever you are about to measure is not predictable.  We invest in free choice and we get randomness in return.  This last property will become important for cryptography and data security in our future.  Here’s a how:
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-  Entangled particles can be polarized, spin up or spin down, like a 1 or a 0.  But, the properties are not there before we measure them.  No one can see them because for a certain time the information does not exist.
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-  For encryption you have certain random bits that 2 parties know but no one else can know.  By sharing a random bit that no one else knows only the intended receiver can decrypt it.
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-  The sender and receiver are entangled.  The sender’s message will send a 1 and the receiver will receive a 0 so for the receiver decryption is easy.  But, anyone else intercepting the message gets random bits of 1’s and 0’s with no correlation to either the sender  or the receiver.  Perfect Security! 
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-  It becomes a type of teleportation.  The message disappears on the sender side and at the same time reappears on the receiver’s side faster than the speed of light, regardless of the distance of separation, or the speed of their relative motion.  The sender-receiver are in effect in the same Reference Frame and are taking the measurement at the same time.
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-  Using Quantum Cryptography you can constantly produce new secret keys.  This becomes critical when Quantum Computers exist in our future.  These computers decrypt any message that pubic key systems use to communicate, banks, stores will not be able to provide security with keys, unless they are Quantum Entangled keys.
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-  Classical computers go through every possibility and check all possible keys.  Quantum computers do all the steps at once and can break any security key in seconds.
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-  We can entangle electrons, photos and atoms today.  Does it stop there or can any matter be entangled?
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-  We have to rethink the laws of physics.
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-  The large and the small of physics operate in two different worlds and we do not know yet how to connect the two.
-
-  What happens if humans get entangled????????
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-  If everything is Quantum we are all entangled to one another.  Or, do Quantum properties disappear when things get larger.  How and why could this happen.  Size matters.
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-  God only knows,  stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-  #1801  -  Entanglement, space-time, and Wormholes.  Quantum Mechanics premise is that empty space is not truly empty.  It is full of virtual particles. 
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-  #1231  -  Every observer in the Universe sees something happening simultaneously as happening at different times in space-time.
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-  #1229  -  Everything in the Universe entangled in property pairs.
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-  #1039  -  Somehow 2 masses appear to communicate with each other to create the force of gravity.
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-  #659 -  The Quest for Reality
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-  #539 -   The Birth of Quantum Mechanics.
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-  #67 -   Welcome to the Quantum World.
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-  #51  The waves of matter.  The wavelength of an electron is 6.625 * 10^-10 meters.  The radius of the Universe is 0.5 * 10^26 meters.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 11, 2018  -----
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Physics wants a theory for everything

--------------------------    2009  -  Physics wants a theory for everything
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-
-  Physicists have long sought after the “ Theory of Everything”.  Today we have the General Theory of Relativity that provides the physics and math for big things: the Cosmos, light speed, the bending of space-time, gravity,…..  We have another Theory of Quantum Mechanics.  It works for all the small things:  particle physics, the Uncertainty Principle, atoms, the Periodic Table of Elements, …
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-  These two theories can not trade places.  Neither theory works in the other’s realm.
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-  Physicists would like to discover one set of fundamental laws that explain both aspects of our perceived reality.  Most believe that there is an “objective reality” out there.  An external world that has definite characteristics independent of the observer who perceives them.  Actually, there is no way to remove the observer from our perceptions of the world.
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-  Since the 1800’s the physics of Isaac Newton accurately describes our everyday natural world.  Most all of it is in harmony with our commonsense.  The math works.
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-  However, when science obtained the resolution of our world in the 1900’s we got to the level of atoms and electrons.  Newton’s theories no longer applied in explaining observations.  Definite positions and definite velocities for particles could not be calculated.  Our own observations altered events.  Quantum Physics stated that the past, present, and future only in terms of a spectrum of possibilities.
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-  We form scientific laws because they agree with our observations.  Back in Ptolemy’s day the laws worked with having the Earth as the center of the Solar System.  Although the math was complicated.  It all worked until Copernicus was able to define elliptical orbits for the planets with the Sun at the center of the Solar System.  The math got simpler.  We adopted a new frame of reference with the Sun at the center.
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-  Our brains can only interpret 2-dimensional data on our retina’s imaging 3-dimensional space.  In our quest to discover more our brains are struggling today with 11-dimensions of space time.  Today’s approach to discover a “ Theory of Everything” has invented “String Theory”.  The attempt is to bring the force of gravity into the domain of quantum physics.
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-  One unusual  problem occurred when physicists invented 5 different string theories.  Which was right?  In 1990’s they began to see that each theory was working only under a certain range of conditions.  They invented “ M-Theory” to allow 5 different approximations to exist inside a more fundamental theory.  M-Theory is more a network of theories, like a map.
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-  Whenever we develop a model that is successful in matching our observations we tend to attribute the model to represent “ reality”.
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-  Isaac Newton changed reality when he postulated that motion does not depend on mass.  Gravity will force everything to fall to the surface of a flat Earth at the same acceleration.  The acceleration of gravity, “g”,  is always 10 meters per second per second.  Everything falls together -  free fall can not be detected.  Under uniform motion there is no acceleration.
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----------------  Force  =  mass  *  acceleration
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-------------------  F  = m*a
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-  If gravity is the accelerator:  F  =  m*g
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-  Newton took the law of the Force of Gravity being a proportionality to the product of the masses and inversely to the square of the distance between them to an equality by adding a Gravitational Constant, “G”.
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--------------------  Force  =  m * M  * G  /  r^2
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--------------------  G  =  6.7 10*-11 meters^3 per ( kilograms* seconds^2)
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-  Einstein’s Theories changed the force of gravity to the bending of space-time.  He further concluded that a particle that is massless has to move at the speed of light, through space at 671,000,000 miles per hour.  For everything moving at the speed of light time stops.  Space shrinks.
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-  We now think that the energy of empty space-time is 3 times greater than the energy of matter-gravity.  As the Universe expands matter gets diluted.  Today there is 10^-29 grams per cubic centimeter, about 1 proton per cubic foot of space.  We think that the energy that is expanding the Universe, Dark Energy, is 73% of the total mass-energy out there.
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-  String Theory has 6 extra dimensions of space that are curled up and only 10^-33 centimeters in length.  You see the struggle continues.  We have the Universe expanding at an ever accelerating rate at one end.  At the other end we have curled up strings 10^-33 centimeters long.  Both ends are trying to explain our observed reality.  The more we observe the more interesting it gets. 
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 11, 2018  -----
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The Universe Almost Didn’t Happen

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---------------------------  2008  -The Universe Almost Didn’t Happen
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-

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-  By the Universe I mean the “reality” we observe and that we are a part of.  We believe that this “reality” is the same everywhere.  Physics is the same everywhere.  Physics is even the same backwards in time.  The Universe is expanding today, so, running backwards in time it must have been denser and hotter than it is today.
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-  Gravity is constantly trying to pull all the matter back to a Singularity.  However, as the Universe continues to expand the pull of gravity is weaker and weaker.  It all depends on the relative density of matter in the Universe.  A lot of matter will stop the expansion and cause it to contract.  Too little matter and the expansion will continue forever.  There is a balancing point were the density of matter is just  “critical” to slow the expansion to a stop at an infinite point in time.  This is called the “ Critical Density”.
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-  Mass and Energy are the same thing according to E=mc^2. ( Energy  =  mass times a constant,  9*10^8 )  So, we really mean the mass-energy density of the Universe.  If the pull of gravity and the push of expansion are exactly in balance at the Critical Density, then this is an unstable condition.  It is like balancing a pencil upright on its point.  The slightest force in any direction will cause the pencil to fall in that direction.  If the Universe is exactly in balance then the slightest perturbation will cause it to either contract or expand again.
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-  If the mass-energy density is greater than Critical it will stop expanding and begin contracting until the density becomes infinite at a single point ( a Singularity).  If the mass-energy density is less than Critical then the Universe will continue expanding causing density to become less and less and colder and colder into the Deep Freeze.  All the measurements astronomers are able to make confirm that the actual mass-energy density almost exactly Critical.
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-  Astronomer’s calculations make the density so close to Critical that if you added or subtracted 10% of the mass of a dime to the total mass of the Universe conditions would change to make the Universe physically impossible for life.  This is called the Universe’s Fine- Tuning Problem.  If you run the calculations backwards in time to one second after the Big Bang the density would be extremely high.  If you continue calculating back to a billionth or a second, one nanosecond, after the Big Bang you get the density of:

-------------  447,225,917,218,507,401,284,016 grams per cubic centimeter
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-  Adding just 0.2 grams per cubic centimeter to this number and the Universe collapses into a Big Crunch by now, 13.7 billion years after the Big Bang.  If you take away only 0.2 grams per cubic centimeter the matter density would be so low by now we could not even detect it.  The Fine-Tuning Problem.  If any of the constants in physics were slightly different life could not exist.
-
-  When the Universe is at Critical Density astronomers say the geometry of the Universe is “flat”. The measurements to date tell us the Universe appears to be flat to one part in 10^60.  This is a very small number: 0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001
-
-  But, the Universe could not be exactly flat because that would be an unstable condition.  It is so close to Critical Density, but not exactly Critical Density.  The Fine-Tuning Problem!!!
-
-  Only a flat geometry Universe meets two essential requirements for life.  First, a flat Universe survives long enough for generations of stars to form.  The elements in the periodic table are formed in supernovae explosions.  These elements in chemistry and biology are essential for life to form.  Secondly, a flat Universe expands slowly enough for matter to clump into stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids.  But, not so slowly that only Blackholes and Neutron Stars are formed.
-
-  Because the Universe is flat to one part in 10^60, astronomers must conclude that the matter we see is only 4% of the mass-energy of the Universe.  23% must be Dark Matter and 73% must be Dark Energy.   We do not know what 96% of the Universe is but it must the there because we are here.
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(1)  One explanation for the flat Universe is the “Theory of Inflation”. Between 10^-34 and 10^-32 seconds after the Big Bang, when the force of gravity split off from the other three forces, the Universe expanded be a factor of 10^50,  expanding from 10^-50 meters to 1 meter in size.  This faster than the speed of light expansion explains why the Observerable Universe is homogenous and isotropic.  It also explains why it appears flat.  Just like the Earth appears flat in the part we observe from 2 meters off the ground. The more we see the more we learn.  The more we learn the more complex our possible existence becomes.  Our brains are trying hard to understand ourselves.  I will end on that note.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 11, 2018  -----
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Space - Much Todo About Nothing

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--------------------------------  2007   Much Todo About Nothing
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-  There is much more Nothing in this world then there is Something.  By the world I mean the Universe.  It is 74% “empty space“.  However, science is now studying empty space and calling it Dark Energy because it appears empty space , or Nothing, still contains repulsive energy, or anti-gravity.
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-  If you call what you can not see Nothing then another 22% of the Universe is Nothing called Dark Matter which we cannot see.  Only 4% is left that we can see and we call it matter.  But even matter which is something is made of atoms and 99% of atoms is empty space as well.  We think matter is solid but it really isn’t.  It is really very small sub-atomic particles held together by electromagnetic and nuclear forces.  It is the electromagnetic forces in the floor and in your feet that are holding you up, not the particles in the floor or in your feet.  “Nothing” is keeping you from falling to the center of the Earth.
-
-  The Universe is expanding very rapidly which means more Nothing is being created all the time at an even more rapid rate.  This discovery that the Universe is expanding at an ever accelerating rate is the most important astronomical discovery in this century.
-
-  Dark Matter which we can not see still has weight.  About one pound of Dark Matter exists in every cube of empty space 250,000 miles on a side.
-
-  In Nothing, empty space, there is total silence.  Sound can not travel through nothing.  It needs a medium to vibrate in order for sound to exist.  However, electromagnetic waves need no medium to travel through.  They can pass right through Nothing.  Light can travel through a vacuum.  In fact it always moves at 186,000 miles / second through a vacuum.  It travels slower through all other medium.
-
-  Black Holes are the opposites of Nothing They are the densest concentrations of mass known in the Universe.
-
-  Nothing was first written down in 300 B.C.  But, zero, was not defined as a mathematical concept until 500 A.D. in India.  If you divide any number by zero it becomes mathematically impossible.  Anything divided by Nothing is infinity which math can not handle.
-
-  Art and paintings did not discover the vanishing point to nothing until 1500.  Then, artists used the vanishing point of parallel lines to give their art 3- dimensions.
-
-  Vacuums do not suck.  Vacuums are simply empty space whereby surrounding pressures can push things into.
-
-  Was the Universe created out of Nothing?  Current theories suggest that the Universe was created out of only vacuum energy.  That is the energy that resides in Nothing.  If you are a physicists or an astronomer there is no such thing as Nothing.  Even empty space is filled with particles and anti-particles.  These particles vibrate in and out of existence, annihilating each other in 10^-25 seconds.  These virtual particles, jumping in and out of existence, are what create  Dark Energy.
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-   And, according to quantum mechanics equations, the amount of energy in empty space is enormous. Like 1 followed by 120 zeros.  Have you ever noticed that the more zeros, or nothings, behind a number the bigger it gets. Physics defines a vacuum as a physical state totally devoid of particles, either particles of matter or photons of radiation.  Such a vacuum does not exist in practice.  The first vacuums of sorts were produced in 1838 when Faraday tried to pass electric current through a vacuum sealed vessel.
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-  The effects of matter and repulsive anti-gravity force of Dark Energy shape space.  So, this is strange, astronomers are arguing over the shape of Nothing.  Depending on the quantities of these attributes in the Universe the shape of Nothing is either flat, spherical or hyperbolical ( saddle shaped).  The shape is defined by the behavior of parallel lines.  If the parallel lines stay parallel no matter how far they extend into space then space is flat.  If they eventually cross, or intersect, then space is spherical.  If they diverge, continually getting farther apart, than space is hyperbolic in shape.
-
-  In 1950 space was just thought of as everything above the Earth’s atmosphere.  That is when the Space Age began.  In 1883 a Russian was the first to determine that a rocket could operate In space.  It was 1926 when the first rocket was launched to prove he was right.  Of course, everyone remembers 1957 when Sputnik became the first satellite to be launched into space.  In 1961 the first human was launched into space, Yuri Gargarin.  In 1962  John Glenn was the first American to complete an orbit circling the Earth in space.
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In 1923 Louis De  Broglie took Einstein’s E=mc^2 and Planck’s E=hf and concluded that all particles are also waves.  Called the wave-particle duality.  If all particles are waves and waves are Nothing then Everything is Nothing.  If that’s true why even bother about anything because it is Nothing after all.  The last 4% of the Universe are particles and they are waves, nothing is left. (2)
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(1)  See Review #590  “ So You Want to Go into Space?”
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(2)  Energy = 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters^2/seconds^2 * Mass in kilograms
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Energy = 6.625 * 10^-34 kilograms * meters^2/second * frequency in cycles per second.
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Wavelength = 6.625 * 10^-34 kilograms * meters^2/second  / Mass * velocity
w = h/momentum.  If velocity = c, then mc^2 = h * f,
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mass = 2.21*10^-52 kilograms / wavelength.  That is massless in my book.
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(3)  The wavelength of an electron using Broglie’s equation:
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 11, 2018  -----
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Famous Scientists, you may not know

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------------------------------  2006  -  Famous Scientists, you may not know
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-  When you ask a student to name some famous scientists the first name to come to mind is:-
----------------------------------  1.  ALBERT EINSTEIN
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-  Maybe some will say:
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----------------------------------  2.  ISAAC  NEWTON (pictured above)
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-  They probably not think of :
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----------------------------------  3.  GALILIO GALILEI 
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-  Other names that would be missed include:
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---------------------------------  4.  PYTHAGORUS
--------------------------------   5.  CHARLES  DARWIN
-------------------------------    6.  NIKOLA TESLA
-------------------------------    7.  MARIE CURIE
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-  Then there is a list of names you probably have never heard of:
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--------------------------------  8.  CARL FREDRICH GAUSS
--------------------------------  9.  ALHAZEN
-------------------------------  10.  CHIEN-SHIUNG WU
-------------------------------  11.  FRANCIS BEAUFORT
-------------------------------  12.  RAYMOND DART
-------------------------------  13.  ADA LOVELACE
-------------------------------  14.  MARY ANNING
-------------------------------  15.  CARL LINNAEUS
-------------------------------  16.  JAMES HUTTON
-------------------------------  17.  ROSELIND FRANKLI
-------------------------------  18.  ANDRE-MARIE AMPERE
---------------------------------19.  MAX PLANCK
-------------------------------  20.  ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-----------------------------------  1.  ALBERT EINSTEIN
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-  Albert Einstein born in 1879. As a teenager he wrote a paper on magnetic fields.  He became a clerk in the Swiss Patent Office.  And, in 1905 he published four more papers. His math and formulas described the relationship between mass and energy.
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——————————-  E. =. mc^2
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-  Another paper described “ Brownian Motion “ for atoms and molecules.
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-  Still another paper describing the “ photoelectric effect “, introducing light as made up of particles, later called “ photons”.
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-  The forth paper introduced special relativity and the concept of space-time.
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-  In 1916 Einstein’s paper on “ General Relativity” introduced a new theory for gravity.  Mass distorts space-time and gravity is seeking the path of shortest time in curved space.  This concept for gravity meant that mass would bend light. During a 1919 solar eclipse astronomers discovered that the sun’s mass did indeed bend the path of distant starlight.
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-  In 1921 he received the Nobel Prize in physics.  In 1933 he became a professor at Princeton University escaping Nazi Germany.  In 1940 he became a U.S. citizen. 
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-  Einstein’s theories live on to predict the existence of  Blackholes and gravitational waves.  In 2016 physicists actually measured gravitational waves created by the collision of two Blackholes one billion lightyears away.  His formulas explained gravitational lensing.  Einstein felt that his knowledge was limited but his imagination was not.  “Imagination can encircle the world”
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-----------------------------------  2.  ISAAC  NEWTON
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-  Isaac Newton developed Calculus math when he was 23 years old.  He had worked out the planetary orbits but did not disclose to any one until Edmund Halley told him about the problem.  He immediately had the answer. In 1687 Halley convinced Newton to publish his work. He proposed the theory for the first time how planets and projectiles moved through space. He showed mathematically how gravity governs how these planets and projectiles move.

He worked on light and color and developed the reflecting telescope.  He did the fundamental work in mathematically describing how heat works. The metric unit of force was named after him along with the 3 laws of motion. A Newton is 1 kilogram *meter per second squared, about 2 tenths of a pound.
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-  ----------------------------------  3.  GALILIO GALILEI 
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-  In 1609 this Italian mathematician used the first telescope to create modern astronomy.  He discovered the moons of Jupiter, sunspots , and the phases of Venus  He confirmed that the planet Venus circled the Sun inside Earth’s orbit.  He confirmed Nicklaus Copernicus theories that we are in a sun-centered solar system.
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-  Galileo studied falling bodies and determined that gravity does not depend on size.  He defined inertia that allowed the Earth to rotate.  His theories were not accepted and he died on 1642 under house arrest.  His laws are used today, unchanged, to navigate spacecraft on NASA missions.
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---------------------------------  4.  PYTHAGORUS
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-  A Greek mathematician , in the 6th century B.C. developed the Pythagorean Theorem for a right triangle ,  a^2  +  b^2  =  c^2.   Pythagoras’ legacy includes hallmarks of patterns, order, replication, and certainty. 
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--------------------------------  5.  CHARLES  DARWIN
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-  As a young man Darwin collected beetles and studied geology in Edinburgh.  In 1831 he journeyed around the world aboard the ship HMS Beagle.  His 5- year study documented geological formations, habitats, flora, fauna.  He determined that animal origins contradicted Victorian-era theories at the time.  It was not divine creationism but life adapting to environments that created the diversity of life.
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-  Species evolve through natural selection.  His theory of evolution was not accepted so he began publishing his works on geology, coral reefs, and barnacles.  He amassed overwhelming evidence for evolution in the 20 years after his voyage.    In 1859 he published the book “On the Origin of Species” .   He was 50 years old when he first sold his 500 page book. He published 6 editions on how the Earth’s species came to be.
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-  Species adapt to their environments to survive and those that fall short die out.
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-------------------------------    6.  NIKOLA TESLA
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-  A Serbian-American Engineer born in 1856 in Croatia  He deigned advanced alternating current systems allowing utilities to send current over long distances to power American homes across the country.  He developed the Tesla coil, a high voltage transformer  used to transmit power wirelessly.  Today the most famous electric car bears his name.
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-------------------------------  7.  MARIE CURIE
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-  Maria Curie born 1867 in Warsaw, Poland.  Women were not allowed in the universities.  She fled to Paris and worked for Henri Becquerel who discovered uranium in 1896.  X-rays were discovered one year earlier.  Curie worked in this lab for her PhD. thesis. She discovered that the atom was not the smallest form of matter. Later her discovery was called “radioactivity“.  She and her husband started examining minerals containing uranium.  She discovered another radioactive element named “polonium” after her native Poland. In 1989 she discovered “radium”.  She was the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Physics, in 1903.  In 1911 she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.  She died in 1934 likely due to her work with radioactivity.   
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--------------------------------  8.  CARL FREDRICH GAUSS
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-  As a school boy the class was asked to add  up all the numbers 1 to 100.  Carl got the answer immediately, 5,100.  When asked how he got the answer so fast he said he simply folded the string of numbers back over themselves. Then he added from both ends of the list of numbers:  1 + 99, 2 + 98, 3+ 97, ……  49 +51,   each pair  added to 100,  fifty times, or 5,000 then don’t forget the 100 at the end.  Adding all the numbers up from 1 to 100 comes to 5,100.
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--------------------------------  9.  ALHAZEN
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-  Born in Iraq Alhazen was the inventor of the scientific method:  Observe, hypothesize, experiment, revise, repeat.  He wrote over 100 books. Some on astronomy, for example, how the brain creates the illusion that the moon is bigger near the horizon.  He developed his theories on experimentation and data collection.  He stressed the need for test results.
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-------------------------------  10.  CHIEN-SHIUNG WU
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-  In 1936 she arrived from China to pursue her doctorate at University of California studying X-ray emissions.  She was the first to verify the theory of beta decay radioactivity.  Her team won the Nobel Prize in 1957 confirming “the law of parity” in atomic structures.  She was not given credit as part of the team,  but later became known as the” first lady of physics“. 
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------------------------------  11.  FRANCIS BEAUFORT
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-  He devised the system to describe weather conditions that became the standard in the Navy  .  He developed the Beaufort Scale for wind conditions at sea.  He produced 1,500 detailed charts for uncharted waters over his 26 years, starting in 1929.
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-----------------------------  12.  RAYMOND DART
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-  In 1924 Raymond received  for the museum a package containing a baboon scull.  The specimen came from South Africa.  He recognized it to be a young human skull,  not a baboon.  The specimen was large-brained that showed humans evolved from Africa, not Western Europe as currently thought.  He explored many cave systems in Africa to prove Africa was the root of our family tree.
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------------------------------  13.  ADA LOVELACE
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-  She was the first computer programmer.  She worked with Charles Babbage on his “Difference Engine”.   using this analytical machine, she wrote instructions for solving complex math problems.  She died in 1852 at the age of 36 after writing the first computer program, before the computer was invented.
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-----------------------------  14.  MARY ANNING
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-  Is the godmother of paleontology.  She was finding fossils along the southern coast of England at 13 years old.  Her fossil shop was recognized by the geological Society of London, an organization that would not admit women for another 72 years. The  song “ she sold seashells by the sea shore” was another form of recognition.
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------------------------------  15.  CARL LINNAEUS
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-  Carl devised the binomial nomenclature system.  Born in Sweden in 1707.  He became a botanist and in 1753 published the book “ Species Plantarium”. He invented the Latin
 2-word construction identifying each plant, genus and species.  His naming convention became the center of botany.
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-----------------------------  16.  JAMES HUTTON
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-  James’ work became the basis of modern geology.  He developed the concept of the continents always recycling themselves in plate  tectonics.  He published his book, “Theory of Earth” in 1788.
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-----------------------------  17.  ROSELIND FRANKLIN
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-  Roselind was a brilliant chemist and a master of X-ray crystallography.  Her work with DNA allowed her three male coworkers to receive the Nobel Prize in 1962.
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---------------------------  18.  ANDRE-MARIE AMPERE
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-  French physicist was one of the main founders of electromagnetism.
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----------------------------19.  MAX PLANCK
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-  Max invented Quantum Theory in physics.  And , the Planck length of 1.616x10^-35 meters, a tiny fraction of a proton’s diameter, was named after him.
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---------------------------  20.  ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
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-  Scottish inventor of the telephone.  He was a teacher of the deaf and the decibel was named after him.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, January 11, 2018  -----
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Describing the Universe

- -  1821  -  Describing the Universe.  Here are 6 characteristics that model the Universe.  Looking deeper into space is looking back in time.  We are getting close to the first light after the Big Bang.  Here is what we have learned:
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-----------------  1821  -  Describing the Universe
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-  The Universe can be described with a model using 6 qualities:
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-  (1)  The Universe is expanding at 47,000 miles per hour per million lightyears distance.
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-  (2)  The density of ordinary matter.  It is only 5% of the mass-energy that is in the Universe.
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-  (3)  The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) is the Universe’s first light that was emitted 380,000 years after the Big Bang.
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-  (4)  An invisible substance called Dark Matter is 24% of the Universe.  It interacts with gravity but not with electromagnetic radiation.
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-  (5)  Dark Energy is 71% of the Universe and responsible for the expansion that is accelerating everything.  It is causing space to stretch apart at this ever accelerating rate.  The more space there is the faster the whole Universe expands.
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-  (6)  There are subtle temperature variations in the CMB which reflect earlier quantum fluctuations.  These got amplified with Cosmic Inflation to become vast regions of varying density.  Mass in the higher density regions collapsed into galaxy clusters.
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-  One important assumption to explain Cosmic expansion is that Dark Energy per unit volume has remained constant over time,  47,000 miles per hour per million lightyears.
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-  Another assumption is that Cosmic Inflation actually occurred shortly after the Big Bang.  The model has yet to explain why and how this happened.  If it did we should be able to detect some evidence of this rapid expansion in observing gravitational waves.  But,  we are just starting to discover the gravity wave evidence.  (  See LIGO review for the experiments that are doing the gravity wave detections.)
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-  Astronomers would hope to connect gravitational wave measurements with matter density deviations in the CMB.
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-  The Universe is so vast that even at the speed of light, 186,282 miles per second, the light from distant galaxies takes millions, even billions, of years to reach us.  During that time for the light to travel that distance the Universe has been expanding even more and the distances have gotten even greater.
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-  Astronomers use the Cosmic Redshift to measure the rate of expansion and how it has changed over time.  Astronomy is a time machine to look backwards in time.  Galaxies that we see today are actually more distant then they were when the light reaching us now was first emitted. 
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-  The Redshift (z)  is the fractional difference between the observed wavelength (w) as a line in the object’s spectrum and the wavelength at the time it is emitted (Wo), original wavelength.
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----------------------------  z  =  Wo  -  w  /  w
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---------------------------   v  =  the receding velocity of the light source (Wo)
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---------------------------   v  =  c * z
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---------------------------  c  =  the speed of light, 186,282 miles per second, or 300,000
km / sec.
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-  If a blue light spectrum was emitted at 400 nanometers wavelength.  And, it got stretched out traveling through expanding space to reach us,  and, we observed this spectrum in the far infrared at 800 nanometers wavelength, then, the Redshift would be:
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-----------------------------  z   =  800  -  400  /  400
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------------------------------  z  =  1
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-----------------------------  v  =  300,000  kilometers per second
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-  The receding velocity is at the speed of light.  The galaxy is so far away the space expanding between us is causing the galaxy to appear to be speeding away from us at the speed of light.  This is not real velocity, but expanding space, it does not break the laws of physics to ever be exceeding the speed of light since it is expanding space and not a moving object through space.
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-  Hubble’s Law  (Ho) is that this expansion is a linear relationship between receding velocity (v) and the distance of the galaxy away from us (d).
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---------------------------------  d  =  v  / Ho
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--------------------------------  Ho  =  22 kilometers per second per million lightyears, or 47,000 mph per million lightyears.
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--------------------------------  d  =  3*10^5  /  22  million lightyears
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--------------------------------  d  =  13,600 million lightyears
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----------------------------  d  =  13.6 billion lightyears
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-  But, the age of the Universe is only 14 billion lightyears.  actually the reciprocal of Hubble’s Constant is the age of the Universe:
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--------------------------  1  /  Ho  =  10^6 * (3*10^5 km/sec)  * 1  year  /  (22  km/sec)
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--------------------------  1 / Ho  =  13.6 billion years.
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-  This assumes that the Hubble Constant is linear and truly “ constant” over the life of the Universe.  Astronomers believe this as “not” the case.  Gravity was dominate the first 7 billion years slowing expansion.  Then Dark Energy became dominate and has been accelerating expansion the last 7 billion years.  We just happen to have a convenient average being in the middle.
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-  The most distant galaxy, measured to date, has a Redshift of 8.63.  The calculation is that this light took 13.24 billion years to reach us.  The Universe was only 4% of its current age and the Universe was only 573,000,000 years old.
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-  Because the Universe was expanding over that same time span today that galaxy is 30.35 billion light years away.   That galaxy’s light today would never have time to reach us.  It has expanded beyond our light horizon.  Distant galaxies are steadily disappearing from view.
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-  New satellite telescopes that can see in the far infrared wavelengths ( higher Redshifts) will allow us to see galaxies even further back in time.
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---------------Redshift ---   Light travel -----  Age of Universe ------   Distance ------
------------------------------  billion LY  -------  million years  ----------billion LY ------
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-----------------12  ----------  13.34  ------------  365  -------------------32.7  -------------
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---------------- 15  ----------  13.55  ------------  267  -------------------34.1  -------------
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-----------------18 ----------  13.61  ------------  206   -------------------35.1  --------------

-----------------20  ----------  13.64  ------------  177  -------------------35.7  -------------
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-----------------25  ----------  13.68  ------------  128  -------------------36.8  -------------
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-  Far away galaxies offer a glimpse into the past.  When we look at distant galaxies we are seeing them as they were in the distant past.
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-  Our closest spiral galaxy is the Andromeda.  We see it as it looked 2,500,000 years ago.  You can view it with binoculars on a clear night.  In the north eastern sky.
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-  The future of our Universe will be dominated by Blackholes.  Our Universe today has lots of stars, but, the number of new stars forming each year is dropping.  All stars will eventually burn out.  Super massive Blackholes will still survive.  Galaxies have super massive Blackholes at their centers.  That will be what is left.  Eventually even Blackholes evaporate due to Hawking Radiation.  Only fundamental particles in cold expanses of space will exist with nothing to bump in to.  No worries this will not happen for a very long time from now.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-    #1808  -  History of the Universe 16 pages long.
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-  # 1782  -  Telescopes looking back in time.
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-  #1759  -  Why is the Universe expanding?
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-  #1672  -  Beginning with a Universe
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-  #1665  -  Universe  -  How it all started.
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-  #1634  -  The Universe started out in the realm of particle physics.
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-  #1590  -  Structure of the Universe
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-  #1563  -  How old is the Universe?
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-  #1311  -  Is the Universe spinning, or is it just me?
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-  #1234  -  Why is the sky dark and the Universe leaving us?
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-  #1225  -  Is the Universe really a computer?
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-  #1050  -  The Universe almost didn’t happen?
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-  #842  -  Pressed for time.
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-  #744  -  What is the Universe expanding in to?
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-  #342  -  The Whole Shebang.  Timothy Ferris 1997
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------  RSVP, Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----------------
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email comments, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------------   Tuesday, January 16, 2018  -----
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