GLOBALIZATION - The World is Flat

-   2385 -  Globalization is changing the world in India and China and, in contrast,  it is changing for the worst in Al-Quada and terrorism.  Here we are 15 years later and our President Donald Trump is dealing with Flat World results. This Review describes the changing world in 2005.
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----------------------------- 2385  -  GLOBALIZATION  -  The World is Flat
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-  I  read a great book by Thomas Friedman, The World is Flat, A Brief History of the 21st Century, dated 2005.  I had just retired from HP in 2003. Friedman’s description of globalization and how it is changing the world in India and China and, in contrast, how it is changing for the worst in Al-Quada and terrorism was very real to me at the time.  Here we are 15 years later and our President Donald Trump is dealing with Flat World results.
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- This is one of his stories a story about a teacher, Abraham Georges, working in the poorest among poverty outside Bangalore, India.  These village people are referred to as untouchables.
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-  George came out of the Indian Army and immigrated to the US graduating from New York University, started his own software firm, sold it in 1998, and took his fortune to India.  He felt that India would never improve its governance  unless it had the transparency of a free press and he started a journalist school in this remote village.
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-   Thomas, our author, was a guest speaker at the school.  He learned about George’s elementary school that he had started even further into the outskirts of Bangalore. The word wretched does not begin to describe the living conditions around this school.
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-  The school itself was neatly painted surrounded by grass and flowers.  The elementary classroom had 20 untouchables at computers working on Excel and Microsoft Word.  The adjacent classroom had a typing class.  Thomas asked the teacher who was the fastest typist.  She pointed to an 8 year old with a smile that could have melted a glacier.
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-  I want to race you he told her.  All her classmates gathered round.  Thomas crunched himself into the tiny seat in front of a computer and each proceeded to type the same phrase over and over seeing who could do more in a minute.  Who’s winning Thomas shouted.  Her classmates shouted her name and cheered her on.  Thomas surrender to her gleeful laugh.
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-  The selection process to get into this school is a child must be below the poverty line with  parents willing to send their child to a boarding school.  The students had just taken the California Achievement tests shortly before Thomas arrived. 
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- George explained they are teaching them English education so they can aspire to careers and professions  that would have been totally beyond their reach.  Around India their names are recognized as untouchables.  But if they go somewhere else, and if they are polished, with proper education and social graces they can break this barrier that has been over untouchables for generations.
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-  With the right education they can become another type of untouchables, young people with ambition, specialized in skills, and adaptable, highly competitive in a global marketplace.

-  When you talk about the poor, so often it is talk about getting them off the streets or getting them a job, so they don’t starve.  But we never talk about getting excellence from the poor.
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-    His thought was that we can deal with the issue of inequality, if they could break out of all the barriers imposed upon them.  If one is successful, they will carry one thousand with them.
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-  In Palestine Yasser Arafat had produced students who were martyrs in waiting.  Their role models were all angry men.  These young men spent a lot of time imagining how to unleash their anger, not realizing their potential.
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-   Abraham George had produced a different set of teacher role models for his untouchable children.  They planted in these students seeds of a very different imagination. 
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-  If we are to defeat terrorism we need more Abraham Georges, everywhere,  by the thousands.  Teachers that can gaze upon a classroom of untouchable kids and not only see the greatness in each of them but, more important, get them to see the greatness in themselves while endowing them with the tools to bring that out.
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-  After the little typing race Thomas went around the classroom and asked the kids what they wanted to be when they grew up.  They were 8 years old and 3 years ago came out of a life in open sewers.  The answers came back, an astronaut, a doctor, a pediatrician, a poetess, physics and chemistry, a scientist, a surgeon , a detective, an author.
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-  All dreamers in action, not martyrs in waiting.
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-  Individuals in every corner of the world are being empowered by its flatness.  This  will mean a whole new level of competition for American children.  They better have a good education and the right attitude or they will not be competitive in this new world.  In a flat world every individual must tend to his own economic destiny.
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-  Let’s get back to India.  The country is graduating 70,000 accountants every year.  Their starting salaries are $100 per month.  US radiologists are outsourcing reading of CAT scans to doctors in India.  They do it overnight (for us) and doctors have the results the next morning. 
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-  In 2005 there are 245,000 Indians answering phones in call centers.  It is a 24/7 job that Indians consider with high wages and high prestige.  India’s business schools turn out 89,000 MBA’s each year.
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-  In China 70,000 housewives are doing data-entry work at home.  They take handwritten Japanese documents and enter them into a digital database.  Many of these housewives are specialists in medical or legal terminologies.  A Chinese software engineer starts at $90/ month in year 2005.
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-  Of course, the flat world is not just in India and China.  In Utah, JetBlue has outsourced their entire reservation system to 400 Utah housewives.  Today, 23,500,000 Americans are working from home, 16% of our labor force.
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-   McDonald’s in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, uses order takers in a call center in Colorado Springs, 900 miles away.  The order and a customer photo is relayed to the restaurant kitchen.  The customer’s order and photo are paired up at the window. The photo is destroyed.  It takes 1 minute and 5 seconds for the whole transaction.
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-  Before the call center, the orders averaged 2 minutes and 36 seconds.  The restaurant can now handle 260 cars an hour.  Customers can sit down in the restaurant and order using their cell phones with credit card readers on the tables.
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-  A one man network/newspaper can get a report on the Web using an MP3 player for the digital recorder and a camera phone.  Cost for equipment $200.  These bloggers peaked with the Dan Rather National Guard story having 55,000 bloggers helping break Rathergate.  An army of dedicated fact-checkers uncovered the fake memo story in 48 hours.
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--------  Friedman identifies 10 forces that are causing this flat world:
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----------------------  (1)  The fall of the Berlin Wall 11-9-89 made the world whole.
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----------------------  (2)  Netscape went public 8-9-95 with e-mail and internet browsing that brought the same information to the whole world.  Netscape was sold to AOL for $10,000,000,000.
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----------------------  (3)  The first fiber optic system was installed in 1977.  The dot.com boom in 6 years invested $1,000,000,000,000 in wiring the world with fiber.  Long distance phone rates dropped from $2 per minute to 10 cents a minute.
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----------------------  (4)  XML, software to software interaction  sharing standard formats and protocols became a huge flattener.
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----------------------  (5)  Open sourcing making software free.  Chinese firms can digital scan an entire car and churn out computer aided design models of every part.  These designs can feed industrial robots and within months they can be cloning an American car on their production in months.
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----------------------  (6)  Outsourcing started with Y2K.  The year 2000 computer scare caused the outsourced a lot of software writing to India.  This set the precedence.
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----------------------  (7)  China has an army of engineers growing at 350,000 annually.
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----------------------  (8)  Supply-chaining, Wal-Mart moves 2,300,000,000 cartons of merchandise on a global scale every year (2005).   Wal-Mart set up its own distribution center for all manufacturers to ship to one location and got its own trucks to do the shipping. 
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-   This cost 3% more.  But cutting out wholesales and buying direct saved 5%.  That allowed Wal-Mart to cut prices by 2% and make it up in volume.  In 2004 they sent $260,000,000,000 of merchandise through 108 distribution centers, serving 3,000 stores in the US.  There point of sale terminals simultaneously track inventory deductions with each sale.
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-  Large packages have RFID, radio frequency tags, that allow the packages to be tracked through the entire distribution chain.  When the hurricane was bearing down on Florida, Wal-Mart sent more beer early and more pop-tarts later.  If Wal-Mart was a country it would be China’s 8th biggest trading partner, ahead of Russia, Australia, and Canada.
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----------------------  (9)  UPS is showing the world how it is done.  UPS has a fleet of 270 aircraft.  It ships 13,500,000,000 packages a day, a day.  If you ship in your Toshiba laptop for repair it actually goes to UPS and UPS does the repair and sends it back within 3 days.
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-    If you go on-line and order Nike’s UPS has the inventory in Kentucky and UPS is the one pulling the inventory and delivering your shoes.  Same is true if you order Jockey.com underwear.  UPS is in collaboration with eBay, PayPal, and eBay buyers. -
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-   On any day 2% of the world’s GDP can be found on UPS delivery trucks.  The clip board in the little brown truck tells the driver which shelf to find each package.  If he is at a wrong address a GPS link will not allow him to deliver the package.
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----------------------  (10)  The Google, Yahoo, MSN web search have informed the world. The democracy of information is what brought down the Berlin Wall.  Google is now processing 1 billion searches each day ( 2/3rds outside the US).
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-  Google is hiring the brightest mathematicians in the world to write their search algorithms.   TiVo knows which ads you are freezing, storing, rewinding on your own TV.  The most rewound moment in TV history, Janet Jackson’s wardrobe malfunction.  Google knows exactly how many times you clicked on their ads and exactly what you are interested in.
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----------------------  (11)  The wireless revolution is what will put all the above forces on steroids.  Your cell phone will become your credit card.  You see a Madonna poster.  You scan the bar code in the lower corner and automatically buy tickets to her concert.  Another scan and it downloads a sample of her songs.  Scan another and you can buy the album.
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-  Rolls-Royce engines are connected by transponders sending data to a satellite and back down to Rolls-Royce operations.  It can track anomalies in its engines while in operation and relay information back to the pilot.
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-  From 1985 to 2000 the global economy grew from 2.5 billion to 6 billion people, adding 1,500,000,000 billion new workers.  There are already more cell phones in China than people in the United States. 
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-  When I was a boy my Mom would say,  “Eat your vegetables there are children in China and India that are starving.”  For your children you will say, “Finish your homework there are people in China and India that are starving for your jobs.”
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-  Everyone is going to have to improve themselves in order to compete.  Natural talent is starting to trump geography. An engineer in India can do your job just as well as an engineer in Russia.
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-   One person’s economic liberation is another person’s unemployment.  Many American graduates are going to enter the work world and hear Simon Cowell say, “You have no talent“.  India’s call centers had 1,000,000 applications for 9,000 jobs.
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-  Message to your kids is to become truly adaptable, constantly acquire new skills, knowledge, and expertise that will enable you to constantly create value.
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-  America has 4,000 colleges, the rest of the world has 7,768.  California alone has 130 colleges.  Yet, graduate enrollment in science and engineering in the US has declined since 1993. 
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-  Congress has a pork laden budget that cuts funding to the National Science Foundation.  Half of America’s engineers are over 40.  40% (18,146) of the people in NASA are over 50, only 4% are under 30.
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-   In 2003 engineering degrees were issued to 1,200,000 Asian students, 830,000 Europeans, and 400,000 Americans.  Only 5% of our students graduate with engineering degrees.  In Russia it is 25% and in China it is 46%.
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-  In China today, Bill Gates is Britney Spears.  In America today, Britney Spears is Britney Spears and that is our problem.  American education from kindergarten to 12th grade is not stimulating young people to want to go into science, math, and engineering.  Judging by the international tests the longer our kids are in school the dumber they are getting.  Too often the football coach is teaching science. 
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-  Intel is welcomed in Chinese and Indian schools.  In America, Intel is blocked by state governments from helping teachers make science more interesting.  Intel knows its chips are made from just two things, sand and brains.
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-   If we are to help our kids elementary schools should be embarking on an all-hands-on-deck, no-holds-barred, no-budget-too-large, crash program for science and engineering education, immediately.  This is not a test.  It is life in the 21st century.
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-   Our politicians are stuck on stupid, they offer one-liners to embarrass political rivals, because they lack the ability to have a numerical discussion. They tear down our policies and presidents and offer nothing to get us on the right track and moving faster.  (This seems especially true in 2019 with today’s politics.)
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-  Our leaders vision should be to have every man and woman in America on campus.  We should grant a 5 year work visa to any foreign student who completes a Ph.D. in an American University. 
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-  Everyone wants economic growth but no one wants change.  Albert Einstein said, “Out of clutter, find simplicity, from discord, find harmony, in the middle of difficulty, lies opportunity.”  We are in the middle of difficulty and do not realize it.
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-  Dell has figured this out.  On an average day they sell 150,000 computers.  From time of order parts are pulled in Malaysia, assembled in Penang, and arrive in Nashville in four days. 
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-  General Electric has figured this out with its biggest research facility in Bangalore, India, employing 7,000 engineers.  When India threatened war with Pakistan over Kashmir, GE got word to their government leaders that if GE pulled out of India due to instability they would not be back.  The cease-fire was brought not by General Powell but by General Electric (We Bring Good Things to Life).
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-  When a society has more memories than dreams it is in trouble. They are not mining the present but chewing on the past.
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-   India has 150,000,000 Muslims, yet none are in al-Qaeda.  Indians have dreams.  America is the land of dreams, but our kids need the tools to compete in this new flat world of the 21st century. 
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-  So much still applies 15 years after this was written.
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-  May 30, 2019                                                                                 575  576                                                                                 
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 ---------------------   May 30, 2019    ---------------------
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INDIANA - home of the Earliest Americans

-   2384  - INDIANA  -  home of the Earliest Americans.  13,500 years ago peoples from Siberia crossed a land bridge that emerged when sea levels plunged during the last ice age.  The land bridge was an inland corridor between the two huge ice sheets.  Within a thousand years their descendants had spread throughout North and South America.
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----------------------------- 2384  - INDIANA  -  home of the Earliest Americans
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-   In addition to being German, and my Mom English, my Dad always claimed to be part Indian.  If that were true then I am related to Asians.  The DNA studies of American Indians suggest the native Americans were closely related to each other and their nearest relations outside of America are the native peoples of northeast Asia.
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-  The story I learned when I was in school was that 13,500 years ago peoples from Siberia crossed a land bridge that emerged when sea levels plunged during the last ice age.  The land bridge was 1,000 miles wide.  There was an inland corridor between the two huge ice sheets.  Within a thousand years their descendants had spread throughout North and South America.
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-  Recent studies and DNA evidence is challenging this theory.  Genetic diversity of today’s American peoples would have taken 20,000 years to develop, longer than the 13,500 years for the bridge crossing. 
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-  Also, there are sites deep in South America and on the east coast of the U.S. that date back more than 13,500 years.  In 1997 Monte Verde in Chile was determined to have existed 14,500 years ago.  Since then, several sites in North and South America have been dated at more than 20,000 years old.
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-  Recent studies in Russia have suggested that Siberia was populated 30,000 years ago.  This in turn suggests that early Americans may have come here by boat.  Early pioneers may have paddled alongside glaciers skirting the shoreline all the way to Monte Verde, Chili.  Evidence is hard to find because the shoreline was 300 feet deeper than today’s shoreline.
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-  The Vikings took boats to Canada’s northeastern coast in the year 1000, 500 years before Columbus arrived in North America.  Columbus got all the Glory but Leif Eriksson was here first from Europe.
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-   In 1075 a Danish king told German historian that a place west of Greenland existed where wild grapes and wheat abound.  There were 2 sagas written in the early 1200’s that gave an accurate  portrait of “Vinland“. 
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-  After discovering Helluland and Markland the Norse found a warm, green place to the south where they set up camps.  More than 100 men and 15 women came to live in Vinland collecting grapes, fur, and lumber for export to Greenland.  The sagas record the birth of a boy named Snorri and tell of hostile encounters with the native Indians.  Historians believe Helluland was Baffin Island and Markland was southern Labrador.
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-  In 1960 historians found the sod foundations of Norse longhouses in Newfoundland.  Evacuations found Viking artifacts dating to the year 1000.  Evidence of iron-working and a forge were found as well as a soapstone spindle whorl suggesting women weavers. 
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-  Many historians believe that this Newfoundland site was the gateway to Vinland than expended to the St. Lawrence River, New Brunswick and even Maine.  Iceland records have a ship laden with timber from Markland made berth there in 1347.
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-  Columbus gets all the credit for discovering America in 1492.  Spain thrives in its conquering of the “New World“.  Five years later in 1497 John Cabot planted the English flag claiming the northeast coast of North America for King Henry VII.  John Cabot made a second expedition but never returned.
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-  Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian, guides a Portuguese expedition to South America.  He went down the Brazilian coast and was convinced he had discovered a new continent.  Map makers began calling it America in his honor.
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-   Juan Ponce de Leon lands in Florida in 1513 searching for the fountain of youth in St. Augustine.  Now there are a lot of retired people living there and still searching for the fountain.  My brother keeps a home there just in case it turns up.
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-  Hernando Cortes, a Spanish conquistador lands in Mexico in 1519 and ravages the Aztec Empire.  His superior guns and horses won the battles.  And, the smallpox epidemic he left behind continued to kill the Aztecs.
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-   Giovanni da Verrazano got the French in the act in 1524 landing on the Carolina coast and sailing north to New York harbor.  France then made its first claim on North America.  Verranzano was captured and reportedly eaten by cannibals.  Apparently the natives like a French cuisine.
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-  Spain landed 400 explorers in Tampa Bay, Florida in 1528.  Some got to Texas by raft.  In 1536 the survivors meet up with fellow Spaniards in Mexico.
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-   France had Jacques Cartier exploring eastern Canada sailing up the St. Lawrence River in 1534.  He climbs a hill and names it Mont Real, which later became Montreal and the French still lay claim to Canada.
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-   Hernando de Soto, after conquering the Incas in Peru , leads a Spanish expedition to Florida.  Landing in Tampa Bay they explore as far west as Texas and as far north as Arkansas.  De Soto dies during the expedition and they sink his body in the Mississippi River.
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-  Francisco Vasques de Coronado leads an expedition into the south west and claims “New Spain” in 1540.  Cononado finds Native American towns in Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Kansas, all in the search for gold. 
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-  Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo sails from Mexico and becomes the first European to navigate the California coast in 1542, just 50 years after Columbus discovers America.  He dies of a broken leg when gangrene sets in.
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-    Pedro Medendez de Aviles establishes the oldest permanent European settlement in the United States in St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565.  St. Augustine will serve as a key Spanish outpost in North America for the next 200 years.
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-   In 1607 a small party landed in Virginia and founded Jamestown, the first English settlement in America to survive and thrive.  We are celebrating Jamestown’s 400 year anniversary this week.
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-  My home state, Indiana, is named after the “land of the Indians”.  From 1787 to 1789 it was part of the Northwest Territory.  Then it became the Indiana Territory from 1800 to 1816.  Indiana joined the United States in 1816 as the 19th state.  I joined Indiana, the town of Auburn in 1941.
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-  May 30, 2019                                                                                 778                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   May 30, 2019   ---------------------
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EARTH - measurements from the Ice Satellite

-   2383  -  EARTH  -  measurements from the Ice Satellite.  Satellites are busy measuring the elevations around the Earth with great precision.   More than a trillion new measurements of Earth's height have been made from glaciers in Greenland, to mangrove forests in Florida, to sea ice surrounding Antarctica.
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-------------------- 2383  -  EARTH  -  measurements from the Ice Satellite
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-  With millions more satellite measurements added each day, data from NASA's Ice-2 is providing a precise global portrait of elevation and will allow scientists to track even the slightest changes in the planet's polar regions.
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-  The data from the ICESat-2 mission, launched in September 2018, continues the record of polar height data begun with the first ICESat satellite, which operated from 2003 to 2009.
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-  ICESat took approximately 2 billion measurements in its lifetime, a figure ICESat-2 surpassed within its first week.
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-  When ICESat orbited over a rift in Antarctica in October 2008, for example, it recorded a handful of data points indicating a crevasse in the ice. When ICESat-2 passed over 10 years later, it collected hundreds of measurements tracing the sheer walls and jagged floor of the growing rift.
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-  ICESat-2 is taking these measurements in a dense grid across the Arctic as well as Antarctica, recording each spot every season to track both seasonal and annual changes in ice.
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-  ICESat-2's ability to measure heights beyond the poles is also impressing scientists.  In clear waters the satellite can detect the seafloor up to 100 feet below the surface. Over forests, the satellite not only detects the top of the canopy, but the forest floor below.  This will allow researchers to calculate the mass of vegetation in a given area.
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-  All this is being done with six laser beams from a satellite 310 miles in space.
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-  Getting the exact latitude, longitude, and elevation of where a photon bounced off Earth is hard.  To make sure everything is working, the science team conducts a series of checks using data from airborne surveys, ground-based campaigns, even the satellite itself.
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-  Scientists traveled to Antarctica, where they drove modified snow-groomers along an arc of the 88-degree-south latitude line, taking highly accurate elevation measurements to compare with the data collected by ICESat-2 in space.
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-  They also compared measurements taken in White Sands, New Mexico, with what the satellite was tracking. In its most recent Antarctic and Arctic surveys they flew specific routes designed to take measurements over the same ice, at close to or exactly the same time the satellite flew overhead.
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-  ICESat-2 is designed to precisely measure the height of ice and track how it changes over time. Earth's melting glaciers cause sea levels to rise globally, and shrinking sea ice can change weather and climate patterns far from the planet's poles.
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-  Small changes across vast areas like the Greenland ice sheet can have large consequences. ICESat-2 will be able to measure the shift in annual elevation across the ice sheet to within a fraction of an inch.
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-  To do this, the satellite uses a laser altimeter which is an instrument that times how long it takes light to travel to Earth's surface and back. With that time, along with the knowledge of where in space ICESat-2 is, and where on Earth the laser is pointing, computer programs create a height data point. The data is then turned into advanced data products that researchers will be able to use to study elevations across the globe.
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-  We are using eyes in space to watch over us and tell us how we are doing.
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-  May 30, 2019                                                                                                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   May 29, 2019     -------------------------
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ENERGY - Where is Energy Going?

-   2380 -  ENERGY  -  where is it going?  Energy is expanding our Universe into an Island Galaxy in the middle of a void of space.  All the mass and energy in the universe will still be there.  It will just be so spread out and diluted so much that it becomes a cold vacuum.  All wavelengths of energy will be lightyears long.  The temperature of space will be near absolute zero. 
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----------------------------- 2382 -   ENERGY  -  Where is Energy Going?
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-  The Energy in the Universe is finite.  There is just so much of it and that’s it.  Both mass and energy, because they are the same thing, just different forms.  Energy is 90,000,000,000,000,000 times that of mass.  Mass is a very, very high form of energy.
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-   A hamburger converted totally back to energy according to E=mc^2 would be powerful enough to blow up a small city.  You could say matter is a condensed form of energy.
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-   Energy is never lost, never destroyed, and no more can be created.  It can only change forms, which it does all the time.  Chemical energy changes to potential energy when you pedal up a hill.  Potential energy changes into kinetic energy when you glide down the hill.  Thermal energy changes into light energy.  Electric energy changes into magnetic energy.  Etc……
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-  The four fundamental forces are not energy.  They are a push or pull.  They can act through space over tremendous distances at the speed of light, or they can act over limited distances to the edge of an atom.
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-   Gravity has no limit.  It is an attractive force that acts across the Universe, but gets weaker and weaker the greater the distance.  The Strong Nuclear Force acts over the radius of an atom.  It is what keeps neutrons and protons together in the nucleus.
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-   The reason uranium is unstable is that it has 92 protons and it is too big.  The outside protons experience a weak Strong Force and fall out of the nucleus, changing into another element.
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-  The Weak Nuclear Force also acts over a small distance, the radius of an atom.  The Electromagnetic Force is infinite in range like gravity but , unlike gravity, it comes in two forms, positive and negative.  When positive and negative come together they become neutral and the Force disappears.
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-  As far as we know there is an equal amount of positive and negative charges in the Universe.  So, the Universe is net neutral.  Gravity, on the other hand, is always positive.  We have not found the negative equivalent of the Gravity Force, or the carrier of that force.  Dark Energy is a candidate.  It is vacuum energy that is repulsive, or anti-gravity, but it is yet to be discovered.  Evidence is that it is there, we just don’t know what it is.
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-  When we see a star the light comes to us as oscillating electric and magnetic wave, or as quantum particles of photons.  When it reaches the retina of the eye it causes a biochemical reaction that gets transmitted as an electrical nerve impulse to the brain.  Light is not only what we see it is how we see.
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-  Force and energy are two fundamental properties of physics.  We are still trying to understand where they are going in the Universe.  Gravity does not seen to be the force that will stop the Universe from expanding.  As the matter in the Universe gets spread further and further apart the force of gravity gets weaker and weaker in its ability to pull things back together.  So, mass and gravity are getting overcome by Dark energy and vacuum expansion pressure, neither of which we understand.
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-  In a short time, a mere 5 billion years from now, gravity will win out in our Local Group of Galaxies.  About the time our Sun turns into a Red Giant and completely toasts the Earth, the Andromeda Galaxy will be colliding with the Milky Way.
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-   We can barely see Andromeda today, a pair of binoculars helps, it is 2.3 million lightyears away in the northeast sky at night.  But, it will continue to get bigger and bigger in the night sky.  When it gets close enough the two galaxies will begin a dance of stars, swirling and merging together into a super cluster of stars, an enormous Elliptical Galaxy, yet to be named.  The two Blackholes at their centers will either become binaries or merge.
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-  By the time that happens the rest of the galaxies that we can see through our telescopes will have faded to red, then to black, and disappeared beyond our horizon of observation.  They are expanding away faster and faster, their photons are being spread out in wavelength, redshifted, to the point we can no longer see them.
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-   The same will happen the  Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.  These microwave photons will have redshifted to such a large radio wavelength as to have completely disappeared.
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-  Our Universe will be an Island Galaxy in the middle of a void of space.  All the mass and energy in the universe will still be there.  It will just be so spread out and diluted that it becomes a cold vacuum.  All wavelengths will be lightyears long.  The temperature of space will be near absolute zero. 
-
-  It is equivalent to an energy death.  That is where energy is going. 
-
-  May 29, 2019                                                                                 923                                                                                 
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 ---------------------                      May 29, 2019             -----------------------
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Pressed for Time?

-   2381  -  -   Pressed for Time?  Let’s say the Big Bang happened on January 1st and we compressed our history into that same year.  What would the age of the Universe look like compressed in this way.  Each month would be a little over 1 billion years.
-
-

-
---------------------------------  2381    -  Pressed for Time?
-
-  Let’s say the Big Bang happened on January 1st .
-
-  The Milky Way Galaxy would have formed in February.
-
-  Earth would not have formed until September 3rd.  The next three days would see sterilizing impacts and a period of bombardment from comets, asteroids, and mini-planets.   The Moon was formed.    Early life would have arrived on Earth on September 22nd.  Then, and,  for most of Earth’s history, life was only primitive cells and microscopic in size.
-
-  We do not get recognizable animals and reptiles until December 17th when the Cambrian explosion of diverse life occurred on Earth.  Plants and Fungi colonized land 1 week later.  Animals colonized land 2 weeks after that.  Almost the whole year is already gone. 
-
-  In late December many extinctions and catastrophic rebirths in evolution occurred until dinosaurs became dominant on December 26th.  They lived for 4 days and went extinct on December 30th.  65 million years on the Cosmic Calendar was only yesterday.
-
-  The entire recorded history of human civilization occurs in the last 30 seconds of that year.
-
-  If you look carefully at the last day, December 31st, it was not until 9:00 P.M. that day that the first hominoids appeared walking upright.  At 11.58 P.M., just 2 minutes before midnight homo-sapiens invented agriculture. 
-
-  11 seconds ago the Egyptians built the pyramids.  1 second ago Kepler and Galileo were convinced that the Earth orbited the Sun and that the Earth was NOT the center of the Universe.
-
-  My kids were born 50 milliseconds ago, and my entire lifetime is but a blink of an eye.
-
-  May 27, 2019                                                                                  842                                                                                 
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---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   Monday, May 27, 2019  -------------------------
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ASTRONOMY - Too Weird to Ponder

-   2380 -  -   The interesting thing about learning astronomy is that you keep running into these things that are too weird to ponder.  Black Holes can make your head hurt.  Black Holes have so much mass and so much gravity that the escape velocity needed to get away from  them exceeds the speed of light.  Nothing escapes. 
-
-

-
----------------------------- 2380  - ASTRONOMY  -  Too Weird to Ponder
-
-   Black Holes have so much mass and so much gravity that the escape velocity needed to get away from  them exceeds the speed of light.  Nothing escapes.  Time and space are curved so much they bend back on themselves.  Time stops.  Space shrinks to a dot.
-
-  Then there is space itself that we used to think was nothing.  Somehow it is a container without walls.  And we are inside it.  Now we learn that space seethes with enormous energy.  I thought it was a vacuum.  Yet, every second trillions of cubic lightyears of it get added to the Universe.  All appearing out of nothing.  Something must be here?
-
-  Light does not escape a Black Hole.  And, light does not escape from the edge of the Observer able Universe. Immense mass and gravity pulls light into a Black Hole.  The expansion of space is accelerating and more stuff is going past the edge where it is so far away their light will never reach us.  The velocity of space expansion can exceed the speed of light.  The edge of the Universe appears as a Black Hole to us and we are living inside it.
-
-  If space expands forever, eventually all the galaxies we see today will disappear beyond the edge.  Then the stars, then the planets, and we are left with a rarefied sea of atomic particles.
-
-  Black holes are formed by adding more and more mass to a star.  But, Black Holes are also formed by compressing mass into a smaller radius.  If the Sun were compressed into a radius of 3 kilometers with no change in mass  it would become a Black Hole.  If it is a function of radius what about the smallest fundamental particles, are they compressed so small that they are mini-Black Holes?  Maybe the Universe will end up a rarefied sea of mini- Black Holes.
-
-  Then there is life.  Mother Nature seems to have a bigger imagination than we do.  We think Mother Nature must have been pretty smart.  But, She supposedly rose randomly from inert matter.  Supposedly 13 billion years ago carbon, oxygen and hydrogen got together and that some time later here we are trying to figure things out.  How did those dumb things get smarter than we are?
-
-  Then there is time.  If it moves too fast it slows down to a stop.  If it feels too much gravity, like the edge of a Black Hole, it stops.  Before the Big Bang it supposedly was stopped because it did not exist.  It too formed out of nothing.
-
-  Then there is consciousness.  Does this Universe exist only because we do?  If we were not here to observe it would it still be there?
-
-   We perceive our perceptions.  We perceive a Full Moon only because electromagnetic energy reflects off its surface and bits of this electric and magnetic energy enters our eyes, causes chemical reactions in our retinas and sends tiny electrical signals to our brains.  Without the transfer of this energy would the Moon still be there?
-
-  Quantum Mechanics says that energy particle-waves are only statistical probabilities and until observational energy collapses the waves to create the particles according to the probabilities, only to happen when we observe it.  So, are the particles on the Dark Side of the Moon still just waves?
-
-  This is too weird to comprehend, but , so is the whole Universe popping out of nothingness.
-
-  As the smart man, Isaac Newton, once said, our knowledge is but one small pebble on the beach with the whole ocean of the unknown out in front of us.
-
-  This stuff can ponder your brain, be careful.
-
-  May 25, 2019                                                                                 846                                                                                 
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---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   May 25, 2019-------------------------
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TIME - Deriving Time Dilation from the Pythagorean Theorem

-   2379 - TIME  -   Deriving Time Dilation -  Time Dilation is a concept that says, to a stationary observer a moving clock seemingly runs slow.  This concept falls out of Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity.  Einstein’s brilliant thought needed to make his equations work out was to make the speed of light constant and let time and space be variables.  This is counter intuitive because we think of space as constant and just always there, unchanging.  And, we think of time as constant, continuous and the same everywhere.
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-

-
------------- 2379  -  TIME  -   Deriving Time Dilation from the Pythagorean Theorem
-
-  Time Dilation is a concept that says, to a stationary observer a moving clock seemingly runs slow.   By making the speed of light constant it bound the equations for electricity and magnetism into a single electromagnetic energy.  However, at the same time these same equations did some strange things to space and time.
-
-  For example, if you were in a space ship traveling at 150,000 kilometers per second (50% the speed of light ).  And you fired a rocket at 225,000 kilometers per second ( 75% the speed of light ).  To a stationary observer how fast would the rocket whiz by?  Would it be 375,000 kilometers per second?  That would be 125% the speed of light.
-
-   You can not add velocities that exceed the speed of light.  Not allowed.  The speed of light is a constant 300,000 kilometers per second.  So,  if velocity is constant then time and distance have to change in order to make the math work out.  Velocity = time / distance must work out to 300,000 kilometers per second or less.
-
-  Let’s illustrate this concept with a fast train ride.  You are in the dining car drinking a beer.  You measure the exact time between taking two sips of beer. The time duration is “T” for time clocked on the train.  At the same time a stationary observer on the platform watches you whiz by and measures the time you take between drinks.  His time is tg, for time measured from the ground.  The time he measures is:
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  T  /  square root of ( 1- v^2/c^2)
-
-----------------------------  v is the velocity of the train.
-
-----------------------------  c is the velocity of light.
-
-  This equation represents Time Dilation.  As the velocity of the train gets closer and closer to the speed of light, the denominator gets smaller and smaller.  Time measured on the ground, tg, gets longer and longer compared time measured on the train.
-
-  Time dilates.
-
-----------------------------  tg  = T / square root (1 - .1^2)  at 10% the speed of light
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  60.3 seconds between sips of beer
-
-----------------------------  tg  = 60 / square root (1 - .5^2)  at 50% the speed of light
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  86.6 seconds
-
-----------------------------  tg  = 60 / square root (1 - .9^2) at 90% the speed of light
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  137 seconds
-
-  Already you are drinking twice as fast as he thinks you are.
-
-  Note that at slower velocities relative to the speed of light, tg, stationary time is nearly equal to moving time.
-
-  If the train were traveling a million miles per hour (447,040 meters per second ):
-
-----------------------  tg  =  60 years / square root(1 – (10^6 mph)^2 / (6.7 * 10^8 mph)^2
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  60 / square root ( 1 – 10^12 / 4.4975 * 10^17)
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  60 / square root ( 1 – .00000222)
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  60 / square root (1 - .9999778 )
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  60.0001322 , for all practical purposes you can not detect any change in drinking habits at a million miles per hour.  There is only 133 millionths of a second time dilation at that speed.
-
-  This same formula can be applied to distances, where distances get shorter and shorter as the velocity approaches the speed of light.
-
-  The formula can also apply to mass.  Fast moving mass gets larger and larger compared to rest mass as the velocity approaches the speed of light.
-
-  This is the same reason no mass can achieve a velocity exceeding the speed of light.  As the mass’s velocity approaches the speed of light the mass itself gets infinitely large.  There is never enough energy to push an infinitely large mass any faster.  Infinite forces and infinite energies just do not exist.
-
-  To illustrate these concepts further and to actually calculate the formula for time dilation let’s put a clock on the train.
-
-  We will build our clock using two parallel mirrors facing each other, separated by a distance = L.
-
-   We place the mirrors such that we can bounce a tennis ball between them.  One complete bounce will be counted as one tick on the clock.
-
-  To calculate the time for one tick we divide the distance by the velocity:
-
-----------------------------  T  =  2 L / c
-
-----------------------------  “c” is the velocity of the tennis ball.
-
-  An observer on the ground, observing the train go by at velocity, v, will see the ball bounce in the shape of a triangle as the ball is going up and as it is coming down the train is moving sideways elongating the base of the triangle.
-
-  “cg” is the velocity of the ball as measured by the observer on the ground.  The observer perceives the ball as traveling a longer distance up and down the two sides of the triangle.  We will now calculate the perceived time it takes the ball to travel this distance using the Pythagorean Theorem.
-
-  The height of the triangle is still, L.
-
-  The sides of the triangle are the distance  =   velocity / time
-
-----------------------------  distance  =  cg * tg / 2
-
-  The bottom side of the triangle is x  =   v * tg.  We use one half of this distance to get the bottom side of the right triangle.
-
-  Pythagoras said that, “ the square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of its sides .”  ( See Footnote 1)
-
-----------------------------  The hypotenuse =  cg * tg / 2
-
-----------------------------  The vertical side  =  L
-
-----------------------------  The bottom side  =  v * tg / 2
-
-----------------------------  cg^2 * tg^2 / 4  =  L^2 + v^2 * tg^2 /4
-
-----------------------------  tg ^2 ( c^2-v^2) /4  =  L^2
-
-----------------------------  tg^2  =  4 L^2 / cg^2 - v^2
-
-----------------------------  Previously we determined : T  =  2L / c
-
-----------------------------  L  =  T * c / 2
-
-----------------------------  tg^2  =  c^2 * T^2 / cg^2 - v^2
-
-  Now we can calculate the time observed from the ground for the time of the bouncing tennis ball on the train.
-
-  Replace the tennis ball with a light beam reflecting back and forth between the mirrors.  One complete bounce represents one tick of the clock.  Since the speed of light is constant it measures the same regardless if you are on the ground or on the train.  Since velocity = distance / time and velocity stays the same, then distance and time must change in order to keep the ratio constant.
-
-----------------------------  cg  =  c
-
-----------------------------  tg^2  =  T^2 / (1  -  v^2/c^2)
-
-----------------------------  tg  =  T / square root (1 - v^2 / c^2)
-
-  The formula for Time Dilation tells us the time measured in a stationary position is equal to the time measured in motion divided by the square root of one plus the velocity squared / speed of light squared.
-
-  The time, or distance,  measured by two observers is not absolute. It depends on their frame of reference.
-
-  Two bike riders riding along.  One rider tosses a water bottle to the other at an easy speed so the second rider can catch it.  An observer on the ground watching this sees the bottle travel farther and at a faster speed than the riders see it.
-
-  Time dilation a real thing and it can be measured or proven in an experiment.
-
-  Richard Keating of the U.S. Naval Observatory did an experiment in 1971 by sending four cesium-beam atomic clocks twice around the world in a passenger aircraft.  First flying from west to east with the rotation of the Earth, then from east to west against the rotation of the Earth.
-
-  When the clocks were returned home to the lab they were out of step to similar clocks that had remained in the lab by exactly the amount calculated for time dilation.
-
-  The moving clocks had been running faster than the stationary clocks.  The westbound clocks gained 273 billionths of a second.
-
------------------- The westbound atomic clocks gained 273 billionths of a second.
-
------------------- tg  =  T / square root (1 - v^2 / c^2)
-
------------------- T - tg  = 273*10^-9
-
------------------- The plane traveling at 667 miles per hour ( 2.98 meters / second)
-
------------------- square root(1 - v^2 / c^2)  =  square root (1 - .0000000000009892388)  takes a bigger computer than I have to calculate.
-
- The passengers on board must age less compared to their relatives on the ground.  ( This calculation is complicated by the fact that the airplanes were traveling relative to the Earth’s rotation and the fact that gravity is slightly weaker at the higher altitudes.)
-
-  Eastbound the slowing of the airborne clocks was sufficient to override the quickening due to weaker gravity.  The eastbound clocks ran slow by 59 billionths of a second, so passengers were younger by that amount compared to those that stayed at home.  The tampering with time in relativity is a real and lasting thing.
-
-  A few millionths of a second gained by east bound travel will not make you look much younger.  Even astronauts traveling at 10% the speed of light will only lag by one day in 200 days compared with the clocks back on Earth.
-
-  In 1977 at the CERN atomic cyclotron in Switzerland accelerated a Muon, a heavy electron that spontaneously breaks up after 2 millionths of a  second, to 99.94% the speed of light.  The high-speed travel prolonged the moon’s life nearly 30 fold.
-
-  These same muons come to us from outer space crashing into our atmosphere as Cosmic Rays ( See Reference # 26 “Gamma Rays and Cosmic Rays” ).  Because they are traveling at such high speeds their longer lives allow them to penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere and smash into the surface.  These penetrating muons change our weather at low altitudes and cause genetic mutations in living animals.  If it was not for time dilation maybe life would not have evolved here on Earth.
-
-  The constant speed of light is as close to a sure bet as science has found.  It is confirmed to be constant in one part in 100,000,000,000,000,000,000.  One part in 10^20.
-
-  If you take these scientific facts to an extreme in space travel you could start at age 20 accelerating constantly at the surface acceleration of gravity, 9.8 meters / sec^2.  Travel to the Andromeda Galaxy which is 2 million lightyears away.  Decelerate for a landing on your 50th birthday.  Return to Earth in time for you 80th birthday, but when you arrive the Earth would have aged 4,000 years into the future.
-
-   The distance traveled to Andromeda and back is 4 million lightyears.  There are 9.4605 * 10^15 meters per lightyear.  Distance is 37 * 10^21 meters.  60 years is 1.896 * 10^9 seconds.  If the space ship averages 99.99% the speed of light for the entire trip.
-
---------------------------  tg  =  60 years / square root (1 - .9999^2)  =  60 / square root (1-.9998001) =  60 / square root ( .00019999)  =  60 / .01414  =  4,242 years pass back on Earth.
-
-   Things would be different.
-
-  But, the speed of light would still be constant.
-
------------------  Footnote:
-
-   Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher born on a Aegean island in 560 B.C.  At the age of 31 he moved to southern Italy and started a cult.  In fact it was Pythagoras that coined the word, “philosopher”.
-
-  Members of the cult were fond of scientific discover.  Pythagoras was studying sound and he documented the math that defines the tone of a string dependent on its length and its tension.
-
-  He discovered irrational numbers such as the square root of two.  “ No conceivable fraction, however complicated, will give the product of two when multiplied by itself.”  The cult was sworn to keep this fact a secret.
-
-    He came up with his theorem that the square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of its sides.  For astronomy Pythagoras identified the morning star and the evening star as the same star called Aphrodite I ( It later became known as Venus).
-
-   He taught that the Earth was spherical and that the Sun, Moon, and planets did not partake in the same motion as the stars.  Each had its own path and was at different distances from Earth.  For 2,100 years spheres stuck as the determinant for planetary motions.  Then, Kepler came along at corrected things.
-
-  May 25, 2019                                                                               37   397                                                                                 
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---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   May 25, 2019  -------------------------
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- PROTON - defining the proton inside the atom.

-  2378  -  Atoms are composed of electrons, protons and neutrons.  A neutral atom has the same  number of protons and electrons, and  there is a different number of protons and electrons for each element.  This Review delves into the inside of the proton to discover the even more elementary particles, quarks and gluons.
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-

-
---------------------   2378 - PROTON  -  defining the proton inside the atom. 
-
- See Review 2377 to learn “defining the atom“.  We learn that all the other elements in the periodic table above hydrogen and helium were created in the nuclear fusion of the stars  The first stars formed with only hydrogen and helium. 
-
-  The atom is the smallest particle that characterizes a chemical element.  There are 118 chemical elements in the Periodic Table and each one has a different atom.  When the ancients invented the atom they characterized it as the smallest indivisible part of matter.
-
-  Later it was discovered that the atom was composed of even smaller “indivisible” parts.  Atoms are composed of electrons, protons and neutrons.  A neutral atom has the same  number of protons and electrons, and  there is a different number of protons and electrons for each element.  This Review delves into the inside of the proton to discover the even more elementary particles, quarks and gluons.
-
-   In the Observable Universe we think there are a mere 10^53 kilograms of ordinary matter.  That is a One followed by 53 zeros.  This matter is composed of 10^80 protons.  Kilograms are a measure of mass.  So, protons must have mass, but, what inside a proton creates this mass?
-
-  This review will use “protons” to mean both protons and neutrons , just in order to simplify my writing it. Protons are composed of quarks and gluons.  There are 3 quarks inside every proton.  The quarks carry an electric charge and the sum of their charges equals plus 1.  This exactly balances the electrons electric charge of minus 1.
-
-  The mystery starts when we add up the mass of the quarks we only get to 2% the mass of the proton itself.  Where does the rest of the mass come from?
-
-  We think that it must come from the complex interactions of spin and mass between the quarks and gluons.  Science has developed the mathematics to define these interactions.  It is called Quantum Chromodynamics, or QCD.
-
-  Science is trying to use this math to answer how the quarks and gluons are clumped together or spread out inside the nucleus.  We need to learn how fast they move and how they interact together. 
-
-  It is 50 years after the first discovery of quarks.  Today we need to study these quarks themselves that are 10,000 times smaller than the proton. 
-
-  Protons are positively charged.  “Like charges” repeal.  So, what holds the proton together inside the nucleus?  It is called the Strong Nuclear Force.  This force is carried by the “Gluons“. 
-
-  You can think of this like the Electromagnetic Force that exchanges “photons” in order to carry the force.
-
-  The differences comes with the fact that the Strong Force works in opposite ways.  It gets stronger with distance separation rather than weaker with distance separation.  This opposite force holding protons together is called a “ Color Charge”  Thus, the name chromodynamics.
-
-  Photons carry the electric charge and gluons carry the color charge.  Gluons also interact with each other exchanging more gluons.  QCD has to deal with these feedback loops of interactions which gets very complex.
-
-  The Strong Force gets weaker the closer quarks come together, the opposite of the electromagnetic force.  At the shortest distances inside the proton the quarks feel no force at all and behave as free particles. 
-
-  When quarks move away from each other the force increases rapidly confining the quarks inside the nucleus.  Consequently science has never found a quark or a gluon outside the nucleus of an atom.
-
-  For science to see inside he nucleus they must use wavelengths much smaller than light.  They must use high frequency X-rays.  By shining X-rays on the nucleus an interference pattern can be detected describing the atomic structure.  This technique can probe down to distances as small as 10^-9 meters. 
-
-  By measuring the reflected wavelengths coming out of the proton we can resolve distance down to 10^-15 meters.  Called femtometers. This is the distance scale of the proton.  This technique called Deep Inelastic Scattering, or DIS, is starting to allow the study of interactions of quarks and gluons inside protons. 
-
-  The study of these behaviors must use “probabilities” because these subatomic particles exist has a haze and not as points.   The do not exist as specific places and times.  But, as probabilities of places and times.
-
-  New instruments like the Electron - Ion Collider, or EIC, are beginning to provide a 3-D maps of inside the proton.  Proton positions and momentum can then be measured to define the quarks and gluons mass and spin.
-
-  They hope to learn how the QCD interactions occur between quarks and gluons.  This is what develops the 3-D maps of quarks and gluons inside the proton.  Each level of higher an higher resolution requires higher and higher energies of the X-ray probes. 
-
-  Electronics that is ubiquitous to our society is limited to developments down to 100 atoms dimensions,.  This is about 10 nanometers distance.  To see inside the proton we need to resolve structures that a re 1,000,000 times smaller. 
-
-  We re just learning to use nanotechnology.  What we are trying to create is femtotechnology. That is a million times more powerful.  Our far future may be using this technology just as we are using electromagnetic nanotechnology today. 
-
-  Learning to design and manipulate , or engineer, at this level transforms society into a whole new future.  Stay in school, all that we know today will be obsolete.
-
-  Other Reviews about atoms and protons:
-
-  2333  -  Rainbows can tell us what the Universe is made of.  Introduction to the science of spectroscopy.
-
-  2318  -  Brownian motion from atoms you can not see.
-
-  2315  -   About how atoms were first discovered.
-
-  2307 -  How small is the atom?
-
-  2255 -   History of the atom. 
-
-  2256 -  Atom’s stability and uncertainty?
-
-  1654  -  Everything we know about protons.
-
-  983  -  How an atom works?  All the math formulas.
-
-  985  -  Measuring how an atom works?
-
-  979  -  Calculating the mass of the proton.
-
-  924  -  Rutherford’s atom.   How the atom was discovered in 1911. 
-
-  May 23, 2019                                                                                    753                                                                                 
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
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---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   Friday, May 17, 2019  -------------------------
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ATOM - defining the atom?

-   2377 - ATOM  -  defining the atom  All the other elements in the periodic table above hydrogen and helium were created in the nuclear fusion of the stars  The first stars formed with only hydrogen and helium.  When they burned all their fuel and exploded as supernova they splattered the surrounding space with all the atoms in the higher level elements. 
-
-

-
---------------------------------- 2377  -  ATOM  -  defining the atom?           
-
-  The atom is the smallest particle that characterizes a chemical element.  There are 118 chemical elements in the Periodic Table and each one has a different atom.  When the ancients invented the atom they characterized it as the smallest indivisible part of matter.
-
-  Later it was discovered that the atom was composed of even smaller “indivisible” parts.  Atoms are composed of electrons, protons and neutrons.  A neutral atom has the same  number of protons and electrons, and  there is a different number of protons and electrons for each element.  The number of neutrons in the atom does not change the element but makes it a heavier isotope of that same element.
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-  Electrons are fundamental particles they can not be divided into smaller parts.  They are so small their size is considered immeasurable, but less than 10^-18 meters.
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- Protons are 1,836 times more massive than electrons.  In 1961 it was discovered that protons and neutrons themselves were not fundamental particles but were in fact made up of still smaller particles called quarks. 
-
-  In addition, it was discovered that the electron has a nearly massless , neutral partner called a neutrino.  Together the electron and the neutrino are called “Leptons“.
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--------------------------   Protons have 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.
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--------------------------   Neutrons have 1 up quark and 2 down quarks.
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-  The electrons are bound to the atom’s nucleus by ”photons“, the carriers of the electromagnetic force.  Protons and neutrons are bound inside the nucleus by “Gluons“, carriers of the Strong Nuclear Force.
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-  The nucleus of the atom is surrounded by a cloud of electrons.  The positions of the electrons around the nucleus are described by using statistical probabilities.  The shape of the orbital probabilities depends on each energy level the electrons are occupying. 
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-  Each orbit can hold 2 electrons, each with opposite spin.   Higher energy shells can hold more electrons and are located farther from the nucleus.  Each shell can hold (2*n^2) electrons, where “n” is the number of the shell.
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-  The electrons in the outer most shell are the “Valence Electrons“.  The Valence Electrons give the atom the chemical properties of each element.  For example:  helium has its outer shell full with 2 electrons so it is chemically neutral and does not easily react with the other elements.  Hydrogen on the other hand has only 1 electron in its outer shell and hydrogen reacts with most every element it encounters.
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-  For electrons to move between shells, to change state, they must absorb or emit energy in the form of photons.
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-  For protons or neutrons to change state they become radioactive.  Energy emitted in radioactivity can be in the form of protons, electrons, positrons or gamma rays.  When protons and  neutrons change state it requires 1000  times more energy than when electrons change state.
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-  Atoms are 1.06*10^-10 meters, or about 10.6 nanometers in size.    This is much smaller than the wavelengths of light which are 600 nanometers in size.  Therefore we can not see atoms with an optical microscope.
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-  The proton itself is only 10^-15 meters in size, or 100,000 times smaller than the atom.  If the atom was a football stadium the nucleus would be the size of a marble on the center of the 50 yard line.  The electron is smaller still.  If the atom were the size of the Earth the electron would be less the 10 centimeters in diameter, the electron is less than 10^-18 meters in diameter.
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-  At room temperature atoms making up gases in the air are moving at an average speed of 1,100 miles per hour.  Since each element has its own set of  electrons and energy levels, each element creates its own light emission /absorption pattern, its own unique spectral signature.  The emission colors and the absorption gaps are called spectrums, and are unique for each element.  Their spectrums are not limited to visible light but cover the whole electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to X-rays.
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-  In just 1 millionth of a second after the Big Bang quarks clumped together to form protons and neutrons.  After a hundred seconds protons and neutrons gathered into bunches consisting of two protons and two neutrons.  Eventually these bunches captured two electrons to form helium atoms and each single proton captured a single electron to form hydrogen atoms.  That was it, almost no higher level elements were formed with the Big Bang.
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-  Within 3 minutes after the Big Bang all atomic material in the Universe was created.  Hydrogen makes up 92% of the atoms in the Universe ( by number, not by weight ), helium 7%, and the rest only 1%.   After 379,000 years the Universe had cooled to 3,000K and the nuclei were able to capture electrons and to become neutral.
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-  Neutral atoms can only absorb photons at their discrete absorption levels.  Therefore, most of the photons were free to expand with the Universe’s expansion.  Today the expansion is 1000 times bigger and those photons have cooled by 1000 times, to 3 degrees Kelvin .  Today we can detect these photons as Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.
-
-  All the other elements in the periodic table above hydrogen and helium were created in the nuclear fusion of the stars  The first stars formed with only hydrogen and helium.  When they burned all their fuel and exploded as supernova they splattered the surrounding space with all the higher level elements. 
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-  The next stars that formed had these higher level elements in them.  They too exploded at their death and created even more higher level elements until we have the periodic table we have today.  The atoms in your body are star dust from these repeated explosions..
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-  The atoms are small.  A single tear drop contains 2*10^21 atoms, (2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms), of oxygen and 4*10^21 atoms of hydrogen  (H2O). 
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-  An E.Coli bacterium contains 100,000,000,000 atoms.  A single hair from your head contains 100,000,000,000,000 atoms.  The width of a human hair is 1,000,000 carbon atoms wide.
-
-   The number of atoms in 12 grams of coal is 6*10^27.  I won’t write that out in 27 zeros, but to say that number is 1,400,000 times larger the age of the Universe in seconds.
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-  Other Reviews about atoms:
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-  2333  -  Rainbows can tell us what the Universe is made of.  Introduction to the science of spectroscopy.
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-  2318  -  Brownian motion from atoms you can not see.
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-  2315  -   About how atoms were first discovered.
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-  2307 -  How small is the atom?
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-  2255    History of the atom. 
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-  2256  Atom’s stability and uncertainty?
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-  983  -  How an atom works?  All the math formulas.
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-  985  -  Measuring how an atom works?
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-  924  -  Rutherford’s atom.   How the atom was discovered in 1911. 
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-  May 23, 2019                                                                                    753                                                                                 
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   Friday, May 17, 2019  -------------------------
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ANTI-MATTER - Why does it exist?

-   2376  -   ANTI-MATTER  - Why does it exist?  Present theory suggests that if particles outnumbered antiparticles in the Big Bang by as little as one part in 100 million, then the present universe could be explained by those extra particles that were not annihilated by an antiparticle counterpart.
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-

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---------------------  2376  - ANTI-MATTER  - Why does it exist? 
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-  Antimatter  is matter that is composed of the antiparticles of those that constitute normal matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come in contact with each other, the two annihilate and produce a burst of energy, which results in the production of other particles and antiparticles or electromagnetic radiation.
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-   In these reactions, rest mass is not conserved, although energy (E=mc²) is conserved.
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-  In 1928 Paul Dirac developed a relativistic equation for the electron, now known as the Dirac equation. Curiously, the equation was found to have negative energy solutions in addition to the normal positive ones.
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-   This presented a problem, as electrons tend toward the lowest possible energy level; energies of negative infinity are nonsensical. As a way of getting around this, Dirac proposed that the vacuum can be considered a "sea" of negative energy, the Dirac sea. Any electrons would therefore have to sit on top of the sea.
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-  Thinking further, Dirac found that a "hole" in the sea would have a positive charge. At first he thought that this was the , but the hole should have the same mass as the electron. The existence of this particle, the positron, was confirmed experimentally in 1932 by Carl D. Anderson.
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-  Today's standard model shows that every particle has an antiparticle, for which each additive quantum number has the negative of the value it has for the normal matter particle.
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-  The sign reversal applies only to quantum numbers (properties) which are additive, such as charge, but not to mass, for example. The positron has the opposite charge but the same mass as the electron. An atom of anti-hydrogen is composed of a negatively-charged antiproton being orbited by a positively-charged positron .
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-  Scientists in 1995 succeeded in producing anti-atoms of hydrogen, and also anti-deuteron nuclei, made out of an antiproton and an antineutron, but no anti-atom more complex than anti-deuterium has been created yet.
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-  In principle, anti-atoms of any element could be built from readily available sources of antiparticles. Such anti-atoms would have exactly the same properties as their normal-matter counterparts. The production of anti-elements in bulk quantities seems unlikely to ever become achievable, however.
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-  Positrons and antiprotons can individually be stored in a device called a Penning trap, which uses a combination of magnetic field and electric fields to hold charged particles in a vacuum. Two international collaborations, used these devices to store thousands of slowly moving anti-hydrogen atoms in 2002.
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-  Science is working to confine the anti-atoms in an inhomogenous magnetic field (one cannot use electric fields since the antiatoms are neutral) and interrogate them with lasers. If the anti-atoms have too much kinetic energy they will be able to escape the magnetic trap, and it is therefore essential that the anti-atoms be produced with as little energy as possible.
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-  Antimatter/matter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET). In some kinds of beta decay, a nuclide loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and neutrinos are also given off).
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-   Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a cyclotron and are widely generated for medical use.  Antiparticles are created everywhere in the universe where high-energy particle collisions take place, such as in the center of our galaxy, but none has been detected that is residual from the Big Bang, as most normal matter is.
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-The unequal distribution between matter and antimatter in the universe has long been a mystery. The solution likely lies in the violation of CP-symmetry by the laws of nature.
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-   In antimatter-matter collisions, the entire rest mass of the particles is converted to energy. The energy per unit mass is about 10 orders of magnitude greater than chemical energy, and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than nuclear energy that can be liberated today using chemical reactions or nuclear fission/fusion.
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-  The reaction of 1 kg of antimatter with 1 kg of matter would produce 1.8×1017 J (180 petajoules) of energy (by the equation E=mc²). In contrast, burning a kilogram of gasoline produces 4.2×107 Joules and nuclear fusion of a kilogram of hydrogen would produce 2.6×1015 Joules.
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-  Not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic technology, because as much as 50% of energy produced in reactions between nucleons and anti-nucleons is carried away by neutrinos, so, for all intents and purposes, it can be considered lost.
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-  The scarcity of antimatter means that it is not readily available to be used as fuel, although it could be used in antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion. Generating a single antiproton is immensely difficult and requires particle accelerators and vast amounts of energy, millions of times more than is released after it is annihilated with ordinary matter, due to inefficiencies in the process.
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-   Known methods of producing antimatter from energy also produce an equal amount of normal matter, so the theoretical limit is that half of the input energy is converted to antimatter. Counterbalancing this, when antimatter annihilates with ordinary matter, energy equal to twice the mass of the antimatter is liberated, so energy storage in the form of antimatter could (in theory) be 100% efficient.
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-  Antimatter production is currently very limited, but has been growing at a nearly geometric rate since the discovery of the first antiproton in 1955.   The current antimatter production rate is between 1 and 10 nanograms per year, and this is expected to increase dramatically with new facilities at CERN and Fermilab.
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-  With current technology, it is considered possible to attain antimatter for US $25 million per gram by optimizing the collision and collection parameters (given current electricity generation costs).
-
-  Antimatter production costs, in mass production, are almost linearly tied in with electricity costs, so economical pure-antimatter thrust applications are unlikely to come online without the advent of such technologies as deuterium-tritium fusion power.
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-  Since the energy density is vastly higher than these other forms, the thrust to weight equation used in antimatter rocketry and spacecraft would be very different. In fact, the energy in a few grams of antimatter is enough to transport an unmanned spacecraft to Mars in about a month.
-
-   In contrast the Mars Global Surveyor took eleven months to reach Mars. It is hoped that antimatter could be used as fuel for interplanetary travel or possibly interstellar travel, but it is also feared that if humanity ever gets the capabilities to do so, there could be the construction of antimatter weapons.
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-  It is now thought that symmetry was broken in the early universe when charge and parity symmetry was violated (CP-violation). Standard Big Bang cosmology tells us that the universe initially contained equal amounts of matter and antimatter: however particles and antiparticles evolved slightly differently.
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-  It was found that a particular heavy unstable particle, which is its own antiparticle, decays slightly more often to positrons (e+) than to electrons (e-). How this accounts for the preponderance of matter over antimatter has not been completely explained. The Standard Model of particle physics does have a way of accommodating a difference between the evolution of matter and antimatter, but it falls short of explaining the net excess of matter in the universe by about 10 orders of magnitude.
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-  In 1932 Carl Anderson observed this new particle experimentally and it was named the "positron." This was the first known example of antimatter. In 1955 the antiproton was produced at the Berkeley Bevatron.
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-  In 1995 scientists created the first anti-hydrogen atom at the CERN research facility in Europe by combining the anti-proton with a positron (the normal hydrogen atom consists of one proton and one electron). But when these antihydrogen atoms are produced, they are traveling at nearly the speed of light and don't last too long (40 nanoseconds is typical).
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-  There is no real difference between particles and antiparticles in particle physics theories. They are equivalent. Most theoreticians believe that at the time of the Big Bang antiparticles and particles were created in almost equal numbers. But why, then, is antimatter so rare today?
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-   Present theory suggests that if particles outnumbered antiparticles in the Big Bang by as little as one part in 100 million, then the present universe could be explained by those extra particles that were not annihilated by an antiparticle counterpart.
-
-  Other theories suggest that even if identical amounts of antimatter and matter were created in the Big Bang, the physics of antimatter and matter are slightly different. This hypothesized difference would favor residual matter after all original antimatter had been annihilated.
-
-   Astronomers have discovered evidence for antimatter near the center of our Milky Way galaxy by observing photons with an energy of 511 keV, which is the energy created when a positron and an electron collide and annihilate.
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-  On Earth all antimatter that exists is counted in individual atoms. Low energy positrons are routinely used in a medical imaging technique called Positron Emission Tomography as well as studies of important materials used in electronics circuits. These positrons are the result of the natural decay of radioactive isotopes.
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-   While useful in medical and materials research applications, there are not enough of these anti-electrons to provide a useful form of rocket fuel. High-energy antimatter particles are only produced in relatively large numbers at a few of the world's largest particle accelerators. The current worldwide production rate of antimatter is on the order of 1 to 10 nanograms (billionths of a gram!) per year.
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-  May 22, 2019.                                                                                   
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   May 22, 2019  -------------------------
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