JimsAstronomy: March 2022

Thursday, March 31, 2022

3527 - SUN - solar eruptions in 2022

- 3527 - SUN - solar eruptions in 2022. April, 2022, the dazzling northern lights could light up the skies as far south as the northern United States after the detection of 17 solar eruptions blasting from a single sunspot, two of which are headed straight to Earth.

--------------------- 3527 - SUN - solar eruptions in 2022

- The two Earth-directed solar eruptions have merged into a "cannibal coronal mass ejection" and are barreling toward us at 1,881,263 mph. When it crashes into the Earth's magnetic field on the night of March 30, 2022, the result will be a powerful “G3” geomagnetic storm.

- “G3” storms are classified as “strong geomagnetic storms“, meaning that the oncoming sun blast could bring the aurora as south as Pennsylvania, Iowa and Oregon. The sunspot, called “AR2975“, has been shooting out flares of electrically charged particles from the sun's plasma soup since March 2, 2022.

- Sunspots are areas on the sun's surface where powerful magnetic fields, created by the flow of electrical charges, knot into kinks before suddenly snapping. The resulting release of energy launches bursts of radiation called “solar flares“, or explosive jets of solar material called “coronal mass ejections” (CMEs).

- “Cannibal coronal mass ejections” happen when fast-moving solar eruptions overtake earlier eruptions in the same region of space, sweeping up charged particles to form a giant, combined wavefront that triggers a powerful geomagnetic storm.

- The "frenzy" of solar flares meant that "at least two full-halo Earth striking CMEs emerged from the chaos. The second CME is expected to overtake and "cannibalize" the first before hitting Earth's magnetic field at around 11 p.m. ET time on March 30.

- CME's usually take around 15 to 18 hours to reach Earth. When they do, the Earth's magnetic field gets compressed slightly by the waves of highly energetic particles, which ripple down magnetic field lines and agitate molecules in the atmosphere, releasing energy in the form of light to create colorful auroras in the night sky.

- The energy from the storm is expected to be harmlessly absorbed by our magnetic field, but large solar storms still have the potential to wreak havoc. “G3” storms can cause intermittent satellite navigation and low-frequency radio navigation problems.

- A recent storm in February, 2022, sent 40 Starlink satellites tumbling back to Earth. An even larger one could have the potential to cripple the internet across the globe.

Scientists think that the largest ever solar storm witnessed during contemporary history was the “1859 Carrington Event“, carried roughly the same energy as 10 billion 1-megaton atomic bombs.

- After slamming into the Earth, the powerful stream of solar particles fried telegram systems all over the world and caused auroras brighter than the light of the full moon to appear as far south as the Caribbean.

- If a similar event happened today, it would cause trillions of dollars in damage and widespread blackouts, much like the solar storm which caused the 1989 Quebec blackout.

- At least 17 of these solar eruptions from a single sunspot on the sun have blasted into space in these recent days. Sunspots are eruptions on the sun that occur when magnetic lines twist and suddenly realign near the visible surface.

- Modeling suggests that the particles may generate G2 or G3 (moderate) geomagnetic storms, although auroras (northern lights and southern lights) are notoriously hard to predict. The year 2022 is expected to be relatively quiet for the sun overall, as we are still towards the beginning of the 11-year solar cycle of activity that began in December, 2019.

- Solar Cycle beginnings usually have fewer sunspots and fewer eruptions. Activity should increase as we approach the peak, forecasted to be in mid-2025. Scientists are debating how strong this current solar cycle will be, although forecasts so far indicate that the average number of sunspots may be lower than usual.

- A strong flare aimed towards Earth, along with a large CME, may induce problems such as damaging power lines or disabling satellites.

- Here's what's contained in that glowing ball of gas we circle every year of our lives:

- Deep in the heart of our sun is its core, which is where the fusion reactions that power our star take place. That means there's no adjective quite strong enough to describe just how hot and dense the core is, where temperatures reach over 27,000,000 degrees Fahrenheit and material is packed together more than 10 times more densely than in lead.

- These 17 solar eruptions from a single sunspot on the sun that have blasted into space in recent days, including some charged particles that may create a colorful sky show on Earth. Sunspots are eruptions on the sun that occur when magnetic lines twist and suddenly realign near the visible surface.

- After a photon leaves the sun's core, it moves outward to begin its long journey. Any individual photon takes more than 100,000 years to travel from the core to the outer border of the “radiative zone“, because it bounces up and down rather than moving in a straight line.

- The “convection zone” starts where the sun's density weakens, continuing the heat transfer begun deeper in the sun. Photons pick up speed in this region and large bubbles of hot plasma quickly rise through the convection zone.

- “The photosphere” is the outermost visible layer of the sun, what we think of as the star's surface. This is where sunspots form and where the light that eventually reaches us on Earth comes from. Here, temperatures are relatively temperate, at about 10,000 degrees F.

- The “chromosphere” is usually incredibly difficult to see, because it just leaves a reddish glow around the sun. But scientists think this unprepossessing layer may be crucial to conducting heat out of the sun and into the star's incredibly hot upper atmosphere.

- The “corona” is the barely there outermost layer of the sun, which we can see only during a total solar eclipse, when the moon blocks out the brightness of the star's photosphere. That's made the corona remarkably difficult to study. But, beginning later this year, NASA will fly a spacecraft directly though the corona to try to solve its lingering mysteries.

- The “solar wind” isn't technically a layer of the sun, but the constant stream of highly charged particles flowing off the sun is one of the key ways our star affects planets. Here on Earth, our atmosphere mostly blankets us from the solar wind, but it's a key hazard for satellites and space travel.

- The solar wind also defines our solar system, which stretches as far as the wind does. That is considered the edge of our solar system.

March 31, 2022 SUN - solar eruptions in 2022. 3527

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----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Thursday, March 31, 2022 ---------------------------

Wednesday, March 30, 2022

3526 - MOON - rocket crash on the Moon

- 3526 - MOON - rocket crash on the Moon, On March 4, 2022, a spent rocket booster will smack into the surface of the Moon at nearly 6,000 mph. Once the dust has settled, NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter will move into position to get an up-close view of the smoldering crater and hopefully shed some light on the mysterious physics of planetary impacts. At least on Moon impacts.

--------------------- 3526 - MOON - rocket crash on the Moon

- The Moon has been a steadfast witness to solar system history, its heavily cratered surface recording innumerable collisions over the last 4 billion years. Scientists rarely get a glimpse of the projectiles, asteroids, or comets that form these craters.

- The upcoming rocket impact will provide a fortuitous experiment that could reveal a lot about how natural collisions pummel and scour planetary surfaces. A deeper understanding of impact physics will go a long way in helping researchers interpret the barren landscape of the Moon and also the effects impacts have on Earth and other planets.

- The rocket is expected to crash into the large Hertzsprung crater just out of view of Earth on the far side of the Moon. Astronomers know that the object is an upper stage booster discarded from a high-altitude satellite launch. It is roughly 40 feet long and weighs nearly 10,000 pounds. Evidence suggests that it is likely either a SpaceX rocket launched in 2015 or a Chinese rocket launched in 2014, but both parties have denied ownership.

- An instant after the rocket touches the lunar surface, a shock wave will travel up the length of the projectile at several miles per second. Within milliseconds, the back end of the rocket hull will be obliterated with bits of metal exploding in all directions.

- A twin shock wave will travel downward into the powdery top layer of the Moon’s surface called the regolith. The compression of the impact will heat up the dust and rocks and generate a white-hot flash that would be visible from space if there happened to be a craft in the area at the time.

- A cloud of vaporized rock and metal will expand from the impact point as dust, and sand-sized particles will be thrown skyward. Over the course of several minutes, the ejected material will rain back down to the surface around the now-smoldering crater. Virtually nothing will remain of the rocket.

- NASA performed a similar experiment in 2009 when it intentionally crashed the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite, or LCROSS, into a permanently shadowed crater near the lunar south pole.

- By studying the composition of the dust plume lofted into the sunlight, scientists were able to find signs of a few hundred pounds of water ice that had been liberated from the Moon’s surface by the impact. This was a crucial piece of evidence to support the idea that for billions of years, comets have been delivering water and organic compounds to the Moon when they crash on its surface.

- However, the LCROSS rocket’s crater is permanently obscured by shadows. This impact crater will not be visible from Earth, so scientists will rely on photos from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter.

- Since the impact is going to occur on the far side of the Moon, it will be out of view for Earth-based telescopes. But about two weeks after the impact, NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter will begin to get glimpses of the crater as its orbit takes it above the impact zone.

- Once conditions are right, the lunar orbiter’s camera will start taking photos of the impact site with a resolution of about a 3 feet per pixel. The shape of the crater and ejected dust and rocks will hopefully reveal how the rocket was oriented at the moment of impact.

- A vertical orientation will produce a more circular feature, whereas an asymmetric debris pattern might indicate more of a belly flop. Models suggest that the crater could be anywhere from around 30 to 100 feet in diameter and about 6 to 10 feet deep.

- Unlike the moon surrounding Earth is a powerful magnetic field created by swirling liquid iron in the planet’s core. Earth’s magnetic field may be nearly as old as the Earth itself and stands in stark contrast to the Moon, which completely lacks a magnetic field today.

- In the 1980s, geophysicists studying rocks brought back by Apollo astronauts concluded the Moon once had a magnetic field that was as strong as Earth’s. But a robust magnetic field requires a power source, and the Moon’s core is relatively small.

- Scientists found that the Moon did not in fact have a long-lived magnetic field. Not only does this finding change the modern understanding of the Moon’s geologic history, it also has major implications for the presence of resources on the Moon that could be critical to future human exploration.

- Certain rocks have the extraordinary ability to preserve records of past magnetic fields when they contain minerals with iron atoms that align with a magnetic field as the rock cools and solidifies. The best magnetic minerals at preserving evidence of a field are tiny, a thousand times smaller than the width of a human hair, because it takes a lot of energy to rearrange their atoms.

- Geophysicists who study ancient magnetism recreate this process, reheating rock samples in the presence of known magnetic fields and comparing the new alignment of the iron atoms with the orientation of iron atoms before the rock was reheated. This allows researchers to learn about past magnetic fields.

- Early researchers studying the first rocks brought back from the Moon by U.S. astronauts wanted to use this method to study the Moon’s magnetism. But they faced problems. Lunar rocks contain a certain type of iron, called native iron, that is easily altered by heat. Additionally, the native iron grains in lunar rocks are sometimes relatively large, making them less likely to reliably record past magnetic fields.

- From the 1970s onward, geophysicists used alternative, nonheating methods to study the Moon’s magnetism. They found that some lunar samples had recorded strong magnetic fields, suggesting that the Moon had a magnetic field for over 2 billion years.

- But this result only deepened the conundrum. The question of how the Moon’s core could produce a strong magnetic field remained unsolved. In the experiments, some Apollo samples showed evidence of strong magnetic fields but other samples did not. Some researchers attributed the missing magnetization to the presence of large native iron grains that were poor magnetic recorders. But many of the samples also contained small iron grains that should have recorded a field.

- In 2011, scientists used an ultrasensitive superconducting magnetometer and a special carbon dioxide laser to rapidly heat samples in a way that avoids altering their iron minerals. We found that nearly all the rocks had profoundly weak magnetic signals.

- So what explains the previous findings of a magnetic Moon? The answer was in one of the samples: a small, dark piece of glass containing tiny iron-nickel particles. This small piece of lunar glass was formed and magnetized by a meteorite impact and could explain the strong magnetic readings from the past.

- The glass was made by a meteorite impact and showed clear evidence of a strong magnetic field. But it was formed only about 2 million years ago. Nearly all geophysicists agree the Moon did not have a magnetic field at that time, because after 4.5 billion years of cooling there was not enough heat left to power the churning of iron in the Moon’s core to generate a field.

- The magnetic signature of the glass matched simulations of magnetic fields that can be generated by meteor impacts. This showed that meteorite impacts alone can create strong magnetic fields that magnetize rocks nearby. This could explain the high values previously reported from some Apollo rocks.

- This new view of lunar magnetism has huge implications for the potential presence of valuable resources as well as information about the ancient Sun and Earth that may be buried in lunar soils.

- Magnetic fields act as shields that prevent solar particles from reaching a planet or moon. Without a magnetic field, solar wind can hit the surface of the Moon directly and implant elements like helium-3 and hydrogen into the soil.

- Helium-3 has many applications, but importantly, it could be a fuel source for nuclear fusion and future planetary exploration. The value of hydrogen comes from the fact that it can combine with oxygen to form water, another crucial resource in space.

- Since the Moon did not have a long-lived magnetic field, these elements could have been accumulating in soils for billions of years longer than previously thought.

- Elements embedded by solar wind could shed light on the evolution of the Sun. And as the Moon passes through Earth’s magnetic field, elements from Earth’s atmosphere can be deposited on the lunar surface, and these may hold clues about the earliest Earth.

- The amount of heat generated from the impact will also be valuable information. If observations can be made quickly enough, there’s a possibility the lunar orbiter’s infrared instrument will be able to detect glowing-hot material inside the crater. This could be used to calculate the total amount of heat from the impact.

- Impacts and crater formation are a pervasive phenomenon in the solar system. Craters shatter and fragment planetary crusts, gradually forming the loose, granular top layer common on most airless worlds. However, the overall physics of this process are poorly understood despite how common it is.

- Observing the upcoming rocket impact and resulting crater could help planetary scientists better interpret the data from the 2009 LCROSS experiment and produce better impact simulations. With a veritable phalanx of missions planned to visit the Moon in the coming years, knowledge of lunar surface properties, especially the quantity and depth of buried ice, is in high demand.

- Regardless of this wayward rocket’s identity, this rare impact event will provide new insights that may prove critical to the success of future missions to the Moon and beyond.

March 27, 2022 MOON - rocket crash on the Moon 3520

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----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Wednesday, March 30, 2022 ---------------------------

3525 - SUPERCONDUCTIVITY - at room temperatures?

- 3525 - SUPERCONDUCTIVITY - at room temperatures? Superconductivity could bring us near free electricity, levitated train travel, MRIs in every doctors office and who knows what else. The challenge is getting superconductivity to work at high enough temperatures that it can be commercially produced.

---------------- 3525 - SUPERCONDUCTIVITY - at room temperatures?

- We are making progress. Superconductivity is occurring at ever higher temperatures. When we know why, a breakthrough will be imminent ,and, that physicists with be eminent.

- Superconductivity is a property of metals to carry electricity with zero resistance. No loss of power. No losses due to heat. It is amazing. The only problem is it occurs in materials frozen to near Absolute Zero, - 273 Centigrade.

- A loop of this material at 4 Kelvin would carry an electric current for ever without adding any additional energy to keep it going. Several loops of this material could create an electromagnet that would not draw any power once it was started.

- If we could get superconductivity to work at room temperatures we could have transmission lines that would send electricity across the country with zero power loss. We could have trains on magnetic railroad tracks that would levitate the entire train and send it along with little to no power to keep it running.

- Magnetic Resonance Imaging could be available in every doctors office because MRIs could be cheap and readily available. Airport screening also comes to mind. So, what is stopping superconductors from going commercial?

- Superconductivity only works at very low temperatures, close to Absolute Zero. It takes liquid helium to cool material down to these temperatures. Liquid helium is very expensive to produce.

- Superconductivity was first discovered in Mercury in 1911. At 4 degrees Kelvin electric current would flow in the frozen metal with no resistance. Once current was started it is still flowing today. But, it took liquid helium coolant to get to those temperatures.

- From that day on the search has been on to find materials that are resistance - free to electron flow at increasingly higher temperatures. Higher than 4 degrees Kelvin.

- In 1954 Niobium - Tin was found to be superconductive at 18 Kelvin.

- Nioblum is an element with 41 protons and 41 electrons. Abbreviated Nb in the Periodic Table and Nb(41) to designate the atomic number which is the number of protons. Tin is Sn (50). Tin has 50 protons in the atomic nucleus. The 50 electrons are in shells of 2 + 8 + 18 + 18 + 2 + 2 = 50

- In 1986 a copper oxide was found superconductive at 35 Kelvin. LaBaCuO is the copper oxide. It is a compond of Lanthanum (57), and Barium (56), and Cu is Copper (29) and Oxygen (8)

- In 2008 LaOFeAs was the first iron-based superconductor at 26 Kelvin.

- Fe = Iron(26) As = Arsenic (33). Iron was not expected to be a good superconductor material because of its rich magnetic properties. “Cooper Pairs” of electrons are what creates super conduction and a strong magnetic field will break down Cooper Pairs. So, iron was not used in the research for a long time. This material is a surprise and shows that we do not understand superconductivity well enough.

- In 2001 Magnesium Diboride was superconductive at 39 Kelvin.

- Magnesium(12) shells are 2+8+2 = 12 was discovered in 1808. When combined with water is forms milk of magnesia. It is lightweight (12) and is used in building airplanes. It burns brightly in fireworks. It is essential fertilizer for most plants. Diboride, I do not know what that is.

- In 2008 SmFeAsO was superconductive at 55 Kelvin. Sm = Samarium (62).

- In 1987 Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide was superconductive at 92 Kelvin.

- Yttrium is Y(39). Barium is Ba(56). 92 Kelvin was a temperature above the boiling point of liquid Nitrogen and liquid Nitrogen was a lot cheaper coolant to use than liquid Helium.

- In 1995 Thallium doped Mercury cuprate went superconductive at 138 Kelvin. Thallium is Ti(81) and Mercury is Hg(80)

- In 2010 everyone is still trying to produce the record high temperature superconductor material. The closer we can get to room temperature the cheaper and more successful a commercial application becomes.

- How do these “high” temperature superconductors work? What is the physics that is going on?

- We are still trying to figure this out. There seem to be two classes of superconductivity. One is iron-based discovered in 2008 at 55 Kelvin , and, the other is copper-oxide based discovered in 1986 found to work up to 138 Kelvin. These copper-oxide materials are called “ cuprates”. The problem with them is that although they operate at the highest temperatures cuprates are brittle and very hard to form into wires.

- The physics theory we are working with is that superconductivity occurs because under certain conditions electrons can pair up in what is called “Cooper Pairs“. The pairing prevents electrons from bouncing off atoms in the lattice structure and loosing energy.

- Somehow a negatively charged electron passing through a lattice structure of positively charged ions pulls nearby ions close creating a region of positive charge. The positive region attracts another electron to come through the lattice and pair with the first electron. At high temperatures, above 30 Kelvin, the heat energy, or vibration of atoms, is thought to break Cooper pairs apart. Superconductivity would therefore stop above 30 Kelvin temperatures.

- When it was discovered that the cuprates of Lanthanum, Copper Oxygen, Barium, a brittle ceramic material, worked at 35 Kelvin some new theories about how superconductivity was working had to be found. La(57) Cu(29) O(8) Ba(56).

- The process of doping these compounds seemed to make a difference. By replacing some of the atoms swapping out other atoms changed the number of electrons making superconductivity occur more easily.

- Iron-arsenic compounds can come in two types, paramagnetic and anti-ferromagnetic. When anti-ferromagnetic the material’s magnetic fields of individual atoms line up in alternating directions. Anti-ferromagnetic material combined with doping seemed to raise the temperatures where superconductivity could occur.

- A lecture at SSU on 11-15-10: Dr. Pei-Chun Ho, a scientist at Fresno State University gave a lecture on her experimentation at Fresno with the superconductivity:

------------------ Pr Os4 Sb12

----------------- Pr = Praseodymium (59) has 59 protons and an atomic weight of 140.91

----------------- Os = Osmium (76) with 76 protons and atomic weight of 190.

- Os 4 is an isotope of Osmium with the nucleus also having 4 neutrons. Osmium has electrons in the shells of 2 + 8 + 18 + 32 + 8 + 6 +2 = 76. The metal was discovered in 1803 named of the Greek word meaning smell. It combines with oxygen to produce a toxic odor. It is one of the hardest metals, along with Iridium. It is the least compressible element, along with Carbon. Its extreme hardness is used in pens, photograph needles, instrument pivot points, electrical contacts.

---------------- Sb = Antimony (51) with 51 protons and an atomic weight of 121.75.

- Antimony is a brittle, hard metal used in ceramics its electons are in shells : 2 + 8 + 18 + 18 + 2 + 3 = 51. Sb12 is an isotope with 12 neutrons in the nucleus.

- Another compound being studied is BaFe2As2P

--------------- Ba = Barium(56) weight 137.34

--------------- Fe2 = Iron (26) weight 55.85, plus 2 neutrons

--------------- As2 = Arsenic (33) weight 74.9, plus 2 neutrons

--------------- P = Phosphorus (15) weight 30.97

- This material exhibits both anti-ferromagnetic and paramagnetic properties depending on degrees of doping. It is superconductive at 45 Kelvin.

- You can imagine how complex these compounds are to work with. The crystalline structures are geometrically challenging to grow and to understand. Doping alters the lattice structures. Atoms come together in complex ways. Electrons navigate in the shells and somehow they find a combination where navigation is resistant - free.

- Electricity flows freely, no loss of power, no thermal energy generated. There is a Nobel Prize for sure in someone’s future if they can discover the combination of materials that work at very high temperatures, above 273 Kelvin. And, to the physicists that can explain how this happens?

- Cooper Pairs are being challenged as the only idea. There is really basic fundamental research at the Quantum Mechanical level involved here. That is why superconductivity is weird. If you are not confused you really do not understand the problem.

March 29, 2022 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY - at room temperatures? 1224 3525

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----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Wednesday, March 30, 2022 ---------------------------

Tuesday, March 29, 2022

3523 - STARS - that are our Nearest Neighbors?

- 3523 - STARS - that are our Nearest Neighbors? The 8 nearest stars to us are less than 10 lightyears away. The closest is 4.2 lightyears away. Each star has a story to tell, and, learning about them makes finding these points of light in the sky much more interesting.

--------------------- 3523 - STARS - that are our Nearest Neighbors?

- One of the most disappointing things about backyard astronomy is that you use your telescope for the first time to look at the stars and all you see are points of light. Not very interesting! The planets are nice but the stars need some work. It involves knowledge and imagination.

- As you learn about these astronomical objects you enjoy finding them in the night sky and then you enjoy your imagination visualizing what you are seeing is really like. I collect Hubble images for the same effect.

- Ok, let’s find the nearest stars and see what our imagination should add to the discovery. First, let’s start with the brightest stars. The ones easiest to find but not necessarily the closest to us.

--------------------------------------------------- Constellation ----------------------

(1) ---------------- Sirius ------------------ Canis Major “ The Greater Dog”

(2) ---------------- Canopus --------------- Carina “ The Keel”

(3) ---------------- Alpha Centauri ------ Centaurus “ The Centaur”

(4) ---------------- Arcturus --------------- Bootes “ The Bear Driver”

(5) ---------------- Vega -------------------- Lyra “ The Harp”

(6) ---------------- Capella ----------------- Auriga “ The Charioteer”

(7) ---------------- Rigel -------------------- Orion “ The Hunter”

(8) ---------------- Procyon ----------------- Canis Minor “ The Lesser Dog”

(9) ---------------- Betegeuse --------------- Orion “ The Hunter”

- It turns out that the Third Brightest Star is Alpha Centauri, which is actually three stars orbiting each other. Here is a list of the 8 closest stars. All are less than 10 lightyears away. None of the rest, except Sirius, makes the list as the brightest.

- You can find the 100 closest stars, fortunately most of them can be found from the northern hemisphere.

----------------------------------------------------------- Lightyears away ----------------------

(1) ---------------- Proxima Centauri --------------------- 4.2

(2) ---------------- Alpha Centauri A & B --------------- 4.4

(3) ---------------- Bernard’s Star ------------------------- 6.0

(4) ---------------- Wolf 359 ------------------------------- 7.8

(5) ---------------- Lelande 21185 ------------------------- 8.3

(6) ---------------- Sirius A and B ------------------------- 8.6

(7) ---------------- UV and BL Ceti ----------------------- 8.7

(8) ---------------- Ross 154 -------------------------------- 9.7

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(1) ---------------- Proxima Centauri --------------------- 4.2

(2) ---------------- Alpha Centauri A & B --------------- 4.4 , actually Alpha Centauri is a triple star. the stars combined become the third brightest star in the sky. The separation between stars A and B varies between 2 arc seconds and 23 arc seconds. In year 2010, they are 7 arc seconds apart. Most telescopes can resolve 1 arc second, so, you should have no trouble splitting the pair.

- The third star is Alpha Centauri C, known as Proxima Centauri, our closest star. It is only 4.24 lightyears away. However, it is so dim, only Magnitude 11.1, it is very difficult to make out with a backyard telescope.

(3) ---------------- Bernard’s Star ------------------------- 6.0 lightyears away in the Constellation Ophiucus “ The Serpent Bearer” is the second closest system and the fastest star moving across the sky. Moving across the sky, 90 degrees to our line of sight, is called “proper motion”. Moving along our line of sight, toward us or away from us, is called “radial motion“.

- Bernard’s Star is a Red Dwarf star with a Magnitude 9.5. It has a luminosity, (brightness), of only about 0.04% that of our Sun. It is very faint and a very old star, probably 12,000,000,000 years old. Our Sun in comparison is only 5,000,000,000 years old. In the past 50 years Barnard’s star has moved across the sky over 10 arc seconds, that is 1/3 the diameter of the Full Moon.

(4) ---------------- Wolf 359 ------------------------------- 7.8 lightyears away. If you are a Star Trek fan you know that this was the star system where Mr. Spock was from, his home planet orbiting this star was Vulcan. This star is in the Constellation “Leo the Lion”. It is very faint, only Magnitude 13.4.

- It has a mass that is 9% that of our Sun. That is barely enough mass to create nuclear fusion and to become a star. Mr Spock’s planet would have to orbit his star very close in order for Spock to stay warm.

(5) ---------------- Lelande 21185 ------------------------- 8.3 lightyears away in the Constellation Ursa Major “ The Bear”. It is a Magnitude 7.5. Lelande is a star that is actually moving towards us, very unusual. In fact, in another 19,500 years it should be the third closest star, moving closer than Wolf 359 and Bernard’s Star at 4.60 lightyears away.

- Skipping down to the 8th , 14th, and 15th closest stars:

(8) ---------------- Ross 154 -------------------------------- 9.7 lightyears away in the

Constellation Sagittarius “The Archer”, or as I call it “ The Teapot”. This is a variable star. During an outburst its brightness increases by 4 Magnitudes. It is normally a Red Star at 10.4 Magnitude.

- It is 17% the mass of our Sun and about 1,000,000,000 years old. It is rotating at 2.2 miles per hour. Our Sun also rotates very slowly taking about 25 days to complete one rotation. Of course, Earth takes one day and its surface is rotating at 1,000 miles per hour.

(14) ---------------- 61 Cygni ------------------------- 11.4 lightyears away is a double star in the Constellation Cygnus “ The Swan”. It is a Magnitude 5.2 and Magnitude 6.0. This pair of stars at 11.4 lightyears away and were the first stars measured using parallax to determine their distance. This was first done in 1838.

- As the Earth completes its orbit about the Sun each year our viewpoint changes by the diameter, 2 times 93 million miles, every 6 months. The parallax to nearby stars creates a shift in the angle to view the star against its distant background stars that do not shift.

- This angle forms the tip of a triangle with a base of 186,000,000 miles. Using some geometry we can calculate the height of the triangle to be a distance of 67,000,000,000,000 miles, or 11.4 lightyears.

(15) ----------------- LFT 1431-32 ------------------ 11.5 lightyears away in the Constellation Draco “ The Dragon”. It is another double star each shining in reddish light at Magnitude 8.9 and Magnitude 9.7. Their separation is 14 arc seconds so you telescope should easily split the pair. LFT stands for a proper motion of 0.5 arc seconds. That happens to be the astronomer’s abbreviation for stars having a proper motion of FT, five tenths of an arc second, 0.5 arc seconds.

(27) ---------------- Kruger 60 -------------------------- 13.4 lightyears is another double star in the Constellation Cepheus “ The King of Ethiopia”. These are Red Dwarf stars shining at Magnitude 9.8 and Magnitude 11.4. The stars orbit each other in 44 years and the separation is only 2 to 3 arc seconds.

- Those distances correspond to the distance between the Jun and Jupiter out to the distance between the Sun and Saturn. It is a good test for your telescope to see if you can resolve the pair. One of the pair is another Flare Star that has outbursts of light lasting 8 minutes, but, not at a regular occurrence. It is a doubling of brightness but consider yourself lucky if you happen to see it.

(52) ---------------------- 70 Ophiuchi ------------------ 16.6 lightyears away. This is another double star that has a separation of 5 arc seconds. One star is yellow-orange of Magnitude 4.2. The other is Magnitude 6.1, only 17% as much light as its companion.

(53) --------------------- Altair -------------------------- is the 53rd nearest star but the 12th brightest star of Magnitude 0.77 in the Constellation Aquila “ The Eagle”. Altair rotates very rapidly, a complete rotation ever 9 hours, our Sun takes 25 days for a complete rotation. Altair’s rapid rotation swells its equator by 20%.

- Finding these nearest neighbor stars is an astronomer’s challenge. When you do find the right spot of light, or often, two spots of light, it helps to know the stories that fire the imagination.

March 29, 2022 3523 - STARS - that are our Nearest Neighbors? 1236 3520

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Tuesday, March 29, 2022 ---------------------------

3524 - MILKY WAY GALAXY - the size of the U.S.A.

- 3524 - MILKY WAY GALAXY - the size of the U.S.A. To better visualize our galaxy we could superimpose the spiral arms of the stars on the map of the United States. The center of the galaxy would be in Topeka , Kansas. The arms would spiral out to each coastline and halfway into Canada and Mexico.

------------------ 3524 - MILKY WAY GALAXY - the size of the U.S.A.

- Scaling the Milky Way Galaxy on to the map of the U.S. helps us visualize the vastness of what we can see in astronomy. It adds to our imagination when we gaze into the night sky.

- It is hard to visualize our Milky Way Galaxy because we are inside it. Of course, we can look at other spiral galaxies and think the Milky Way must look similar. And, then there are the lightyears of distance involved that are also hard to comprehend.

- Our Solar System is 28,000 lightyears away from the center of our galaxy. On a good seeing night we can see the disk of the Milky Way as a band of stars stretching from the Constellation Sagittarius , the “Teapot”, in the southern sky to the Constellation Cassiopeia in the northern sky.

- The spout of the “ Teapot” is the center of our galaxy. That is where the central Blackhole resides. The band of stars is the disk we can see looking edgewise. The disk totally encircles us so we only see part of it each night throughout the year.

- We are lucky that the central Blackhole is 28,000 lightyears away because the central bulge is very crowded and dynamic with stars in furious motion. Our Solar System is about half way out from the center to the edge of the galaxy. The galaxy radius is 60,000 lightyears, the diameter 120,000 lightyears.

- That is the starlight observable part, 120,000 lightyesrs. The galaxy is 4 to 5 times larger if we count the invisible hydrogen gas and the “Dark Matter” that we can not see. Then there are dozens of Dwarf Galaxies orbiting our galaxy like moons orbiting large planets.

- To better visualize our galaxy we could superimpose the spiral arms of the stars on the map of the United States. The center of the galaxy would be in Topeka , Kansas. The arms would spiral out to each coastline and halfway into Canada and Mexico.

- If we use these dimensions then the 3,000 miles coast to coast corresponds to 120,000 lightyears distance. One light year would be 132 feet on this scale. One mile would be 40 lightyears. The Blackhole would be in Topeka, Kansas and our Solar System would be in Auburn, Indiana.

- That is my home town and the center of my universe my first couple decades. Auburn is in the northeast corner of Indiana very close to the Ohio and Michigan borders, some 700 miles from Topeka. However, using this same scale our entire Solar System would be only 2 inches across centered in Auburn.

- From my hometown all the stars we could see with the naked eye ( up to Magnitude 6.0) and out 1,000 lightyears would be within 25 miles of town. It would just barely get to the Michigan border.

- Here are the footnotes for the math in these calculations. The scale is 40 lightyears per mile).

- (1) 120,000 lightyears is scaled down to 3,000 miles, or 40 lightyears = 1 mile.

- (2) The distance from us to the center of the galaxy is 28,000 lightyears or 700 miles.

- (3) Stars seen with the naked eye out 1,000 lightyears are 1,000 / 40 = 25 miles away.

- (4) The Observable Universe is 1.3 *10^26 meters, there are 9.46 *10^15 meters per lightyear so that is 13.7*10^9 lightyears divided by 40 lightyears per mile = 342 *10^6 miles.

- The Solar System is 2 inches across and the Sun is so small you cannot see it. It would be 1/20th the thickness of a piece of paper. One of the biggest stars would be the size of this period “.”

- Arcturus is a big star 37 lightyears away. To find it follow the curved handle of the Big Dipper. Continue the arc to reach the next brightest star half way across the sky. That is Arcturus.

- (Changing scales for a moment if the Sun were a marble Arcturus would be a beach ball 2,500 miles from the Sun.). However, on our scale Arcturus would be the size of a period less than a mile away and at the edge of the city limits in the small town of Auburn.

- The Ring Nebula, M57, is 2,300 lightyears away. The nebula’s ring is 119 feet across and 57 miles away in the direction south-southwest of Auburn.

- The Hercules Cluster, M13, is 25,100 lightyears away and 145 lightyears across. Its cluster of hundreds of thousands of stars would fill a sphere 3.6 miles wide. It would lie 628 miles south-southwest of Auburn.

- The edges of the Milky Way reaches the east and west coasts of the U.S. From there you have to travel ¼th the distance to the Moon to reach the Andromeda Galaxy, M31. It would be 62,500 miles away.

- The Virgo Cluster of galaxies, M87, would be 1,500,000 miles away.

- To get to the edges of the Observable Universe you would need to continue out 342,000,000 miles from Topeka in all directions. Remember, our Solar System is only 2 inches nestled in this vast distance. And, also remember that light took 13,700,000,000 years to reach us.

- Actually the Universe Horizon has moved away from us another 833,000,000 miles during that 13.7 billion years. That galaxy that we could see at the edge of the Universe is now another 1,175,000,000 miles away.

- Therefore, comparing our 2 inch Solar system on the U.S. map is a small speck looking across a 2,350,000,000 miles of Universe, plus beyond that we can never see because that light will not have enough time to reach us. ( The edges of the Universe’s “horizon” are 94,000,000,000 lightyears across, and still expanding.)

- I hope this journey across the galaxy map helps you visualize what you are seeing in the Milky Way disk stretching across the night sky. Most of astronomy is imagination. Best wishes and Clear Skies.

March 27, 2022 MILKY WAY GALAXY - the size of the U.S.A. 1233 3524

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----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Tuesday, March 29, 2022 ---------------------------

Monday, March 28, 2022

3522 - ENERGY - of a solar flare, Math

- 3522 - ENERGY - of a solar flare, Math. - On November 4, 2003 a Solar Flare was observed by satellite detectors that measured the intensity of radiation in watts per square meter per second. This light intensity was recorded over several minutes. The light intensity rose very quickly, in 3 to 5 seconds. How much energy was released?

--------------------- 3522 - ENERGY - of a solar flare, Math

- The intensity decayed more slowly, in 85 seconds. This review explains how astronomers calculated the energy of such a solar flare. Actually the detectors in the satellites are very sensitive and the peak intensity of the flare was so intense it saturated the detectors so no record could be made of the peak. Calculus to the rescue.

- During maximum solar activity 1,100 solar flares occur each year. The flares follow the lines of the magnetic fields exiting the Sun’s surface at one point ( the north pole) and entering the Sun’s surface at another point ( the south magnetic pole for each flare).

- A solar flare can carry gas particles out to 100,000 mile for the Sun’s surface. Temperatures in the flares can measure 5,000,000 degrees Kelvin. This particular flare only lasted a couple minutes but some can last days, even weeks.

- The satellite detectors saturated at 1.8 thousands of a watt creating a flat line for the peak of the intensity. However, we can plot the growth and decay of the intensity over time and free hand sketch the peak to be somewhere around 0.00200 watts per meter^2. The data for the growth of the intensity for the first 5 minutes was:

Growth Curve:

------------- Time ------------- Intensity in watts /m^2 / sec

------------- 0 time start ------------- 0.0010

------------- 1 ------------- 0.0060

------------- 2 ------------- 0.0180

------------- 5 ------------- 0.0200 (estimated)

Decay Curve:

------------- 10 ------------- 0.0200 (estimated)

------------- 15 ------------- 0.0180

------------- 20 ------------- 0.0140

------------- 25 ------------- 0.0090

------------- 30 ------------- 0.0060

------------- 35 ------------- 0.0040

------------- 40 ------------- 0.0030

------------- 45 ------------- 0.0025

------------- 50 ------------- 0.0020

------------- 55 ------------- 0.0019

------------- 60 ------------- 0.0017

------------- 65 ------------- 0.0016

------------- 70 ------------- 0.0015

------------- 75 ------------- 0.0014

------------- 80 ------------- 0.0012

------------- 85 ------------- 0.0010

- To calculate the peak of the intensity we need to determine the growth function and the decay function. If this were a continuous function then we could determine the peak using calculus to take the derivative of the function and set it equal to zero. The derivative of a function is the slope and the slope passes through zero when it goes over the peak.

- In this case we can not do this because the growth function and the decay function for the solar flare are two different processes and the functions are discontinuous. Therefore we will treat each function separately, set them equal to each other, and determine the intersection of the two functions in order to determine the peak intensity.

- To get the function for the growth curve we put the data in to an Excel Spreadsheet, plot the data, do a least squares regression analysis to fit the best exponential function to the curve and the program gives us the function, y = function (x).

--------- The exponential curve to fit the growth curve: y = 0.0001 e^1.4452 x

where y is the intensity in watts /m^2/sec and x is the time in minutes.

----------- The exponential curve to best fit the decay curve: y = 0.002 e^-0.0386 x

- To find the intersection of these two curves we set them equal to each other and solve for “x”, the time the peak occurred:

---------- y = 0.0001 e^1.4452 x = y = 0.002 e^-0.0386 x

---------- Take the natural log of both sides of the equation.

---------- ln 0.0001 + 1.4452 x = ln 0.002 - 0.0386 x

---------- -9.21 + 1.4452 x = -6.21 - 0.0386 x

---------- 1.4835 x = 3

---------- x = 2.02

- So the peak occurred at 2.02 minutes. To find out the energy intensity at that point substitute this time back into the first equation for the growth of intensity:

------------ y = 0.0001 e^1.4452 x

------------ y = 0.0001 e^1.4452 * 2.02

------------ y = 0.0001 e^2.92

------------ y = 0.0001 * 18.53

------------ y = 0.00185

------------ The peak intensity was 0.00185 watts / m^2/sec

- To double check lets substitute the same time into the decay curve to get the peak intensity:

------------ y = 0.002 e^-0.0386 x

------------ y = 0.002 e^-0.0386 *2.02

------------ y = 0.002 e^-.078

------------ y = 0.002 / 1.08

------------ y = 0.00185

------------ The peak intensity was 0.00185 watts / m^2/sec

- To calculate the total energy we need to determine the area under the two curves, the growth curve up to 2.02 minutes and the decay curve from that point , 2.02 minutes out to 85 minutes.

- ( Calculus: Integration is used to determine the area under the light curve. Integration is the summation of little rectangles “y” high by “dx” wide. The area of each rectangle being “y*dx”. The summation of these tiny rectangle areas being the total area, or the total energy intensity under the curve and over the time that we measured it.)

-------- Integral from 0 to 2.02 minutes of y = 0.0001 e^1.4452 x

-------- The general integral for e^ax * dx = 1/a * e^ax

--------------------------- Integral from 0 to 2.02 minutes :

-------- Integral y*dx = 0.0001 / 1.4452 * ( e^1.4452 * 2.02 - e^0 )

------- Integral y*dx = 0.0000692 * ( e^2.919 - 1 )

------- Integral y*dx = 0.0000692 * ( 18.53 - 1 )

------- Integral y*dx = 0.0000692 * (17.53 )

------- Energy intensity under the growth curve = 0.0023 watts / m^2

---------------------------- Integral from 2.02 to 85 minutes of y = 0.0020 e^-0.0386 x

--------- Integral y*dx = 0.0020 / -0.0386 * ( e^-0.0386 * 85 - e^-0.0386 * 2.02 )

--------- Integral y *dx = -0.0518 * ( 1 / e^3.281 + 1 / e^ .07797 )

--------- Integral y*dx = -0.0518 * ( 1 / 26.60 + 1 / 1.081)

--------- Integral y*dx = -0.0518 * ( .0376 + .925)

--------- Integral y*dx = -0.0518 * .96267

--------- Integral y*dx = -.0499 watts / m^2

------- Energy intensity under the decay curve = .0499 watts / m^2

- The total energy under both the growth and the decay curve = 0.0023 watts /m^2 + 0.0499 watts / m^2 = 0.0522 watts / m^2.

- Our detector was 93 million miles away from the Sun ( 147*10^6 kilometers , or 147*10^9 meters). The total surface area of this spherical radiation is 4*pi*radius^2.

- (Calculus: The summation of the surface areas from the center out to the radius is the volume of the sphere. The integral of 4*pi*r^2 is ¾ * pi *r^3. The general integral for this function is a*x^n = a/(n+1) * x^(n+1).)

- The surface area of the sphere at 147*10^9 meter radius = 4*pi*(147*10^9)^2 = 12.567 ( 21,609*10^18) = 27.16 * 10^22 meters^2.

- Therefore, if one square meter is 0.0522 watts then the total energy intensity across the entire surface area of the sphere at that radius is (0.0522 watts/m^2) * (27.16 * 10^22 m^2) = 1.42*10^22 watts for the solar flare.

- The total luminosity, or intensity of energy radiation from the Sun is calculated the same way. We get 1,400 watts / square meter of the Sun’s energy on the Earth’s atmosphere. 1,400 * 27*10^22 = 3.827 * 10^26 watts for the total intensity of the Sun.

- For each second of time this is 3.827*10^26 watt * seconds, or 3.827 * 10^26 joules of energy.

- I hope you enjoyed the math.

March 28, 2022 ENERGY - of a solar flare, Math 3522

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----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Monday, March 28, 2022 ---------------------------

3521 - THERMIONICS - the study of energy flow

- 3521 - THERMIONICS - the study of energy flow? This is about thermal to electric energy conversion and how nanotechnology could be used to recover electricity out of waste heat energy. Say you drive a car with a 200 horsepower engine. Only 60 horsepower actually drives the wheels. 140 horsepower is used to generate heat. If that heat could be recovered and turned into electricity it could be used to charge a battery and operate a hybrid car.

--------------------- 3521 - THERMIONICS - the study of energy flow

- In a typical auto 60% of the energy is lost . The United States uses about 100 quadrillion BTU’s of energy per year. 27% of our energy is consumed in transportation. 80% of that energy is wasted heat energy and not used. Only 20% of transportation energy consumed ends up as Useful Energy.

- ( These statistics are 2002 when we consumed 97 quadrillion BTU’s. Today it is about 100 Quads so these numbers also act as percentages.)

- Here is how the total U.S. Energy flow breaks out for 2006:

----------- Residential --------- 21% ------ 75% was useful

----------- Businesses --------- 18% ------ 80% was useful

----------- Industrial ----------- 32% ------ 80% was useful

----------- Transportation ----- 28% ------ 20% was useful

- So, transportation is the big energy waster here. The second highest energy waster is the electric power plants that generate the electricity for the other three users. 69% of the energy input to power plants is wasted as heat and only 31% gets distributed to the electricity consumers. Mostly, transportation consumes the oil and power plants consume the coal.

- If you look at all the U.S. energy consumption:

---------------- 61% is wasted as lost energy

---------------- 38% is Useful Energy

- That 61% is a big number and leaves a lot of room for innovation and improvements.

- Transportation uses 39% of all the energy consumed. 62% of this petroleum is imported from other countries.

- Power plants consume 38% of all the energy and 60% of that is coal. Power plants operate at only 31% efficiency.

------------------ Here is where the energy consumed in the U.S comes from:

------------------------ 3% ------ hydroelectric

------------------------ 8% ------ nuclear

------------------------ 23% ----- natural gas

------------------------ 23% ----- coal

------------------------ 3% ------ petroleum

------------------------ 96% ----- Total

- Solar, wind, waves, biomass, geothermal contribute less than 4% of our energy and really do not even show within the resolution of our diagram.

- If we want to fix the 61% of the wasted energy problem your students need to become engineers and make transportation more efficient and electric power plants more efficient. At the same time solve the pollution problems with these two energy consumers.

- Energy consumption in California:

------------ 25% natural gas -------------- (82% is imported)

------------ 25% electric power ---------- (16% is nuclear)

------------ 25% petroleum --------------- (31% Alaskan, 40% Californian, 32% Foreign)

- The U.S. consume 24% of the world’s oil and 22% of the world’s total energy. We produce 30% of the world’s nuclear energy.

- An average U.S. household consumes energy in this fashion:

----------- 32% ----- space heaters

----------- 13% ------- water heaters

----------- 12% -------- lighting

----------- 11% ------- air conditioning

----------- 8% -------- refrigeration

----------- 5% ------- electronics

----------- 5% ------- clothes dryers

- And 25% of the energy consumption is wasted as unwanted heat and lost energy.

- The thermocouple is two conductor wires that if heated generate a voltage between them. A voltmeter can be calibrated to measure the temperature of the two conductor junction. It becomes an electronic thermometer. The physics is called the “Seebeck effect” after its discoverer. A voltage is created in the presence of a temperature difference between two different metals or, semiconductors.

- The reverse of the Seebeck effect is called the “Peltier effect” after its discoverer. A current passed through two dissimilar metals, or semiconductors , that are connected to each other at two junctions will transfer heat from one junction to another. The result is thermoelectric cooling or heating . It is a refrigerator, or a thermoelectric heat pump.

- These refrigerators and heat pumps and electric generators have no moving parts and are extremely reliable. The problem is they are only about 8% efficient in converting energy. The mechanical, compressor refrigerator in your kitchen is 40% efficient.

- If the Peltier refrigerator was there instead you electric bill for refrigeration would go up 500%. Not good! The goal for engineering research is to find a design using nanotechnology that is 5 times more efficient so these solutions can become economical.

- Where efficiency does not matter many Peltier refrigerators are being used today. Fiber optic networks use them to cool their transmission lasers keeping them at a constant temperature.

- Space probes that venture too far from the Sun to use solar cells use them. In this case, a plutonium cylinder is used as the heat source. The temperature of space is the cool side. The Seebeck Generator created gets 300 watts for continues use for decades with 7% efficiency. But, only NASA can afford one of these generators.

- What we need is a Seebeck Generator that uses the wasted heat in an automobile engine to charge a battery in the hybrid car. We need a way to use the wasted heat in an electric power plant to generate more electricity. We need to solve the efficiency problems in order to do this.

- Today wristwatches have been powered by thermocouples using the heat difference between the human body and its surroundings. The Russian army has powered radio transmitters without batteries. They simply stick the probe of a Seebeck Generator into a fire to power the radio.

- Urbina Design Systems makes Peltier Wine Coolers. Stanza makes hot-cold Peltier serving trays for parties. Some company is making heater-coolers for car seats using Peltier thermionics.

- The technology is all around us but we need a breakthrough to really begin solving our energy and pollution problems. We need it in a hurry. Tell your kids.

March 28, 2022 THERMIONICS - energy flow? 852 3520

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Monday, March 28, 2022 ---------------------------

JimsAstronomy

Thursday, March 31, 2022

3527 - SUN - solar eruptions in 2022

Wednesday, March 30, 2022

3526 - MOON - rocket crash on the Moon

3525 - SUPERCONDUCTIVITY - at room temperatures?

Tuesday, March 29, 2022

3523 - STARS - that are our Nearest Neighbors?

3524 - MILKY WAY GALAXY - the size of the U.S.A.

Monday, March 28, 2022

3522 - ENERGY - of a solar flare, Math

3521 - THERMIONICS - the study of energy flow

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