Could Blackholes explain Dark Matter?

-  1882  -  Could Blackholes explain Dark Matter?  More evidence that an expanding Universe is accelerating, but, also that super massive Blackholes are suppressing new star formation.  A new theory has galaxies embedded in a halo of Blackholes that could account for Dark Matter.
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------------  1882  -  Could Blackholes explain Dark Matter?
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-  We live in a expanding Universe.  All the galaxies are flying away from each other.  The question always is, “ What are they expanding in to?”  “ Is there an edge?”
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-  We do have an edge for the “ observable Universe”.  Light has been traveling for 13.77 billion years.  So, at 13.77 billion light years there is an edge that is as far as we can see.  Light beyond that has not have had enough time to reach us, yet.
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-  We think we are in the center because everything is moving away from us.  However, put yourself anywhere else in the Universe and you sense the same thing.  It is the fact that in between ALL the galaxies the space is expanding and those galaxies are moving apart.
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-  There are a few exceptions where the force of gravity is overpowering the local area pressure from Dark Energy.  But, that is just “ local”.  The force of gravity falls off as the square of distance.  Dark Energy pressure remains constant even growing with the greater volumes of space.  Dark Energy is winning over Gravity.
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-  So, what is the Universe expanding into?  Only time.  In the Universe space expands into time.  So, is there an edge to time?
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-  Also, the Universe is expanding at an accelerating rate, distance divided by time squared. ( a = d / t^2).  Is there an edge to the rate of acceleration?  Astronomers have created a 3-D map of 3,000 galaxies that are 13 billion light years away.  ( The Observable Universe is 13.77 billion light years away, in all directions).  The data is from the Fiber Multi-Object Spectrograph on Subaru Telescope studying galaxies billions of lightyears distant.
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-  In addition to confirming expanding acceleration this same survey has uncovered why star producing galaxies cease to create new stars.  Star systems go dormant because low energy, super massive Blackholes produce interstellar winds of heat and intensity that suppress star formation.  It is this galactic warming that turns active galaxies into  sleeping, quiescent star system.
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-  Stars form from gas, but, the gas has to cool down in order to condense into matter.  This galactic warming suppresses this process from happening.
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-  Blackholes are not only at the center of galaxies.  The entire galaxy itself may be embedded in a halo, a vast sphere of Blackholes each about 30 times the mass of the Sun.  27% of the mass of the Universe is “ Dark Matter”.  Astronomers do not know what this is?  The leading theory was that Dark Mater was composed of a new particle that does not interact with electromagnetic force but does interact with gravity force.
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-  But, these mysterious particles have yet to be detected.  A new theory is evolving.  Could Dark Matter be primordial Blackholes that formed in the first seconds of the Big Bang?  That would mean that our Milky Way Galaxy is surrounded by a sphere of Blackholes.
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-  Astronomers recently detected a background glow in the infrared that had the same “patchy” pattern in the X-Ray spectrum.  The only objects that are luminous across this wide of an energy range are Blackholes.
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-  LIGO, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory, recently detected gravity waves emitted by a pair of merging Blackholes , each about 30 Solar Mass.  If there are many of these then the 27% Dark Matter may be made up of these primordial Blackholes.  Every galaxy may exist within a halo of Blackholes all about this same size.
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-  Similar to the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation that has been studied over the past 50 years, the 2005 discovery has a 13 billion year old Cosmic Infrared background radiation with the same” patchy structure”.   Then in 2013 a similar matching, “patchy pattern” was discovered in a Cosmic X-ray background.  The patchiness would have originated in quantum fluctuations when the particles first formed in the Big Bang and then have expanded to this size.
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-  The first stars after the Big Bang emitted optical and ultraviolet light.  Ultraviolet wavelengths traveling  through space are stretched in expanding space and would be in the infrared today.  X-Rays can only be explained if Blackholes were abundant among these earliest stars.
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-  LIGO’s detection occurred September 14, 2015.  The merging Blackholes were 1.3 billion lightyears away.  The masses of the pair were 29 and 36 Solar Mass ( + or - 4 SM).  These could be primordial Blackholes.  Primordial means they would have been created within the first 500 million years of the Universe.  During that time the temperatures were too high for Normal Matter to coalesce.  However, Dark matter could have collapsed into mini-halos during that time.
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-  Matter falling into Blackholes heats up to produce X-Rays.  The first stars produced infrared.  The two together could explain this patchiness in the Cosmic Background having both these frequencies.
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-  Blackholes that get close enough together get gravitationally captured into a binary system.  Emitting gravitational waves of radiation causes their orbits to loose energy and spiral into each other.  Eventually merging into a single Blackhole.
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-  Many more observations are needed to give these theories credence.  Now that LIGO has made its first detections we are hoping for many more to follow.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  #1869  -  Blackhole mysteries, how big can they get.
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-  # 1843  to  #453  there are 24 more reviews about Blackholes.  Request the index of Reviews for details.
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Jupiter gets another visitor.

-  1880  -  Jupiter gets another visitor.  By far our largest planet,  still holds many mysteries.  We will be visiting again with a spacecraft July , 2016.  Here is some of what we know and what we hope to discover with the Juno Space Mission.
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------------  1880  -  Jupiter gets another visitor.
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-  Everyone knows the planet Jupiter is the largest planet in our Solar System.  The most massive, the fastest rotating, the most magnetism, the most satellites at 67.  Jupiter is 318 times the mass of the Earth.  Its volume is 1,400 times that of Earth.
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-  Yet, beneath those swirling colorful clouds lies  many secrets.  A space probe in 1995 descending through the atmosphere into 23 times Earth’s atmospheric pressure.  It was expected to pass through 3 layers of atmosphere, Ammonia ( NH3), Ammonia Hydrosulfide ( NH4SH), and water ( H2O).  The biggest surprise was the lack of a water cloud layer in this particular descent.  Also, astronomers expected to find between  3% to 13% by mass of elements heavier than helium.  That is wide range demonstrating our lack of knowledge of Jupiter’s composition and weather.
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-  Textbooks today give Jupiter a small solid rock core, with ice, then a layer of molecular hydrogen.  It is this metallic hydrogen that creates the planet’s large magnetic field.  The massive planet spins one rotation every 10 hours.  Infrared wavelengths are not reflected sunlight but gas emissions form below the upper clouds.
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-  The strong magnetosphere around Jupiter has rapped electrons around the equator that are reaching a million electron volts (1 MeV).  This magnetosphere stretches all the way to the moon , Io.  Io orbits ever 42 hours.  The strong gravity variations  create volcanic activity releasing sulfur dioxide.  The magnetic forces separate these  neutral atoms in to ionized sulfur and oxygen atoms.  This huge “ doughnut “ of charged particles radiate 1 ½ terawatts of ultraviolet energy.
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-  There are intense aurora emissions in the upper atmosphere that span the spectrum from X-rays to radio wavelengths ( like the Northern Lights at Earth’s North Pole).  These aurora stretch all the way to Io.  This Jupiter-Io connection is the source of radio bursts that astronomers have been monitoring for decades.  These electric fields carry millions of amperes of electric current.
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-  The Juno spacecraft will arrive and attain a Jupiter orbit in July, 2016.  53 day orbits will slowly descend to 14 day orbits.  It will use Doppler Shifts of radio transmissions from Juno to map the planet’s uneven gravity field and internal mass distribution.  It will measurer the energy in these auroras, positive ions 5eV to 50 KeV and electron charges 100eV to 100 Kev.
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-  Juno will measure the upper layers of atmosphere detecting CH4, H2O, NH3, PH3 molecules.  It will map the magnetic field, measure the electromagnetic waves form 600 Mhz to 22 Ghz, and the H2O and NH3 concentrations in each layer of atmosphere.  Provide ultraviolet spectrometer images and a distribution of the radio and plasma waves.
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-  All, if all goes well.  Wish Juno luck.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Jupiter:
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-   #1175  -    The 4 moons of Jupiter.  Ganymede would be a planet if it were circling the Sun instead of Jupiter.  Callisto is about the size of Mercury.
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-  # 927  -  Europa is 90% the size of our Moon.  It has an ocean of liquid water beneath its icy crust.
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-  #797  -  Jupiter has rings.  11 Earth diameters span Jupiter’s 88,846 mile diameter.
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-  #29  -  Our gaseous planets.  Four pages of statistics comparing the 4 planets.
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Fermi Bubbles and Radio Bursts?

-  1879  -  Fermi Bubbles and Radio Bursts?  If we understood these bursts astronomers believe they could more accurately measure the distances throughout the Cosmos.  New calculation could confirm the ratios of Dark Matter and Dark Energy. The Gamma Ray bubbles may give new insights into the formation of our galaxy.
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------------  1879  -  Fermi Bubbles and Radio Bursts?
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-  August 24, 2001 astronomers discovered an ultra-bright, ultra - brief flash of radio waves.  We have spent over a decade trying to identify the source and explain the physics involved with these phenomena.
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-  The radio signal was 100 times brighter, but vanished in 5 milliseconds.  It was not until 2006 that closer analysis discovered the flash was  smeared over a wide range of radio frequencies.  The lower frequency waves were calculated to have traveled 3 billion lightyears over an expanding Universe.  If that were true the flash must have had more energy than our Sun emits in 1,000 years.
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-  In the last 15 years astronomers have discovered 16 of these Fast Radio Bursts.  But, those are only the ones we “ hear”.  Astronomers calculate that a Radio Burst arrives at Earth every 15 seconds.
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-  If these bursts get smeared across many frequencies and over time it is an indication that the signal traveled through clouds of plasma ( charge particles ).  The speed of light , 671 million miles per hour in a vacuum, slows down when traveling in plasma.  Lower frequencies interact more with free electrons.  The greater the “ dispersion” the more distant the source.  The data suggests that the pulses traveled through the inter-galactic medium encountering plasma clouds.
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-  The radio telescope has tunnel vision,  able to see, “ hear”, only 14.4 arc minutes across. (half the angular size of a Full Moon).  An ekxact source has not yet been conclusively identified.    Hear are some speculations:
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-----------------  Neutron stars pack the mass of 500,000 Earths into a sphere 10 kilometers across.  The flashes could come from Neutron stars inspiraling, colliding , or collapsing into Blackholes.
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----------------  Neutron stars could produce powerful magnetic fields producing flares when star quakes break the Neutron stars crusty surface. ( called Magnetars ).
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---------------  “Cosmic Strings” , defects in the structure of space-time,  could release bursts of energy.
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---------------  Pulsars are spinning Neutron stars known for regular, even bursts of radiation, but, occasionally give off a much stronger burst.
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-  One reason astronomers are so anxious to find the source for these bursts is that an accurate distance measurements would allow an accurate density measurement of intergalactic medium.  This in turn would allow a new calculation of the Universe’s visible matter.  Then , new calculations for the ratios of Dark Matter and Dark Energy.   Stay tuned and announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Another new discovery happens right here at home, in our Milky Way Galaxy.  We are sitting 27,000 lightyears from the center of the Galaxy. The diameter is 100,000 lightyears so we live about half way out to the edge of this flat disk of stars.
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-  The center is a bulge of stars but the galaxy still looks like a phonograph record.  Does anyone remember what these records look like?  Extending vertically above and below the bulge an the center of the galaxy are hourglass lobes that extend above and below by 25,000 lightyears.
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-   These gigantic lobes are known as the “ Fermi Bubbles”.  They were first discovered 6 years ago.  Astronomers studying them believe they are evidence of some violent activity that once occurred at the center of our galaxy.  Astronomers “ see” these lobes in the Gamma Ray and Microwave frequencies
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-  Microwave radiation can be created by electrons spiraling around a magnetic field.  If the electrons are high enough energy they can also produce Gamma Ray radiation, called the “Inverse-Compton Effect“.
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-  Much of this discovery comes from the Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope launched in 2008.  In 2010 the Fermi Bubbles were discovered in the data collected.  The Gamma Ray bubbles have distinct edges, almost appearing as the edge of a shock wave.  Other theories suggest a magnetic field traps charged particles at the edge.
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-  The lobes could be the result of jets of material exiting the poles of the Blackhole at the center of the galaxy.  The jets slamming into interstellar gas could compress into shockwave fronts.  Or, the lobes could have resulted from the stellar winds of stars and supernovae exploding near the galactic center.
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-  Astronomers have identified carbon and silicon atoms in the gas.  These heavier elements are only the result of fusion in the core of stars and supernovae explosions.  Measuring the redshift and the blueshift of the spectra of these elements tell astronomers the gas structures must be 2 to 4 million years old.  Further the gas slows down as it approaches the edges.  The flowing material abruptly stops at the edges.
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-  3-D computer modeling is busily trying to simulate these Fermi Bubble formation.  The model uses massive stars exploding as supernovae.  The outgoing material traveling a supersonic speeds creates shock waves laced with magnetic field lines.  The shock waves sweep up electrons and accelerate them to high energies.  Maybe,  multiple generations of exploding massive stars over 10 million years best fit the observations.
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-  Still not every thing simulated matches all the observations taken from radio frequencies out to Gamma Ray wavelengths.  Astronomers need more data and more analysis to solve the puzzle of Fermi Bubbles.
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-  As you have likely gathered astronomers do not have a clear explanation for Fermi Bubbles or Radio Bursts.  Stay tuned an announcement will be made shortly.
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Magnetic structures in the Galaxies.

-  1878  -  Magnetic structures in the Galaxies.  New mysteries are uncovered to understand how magnetic fields throughout galaxies affect star formation and galactic structure.  New tools are creating 3-D maps.  Dark Matter remains 85% of the undiscovered.
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------------  1878  -  Magnetic structures in the Galaxies.
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-  Our world is made of atoms.  We are made of atoms.  Atoms are made of charged particles.  Protons in the nucleus have positive electric charge.  Electrons orbiting the nucleus have negative electric charge.  Put them together in an atom and the neutron has a “ neutral” charge.  Separate these electric charges and set them in motion and they create an electro-magnetic field.
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-  Light itself is traveling waves of electro-magnetic fields.  Light photons are massless and can travel at only one speed in space 670,633,500 miles per hour.  All other charged particles that have mass travel at slower speeds.  Light also travels at slower “net” speeds when it travels in media other than a vacuum.  Light’s “net speed” slows down because it is being absorbed and re-emitted by all the atoms in that medium.
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-  Traveling charged particles and spiraling magnetic fields are everywhere in space.  There is an unseen Cosmic web of magnetism.  Electricity and magnetism are not separate forces but actually work together in amazing ways.
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-  Earth creates its magnetic field through its rotation causing its molten iron core to move creating an electric dynamo that generates a  magnetic field.  The field is actually about 10 times weaker that the common refrigerator magnetic.
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-  Earth’s magnetosphere is a shield that protects us from charged space particles striking the Earth’s surface.  Cosmic rays and other charged particles from the Sun, called the Solar Wind, are constantly bombarding the planet.  Our magnetosphere deflects this bombardment into the North and South magnetic poles.
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-  You can witness the result as these incoming charged particles excite atoms and gas molecules in the upper atmosphere creating the Aurora, the Northern Lights.
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-  For some unknown reason the Earth’s North-South magnetic field reverses itself every few hundred thousand years.  It actually disappears for a few thousand years between the poles flipping.  The last flip occurred 780,000 years ago.  We can not predict the next flip but the magnetic field today is 35% weaker than it was a few thousand years ago.
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-  Magnetic fields span the entire galaxy.  James Clark Maxwell’s equations from 1865 tells us that the energy in a magnetic field is its strength multiplied by its volume.  The strength of the Galaxy’s enormous volume creates magnetic fields equivalent to the radiation pressure of all of the stars within it.
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-  Astronomers are trying to “ see” the magnetic fields by detecting the “polarization” of the light.  Light being an electromagnetic wave acquires a particular orientation, called polarization, as it travels through a galactic magnetic field.  Astronomers can measure this polarization using radio telescopes.  Discoveries are starting to present the picture of magnetic structures.  Rather than being a tangled web they appear to acquire an orderly, spiral structure.
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-  This magnetic structure may play a significant role in the formation of stars inside the galaxy.  Observing the structure in the Whirlpool Galaxy M51, and NGC 5195, discovered galaxy interactions in the form of density waves, waves of compression that sweep through the galaxy disk.  The strength of the galaxy’s magnetic field correlates with the density of the interstellar gas within the galaxy.
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-  Explaining star birth by gravity alone does not work.  A proto-star would spin itself apart long before it could reach the mass needed to start a fusion core.  Current thinking is that the strong magnetic field creates a drag on rotation allowing the proto-star to gain the mass needed to become a star.
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-  Our Milky Way Galaxy disk is 150,000 lightyears across and 1,000 lightyears thick.  Gravity alone would allow the spinning disk to collapse into the plane and loose mass like a lawn sprinkler.  It appears it is the magnetic pressure that is providing the buoyant force that interacts with gravity and centrifugal forces.  Discoveries to date suggest that galaxies can generate magnetic fields quickly, within 100 million years.  But, how they do this is a mystery.
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-  Our Milky Way appears as though each spiral arm has its own magnetic field, independent of the other arms.  The field direction can change from one arm to the other.  Two bar magnets would repel, push each other apart, but how can we explain why that does not happen inside galaxies?
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-  New, larger, radio telescopes are being built in order to discover how galactic magnetic fields get generated and how they affect star formation and how they affect this structure of the galaxy.
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-  Since 1998 the Sloan Digital Sky Survey has been mapping the cosmic web of galaxies.  The survey is measuring the faint imprint of cosmic sound waves that have reverberated throughout the Universe since the Big Bang.
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-   SDSS had charted 1.5 million galaxies inside a cube of 7.5 billion lightyears on a side.  The map shows that on cosmic scales the giant galaxy clusters, filaments, and walls of galaxies are separated by giant voids 500,000,000 lightyears across.  These massive structures began as tiny density variations in the early hot plasma filled Universe shortly after the Big Bang.
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-  Cosmic Inflation Theory has the Universe expanding at a gigantic rate in a fraction of a second.  The Universe grew in size 100 billion times, from smaller that a proton to one meter across.  This earliest plasma of charged particles contained quantum fluctuations  which were small variations in density.
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-  The photons within density clumps produced enormous outward pressures.  The force of photons and particles in motion created “ sound waves”, density waves.  There were no stars or galaxies , the sound waves rushed about in the hot plasma.  Electrons and protons were too hot to settle down into neutral atoms.
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-  In this plasma soup the “ speed of sound” reached 57% the speed of light.  Protons and neutrons are together called “ baryons”.  And, the sound waves are called “ baryon acoustic oscillations”.
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-  After 380,000 years of expansion and cooling the electrons and protons combined into hydrogen atoms.  In this neutral charge environment the photons flew free, not bouncing off any charged particles.  The Universe went from opaque to transparent.  The release of pressure slowed down the speed of the sound waves.
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-  This expanding spherical shell would have a radius of 500,000,000 lightyears today.  Precise measurements show minuscule variations in temperature of a few parts in 100,000 due to these inflation - enhanced density fluctuations.  These “ baryon acoustic oscillations” result in “hot” and “cold” spots 1 degree in angular size across the sky.
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-  The radius of this 1 degree in the sky is 500,000,000 lightyears.  These sound waves have affected the abundance of galaxies in a specific pattern separated by 500,000,000  lightyears.  So, if we can make a Cosmic Map of these sound waves they could become “standard rulers” to measure cosmic distances.
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-  The other two methods used to measure cosmic distances is with Redshifts and with “standard candles”.  Redshifts are based on a known light source wavelength being stretched out as it travels through expanding space.  Wider wavelengths are shifted towards the “red” end of the light spectrum.  The amount of redshift is used to calculate the distance to the light source.
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-  The other method using standard candles depends on the source having a known luminosity.  By measuring dimness as light spreads out through space we can calculate distance.  Apparent Brightness versus Intrinsic Brightness of the source.
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-----------------------  Apparent Brightness  =  Luminosity  /  4*pi*distance^2
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-  “ Standard Rulers” offer a third alternative.  If we can map out the voids between galaxy clusters we can count the number of sound waves, 500 million lightyears each.  Combining the three methods have provided the most precise extragalactic distances measure to date.
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-  The result yields the conclusion that the Universe is 31%  Ordinary Matter and Dark Matter, and 69% Dark Energy.  The further conclusion is that the geometry of the Universe is “ flat”.  It is not “spherical” on our scales of measurement.
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-  Put a circle on flat paper and the circumference is 2 * pi * radius, or 6.3 times the radius.  However, the circumference over a sphere is 4 * pi.  The equator forms a circle on Earth, 24,902 miles circumference.  The distance from the North Pole to the equator is 6,214 miles.  That is 1/4th the circumference.  The circumference is 4 times the arc on the sphere.
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-  Now make these same measurements on the circumference of the spherical sound waves in the Cosmic Microwave Background.  The answer is the 3-D Universe is geometrically flat like a 2-D sheet of paper.  ( or, a sphere that is so enormous, enormously large that it appears flat.)
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-  And, comparing the void between galaxies over a range of Redshifts tells us the density of Dark Energy ( whatever is expanding the Universe) is constant over time.  When the Universe doubles in size the density of Normal Matter drops by a factor of 1.5.  Dark Energy comes from empty space and remains constant over time and space (location).  This combination means that the Universe is always accelerating in its expansion.
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-  Does Dark Matter have its own electro-magnetic force different from our Normal Matter?  We assume its interaction with gravity is the same as Normal Matter.  That is how we conclude that it exists.  Do you get the idea that there is a lot more to learn?  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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life giving oxygen on Mars?

-  1877  -  What can we earn from Oxygen?  Burn some in your brain and see if you can learn where oxygen came from.  Can we find some of this life giving oxygen on Mars?
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------------  1877  -  What can we earn from Oxygen?
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-  There are 92  natural elements, but, oxygen alone has got to be the most important for life.  What we breath is 99.9 % nitrogen, oxygen, and argon.  Argon is an inert gas used to fill incandescent light bulbs.  Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and helium is the second most abundant element.  But, helium is used to fill balloons and not much else.
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-  Yet, in the cores of stars helium undergoes fusion creating Oxygen.  That is like the most important element, to us.  90% of water by weight is oxygen.  The rings of Saturn are mostly oxygen.  Our atmosphere is 21% oxygen.
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-  It is not physics that is producing this oxygen.  It is life, plants.  Plants absorb oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide, then use the carbon to produce structure.  For plants oxygen is a “ waste product”.  We are lucky enough to get the waste product to give us our structure.
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-  It was in 1772 that oxygen gas was first isolated in the air.  Oxygen bonds easily with other elements.  67% of animal bodies by weight is oxygen.  Half the Moon by weight is oxygen.  Remember, the Moon got splashed off the surface of Earth into its orbit.
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-  Originally oxygen got splashed into space by the explosion of giant stars, supernovae began exploding 100,000,000 years after the Big Bang.  That  process was first discovered by Arthur Eddington in 1920.  Four hydrogen atoms fuse into one helium atom in the core of stars.  This fusion continues until carbon and oxygen are left in a collapsed White Dwarf Star, a solid ball of oxygen and carbon.
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-  As the collapsing star ends its life it spreads some material into space as an expanding bubble.  This end-of-life process is called a “ planetary nebula”, although it has nothing to do with planets.  It was originally a case of mistaken identity.
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-  Oxygen did not show up in Earth’s atmosphere until 2,400,000,000 years ago.  After 300,000,000 years the Earth was thick with plants and oxygen in the atmosphere.  It was at 35% concentration.  Animal life were hyper-giants with all this oxygen to burn.
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-  An oxygen atom emits color when an electron falls to a lower orbit nearer the nucleus.  To observe this color you need to have oxygen atoms in an excited state, a higher energy level.  This occurs naturally in the “aurora borealis“, the “ northern lights”.
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-  The natural yellow-green light is 557.7 nanometers wavelength from energized oxygen atoms.  The blue-green light at 500.7 nanometers wavelength is emitted in planetary nebulae.  The hydrogen spectrum is at 656.3 nanometers wavelength.
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-  Oxygen has 3 stable isotopes where the nucleus contains up to 2 extra neutrons.  But, the nucleus normally contains 8 protons and  8 neutrons for an atomic weight of 16.  Designated as 0-16, but with extra neutrons it becomes 0-17 and 0-18.
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-  These oxygen isotopes are like “ fingerprints”.  Different ratios occur in different orbits in the Solar System.  That is how astronomers can identify that a particular meteorite originated on the planet Mars.  Other meteorites were identified coming from the large asteroid Vesta.  Our Moon has the same ratios as the Earth, because that is where it came from.
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-  A Boeing 747 SP has discovered oxygen in the Martian atmosphere.  Flying in our own upper atmosphere this special performance (SP) aircraft has been outfitted with a 100 inch telescope called, SOFIA, Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy.
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-  To observe the far-infrared wavelengths needed to detect atomic oxygen the observatory had to be high above most of Earth’s atmosphere and have highly sensitive instruments.  The 747 is flying at altitudes between 37,000 and 45,000 feet.
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-  The atomic oxygen detected was about ½ the amount expected.  SOFIA is continuing to make measurements to better understand the Martian atmosphere.
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-  A totally different study of Mars has to do with the geological shape of the once shoreline in its northern plains.  The shoreline was created by giant ocean waves created by meteorite impacts 3.4 billion years ago.
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-  This is indirect evidence of cold, salty oceans that were once on the planet and that could have sustained life.  The shoreline has widespread backwash channels that carried water back into the ocean.
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-  There exists evidence of two big meteorite impacts.  In the millions of years  between the 2 impacts Mars went through a frigid climate change that froze the oceans.  The ocean level receded to form a secondary shoreline.  The second giant wave formed rounded lobes of ice.
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-  These icy lobes retained their well defined boundaries and their flow-related shapes.  Cold, salty waters may offer a refuge for life in an extreme environment.  The salts could have kept the water liquid.  The ponded water appears to have emplaced lacustrine sediments, including evaporates  Lacustrine means, at the bottom, or along the shore of lakes , as geological strata.
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-  Water and Oxygen are two ingredients that astronomers hope to find in their search for extraterrestrial life.  The search goes on.  Stay tuned , an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Mars:
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-  #1860  -  The Reconnaissance Orbiter has completed 45,000 orbits and taken 200,000 pictures.  And, lists 9 more reviews about Mars.  #1796  to #24.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Tuesday, May 24, 2016  -----
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Exoplanets that are good candidates for life.

-  1876  -  A sample of Exoplanets that are good candidates for life.  Over 3,000 exoplanets have been discovered to date.  Our own giant gaseous planets have a 100 moons and a few of them will be early candidates to explore for life.
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------------  1876  -  A sample of Exoplanets that are good candidates for life.
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-  In searching for extraterrestrial life we think to look for similar stars to our Sun and similar planets to our Earth.  Habitable exoplanets are most likely found around middle-aged stars like our Sun and rocky planets like our Earth orbiting the right distance for liquid water to be on their surface.
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-  Stars in the later stages of life become Red-Giant Stars.  Our Sun will become one in another 5 billion years from now.  The habitable zone of a star system is the region in which a rocky planet can orbit and maintain liquid water.  Red Giants grow significantly in size.  When our Sun transitions to this stage it will engulf Mercury and Venus.  It will scorch Earth and Mars into barren rocks.
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-  However, this expanded solar source will bring new worlds into the habitable zone.  Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune with their 67, 47, and 13 moons will become the new habitable zones.  Planets in a habitable zone remain friendly to life from 200 million to 9 billion years.  The longer period is for stars with higher metal content.
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-  If life existed below the surface of an icy world such as Europa or Enceladus the dramatic alteration in the warmer atmosphere could allow life to flourish.  Red Giants would inflict powerful stellar winds.  Bodies lacking sufficient gravity would lose their atmosphere to space.  However, super-Earths and super - moons would have the gravity to maintain their atmosphere for a significant period of time.
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-  In this past year Kepler Space Telescope has discovered another 1,284 new planets orbiting their stars.  The total now is over 3,000 known exoplanets.
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-  The rockier the planet, the closer to the habitable zone allowing liquid water , the more likely alien life will be roaming the terrain.  Here are some of the new candidates to give a sample of what they are like:
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-   Kepler -422b  -  has characteristics more habitable than even found on Earth.  This near Earth sized planet was discovered in 2015.  It is 1,100 lightyears away orbiting a star slightly cooler that our Sun.
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-  Kepler - 186f - discovered in 2014 is Earth sized and  in the habitable zone.  It is 10% larger than Earth and a rocky planet.  It is 500 lightyears away orbiting a cooler and redder star than our Sun.
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-  Gliese - 6677Cc  -  discovered in 2011 orbit’s a type of cool, dim star called a Red Dwarf Star.  It is 24 lightyears away.  In the habitable zone it is 4 times the mass of Earth.
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-  Alpha-Centauri is a 3 star system just 4 lightyears away.  Our nearest stars.  An Earth-like planet has not been discovered there but the potential is great that one must exist there in a habitable zone.
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-  Trappist - 1  is an ultra cool dwarf star 40 lightyears away with 3 Earth sized planets in orbit.  Two of these planets are tidally locked to the star so the same side is always facing the star.  So, at the shadow line there could be formations of pockets of water that could harbor life.
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-  Kepler - 22b  -  discovered in 2011,  600 lightyears away is the most Earth-like comfortably circling in the habitable zone.  It is twice Earth size with an average room temperature of 72 degrees F.
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-  Kepler  -  62  -  is 1,200 lightyears away.  It is cooler than our Sun with two habitable planets discovered in 2013.  They are slightly more massive than our Earth.
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-  Kepler - 452b is a super-Earth 1,400 lightyears away orbiting a star that is 1.5 billion years older than our Sun, yet the same temperature.  Our Sun is 4.6 billion years old.
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-  Europa, one of Jupiter’s 67 moons, remains our best chance of finding extraterrestrial  life.  Its liquid ocean beneath the icy crust is interacting with the rocky core and could produce the life-giving chemicals.  The cycling of oxygen and hydrogen would be a major driver for Europa’s ocean chemistry to be home to alien microbes.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Europa:
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-  #1788, #1725, #1702, #1361, #1152, #812.
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- Request these Reviews to learn more about Exoplanets:

-  #1874  -  Will we likely find life n Exoplanets and Exomoons?  Also lists 14 other Reviews available on the subject.
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-  #1833  -  Exoplanets are starting to reveal their secrets.
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-  #1669  -  How many planets are there?  How is their mass and size determined?
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Monday, May 23, 2016  -----
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Mass, light, and gravity. Still learning.

-  1875  -  Mass, light, and gravity.  Still learning.  A new property of light to be used in Quantum Computing.  A new understanding of where mass comes from.  Discoveries of how gravity waves occur with binary Blackholes.
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--------------------------  -  1875  -  Mass, light, and gravity.
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-  You would think that we would know everything there is to know about mass, light, and gravity.  Physics has been exploring these fundamentals for over 400 years.  Recent studies surprise us, there is still more to learn.
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-  College physicists have demonstrated a new form of light with a total angular momentum that has a 1/2 integer spin.  Angular momentum is the rotation of the light beam around its axis.  The momentum is the inertia and velocity as the light moves forward at 670,633,500 miles per hour.  The beam is twisting as it moves forward.
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-  The angular momentum of a light beam has always been seen to be a  multiple of Planck’s Constant.
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-----------------   Planck’s Constant  =   “h”  =   6.625 *10^-34  Joule * seconds.
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-------------------------  h  =  Energy  /  frequency.
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-  Planck’s Constant is a uniform ratio of the energy in one quantum of light ( a photon ) of electromagnetic radiation  to the frequency of that radiation ( cycles per second ).  The ratio was “ always” a whole number, and integer number of Planck Constant.
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-  This new discovery is that there is a form of light where the photons angular momentum is just ½ Planck Constant.  First observed this year, yes, but mathematically predicted in 1980.
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-  Experiments put light beams through a crystal that transforms the beam into a hollow cylinder.  The beam is first passed through a polarizer ( an optical filter passing only horizontal or vertical polarized light).  Then, the beam is split inside an interferometer.  An interferometer measures the interference pattern bringing the split beams back together.  Precise measurements can be made of any displacement between the two beams.  ( See LIGO used to discover gravity waves,, Review # 1155 ).
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-  The split beam had a ½ rotation in one arm.  When recombined scientists expected to still see multiple rotations of Planck’s Constant.  However, the output had photons with ½ that angular momentum.
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-  This is an exciting new discovered property of light.  It could be used in Quantum Computing.  It could increase the bandwidth of fiber-optic communications.  Who knows how this new property will show up in innovations.
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-  Mass is another fundamental property receiving new discoveries as to where mass comes from.  Mass is just concentrated energy, E = mc^2.  Mass is a form of energy storage.  With the Big Bang everything was energy, massless, and traveling at the speed of light.  As the Universe expanded and cooled the Higgs Field turned on creating particles with mass.
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-  The Field somehow slowed down some elementary particles allowing them to condense with mass, concentrated energy.  Electrons and Quarks were formed which are a tiny proportion of the total mass in the Universe.  The Strong Nuclear Force created protons and neutrons which comprises the most mass.  The three Quarks are bound together in the Proton by Gluons  Gluons are the particles that carry the Strong Force.  All this bound together creates enormous energy density.  “ Mass is concentrated energy”.
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-  Neutrons are slightly more massive than Protons.  Neutrons decay in to protons with the Weak Nuclear Force.  Neutrons have 2 Down Quarks and 1 Up Quark.  Down Quarks interact more strongly with the Higgs Field giving the Neutron a bit more mass.
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-  Neutrinos are fundamental particles with extremely tiny masses, a million times smaller that an electron’s mass.  Neutrinos are electrically neutral and rarely interact with matter.
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-  Could neutrino mass be created differently?  Could it be from a brand new source, not the Higgs Field.  Could this new source be related to Dark Matter that represents 23% of all the Universes’ mass-energy?  Maybe a younger person reading this will find the answers to these questions?
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-  From the  least massive particles to the  most massive Blackholes:  OJ287 is a super- massive Blackhole , 18,000 Million Solar Mass.  It is a binary system with a 150 Million Solar Mass Blackhole orbiting it.  The smaller Blackhole punches through the disk of the superheated matter orbiting the larger Blackhole.  This happens every 12 years.
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-  By measuring the variation of light radiation that happens when this occurs astronomers have calculated that the rotation rate is 31% the maximum allowed by General Relativity Math.
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-   The second observation is that the orbital period of the smaller Blackhole is getting shorter with time.  The system is losing energy ass it radiates gravitational waves, ripples in space-time.  The result is the orbits are contracting and the two Blackholes are merging into one.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about gravity:
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-  #1037  -  The details of the two Pioneer spacecraft gravity anomalies.
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-  #974  -  Gravity can not be distinguished from acceleration.
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-  #816  -  Why is the strength of gravity so small?
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-  #1536  -  Gravity Probe B.  Gravity feels strongest where space-time is most curved.
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-  #917 -   Gravity Waves, a geometric effect that travels at the speed of light.
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-  #1728  -  Measuring the Universe with gravity waves as the measuring stick.
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-  #1155  -  Gravity waves come from the Theory of Relativity.
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--  Request these Reviews to learn more about mass:
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-  #631  -  Mass, momentum and inertia.  There is no way to measure mass that is in constant, uniform motion.
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---  Request these Reviews to learn more about light:
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-  #1845  -  Why is the sky blue?
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-  #1795  -  Just seeing light uses half your brain.  Lists 10 more reviews about “ light”
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-  #1386  -  I had no idea light traveled that fast.
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-  #934  -  Light’s mysteries.  The math describing wave motion.
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-  #1335  -  The light spectrum.
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-  #768  -  The wave - particle duality of light.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Sunday, May 22, 2016  -----
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