Anti-matter. What is it ? Why is it?

-  1892  -  Anti-matter.  What is it ?  Why is it?  If the Big Bang was 100% energy and equal amounts of matter and anti-matter were created, how do we explain the dominants of matter in our Universe?  Plus a few other mysterious forces yet to be explained.
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---------------------------------------  1892  -  Anti-matter.  What is it ?
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-  Anti-matter are the same particles as Matter except these counterparts carry the opposite charge and opposite spin.  When an electron meets an anti-electron they annihilate each other converting 100% back to energy, in the form of Gamma Rays.
Gamma Rays are the highest frequency light.  All the 12 particles in the Standard Model of particles have their counterpart in anti-particles.
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-  Energy converted into matter.  It happens in our upper atmosphere every day.  Anti-matter particles are created by the Cosmic Rays entering the atmosphere from outer space.  Gamma Rays are arriving at rates ranging from 1 to 100 per square meter.  Anti-matter particles are also produced in the tops of thunder storms.
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-  Cosmic Ray collisions routinely produce anti-electrons and anti- protons.  Anti- helium atoms would require an extremely huge amount of energy to produce. But, it does happen.  The Earth’s magnetic field acts as an anti-matter trap where anti-protons are found, called the Van Allen Radiation Belt.
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-  An anti-matter source closer to  home comes in bananas.  Bananas contain potassium-40, a naturally occurring isotope of potassium.  Your body is radiating positrons, which the name for anti-electrons, from the same source, Potassium-40.  They are very short lived.  This annihilation process is going on all the time and you are none the wiser.
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-  Fortunately, these annihilations occurring naturally are with single atomic particles.  They carry enormous amounts of energy for their size, but their size is very, very small.  If you could accumulate a single gram of anti-matter you could produce an explosion the size of a nuclear bomb.  Again, fortunately, humans have not been able to produce even small amounts of anti-matter.
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-  Our most powerful atomic particle accelerators, like the Fermi Lab Tevatron, have produced only 15 nanograms (10^-9 grams) over its entire history.  If we annihilated all the anti-matter these big particle accelerators have produce we would not have enough energy to boil a cup of coffee.  A gram of anti-matter requires 25 million billion kilowatt-hours of energy costing a million billion dollars.  Don’t tell the government, they would spend the money.
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-  Potassium-40 and other radioactive isotopes are used in medical PET Scans.  PET, positron emission tomography, uses radioactive isotopes attached to glucose and injected into the bloodstream.  As these positrons encounter electrons they release Gamma Rays inside the body.  The PET detectors surround the body collect this radiation and construct images of the soft tissues that can not be imaged in X-Rays.  This technique may someday be used to destroy cancer cells.
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-  The latest theory to explain why matter is dominant over anti-matter relies on the neutrino.  Neutrinos are the tiniest particles, nearly massless, with a neutral charge, that is no electric charge to interact with other matter.  Some radioactive decay releases 2 electrons and 2 neutrinos.  If neutrinos were their own anti-particles they would annihilate each other and we would see only the two electrons.  It the decay is asymmetrical maybe a tiny matter excess is enough to explain our matter dominated Universe.  One extra matter particle for every billion matter-anti-matter annihilations is all we would need.
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-  Does gravity have the same effect on ant-matter as it does on matter?  Experiments have not been developed sensitive enough to prove this either way.
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-  Stay tuned as announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Anti-Matter, and other mysterious forces yet to be explained:
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-  Potassium-40 radioactive dating.  See Review #872.
Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1,280,000 years.  It contains 19 protons and 21 neutrons, and is unstable.  It decays into Calcium-40 , or , Argon -40.  It is used in radioactive dating of volcanic rocks where prehistoric bones are buried.  Layers of volcanic sediment above and below the bones have dated humanoids living 4,000,000 to 7,000,000 years ago.  See the Review #872 for the math involved.
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-  Casimir Effect is a theory that a perfect vacuum of space still contains energy.  See Review #1413 to learn how vacuum fluctuations create a force in space.  The Casimir Force was first proposed trying to discover why syrup flowed so slowly.  How do neutral atoms have a mutual attraction causing syrup to flow so slowly.  There is math to support this too.
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-  See Review #1237 about how Vacuum Energy is affecting nano-technology and expanding the Universe at the same time.  The big and small of what we can’t explain.
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-  The Lamb Shift, named after, Willis Lamb ( 1913-2008) is the difference in energy levels in the hydrogen atom.  The difference is believed to be caused by the interaction between “ vacuum energy” and the  hydrogen electron.  The concept was used by Richard Hawking of how vacuum energy fluctuations allowed articles to escape Blackhole  (Hawking Radiation)
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-  Quantum Electrodynamics ( QED) is the math used to calculate the fluctuations in the electric and magnetic fields inside the atom.  The energy shift is the fluctuations of the position of the electron.
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-  The Lamb Shift provides a measurement of the Fine-Structure Constant which is one of nature’s fundamental constants.
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-  Could there be an anti-gravity?  Anti-matter has the opposite electric charge and spin but we assume it has the same affects with gravity as Normal Matter.  But, experiments have not been able to prove this yet. Would anti-matter fall “ up”?
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-  #1393  -  Anti-matter was first discovered mathematically in 1928.  It was discovered in the lab in 1932.  When an electron and anti-electron meet the annihilation releasing two Gamma Rays in the opposite direction at exactly 510,000 electron volts.
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-  #1839  -  B-Mesons decay with asymmetry called “CP” voilation.  This may explain why matter outnumbers anti-matter.  CP  =  charge-parity breaking.
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-  #1746  -  The asymmetry of the amount of anti-matter may be been due to the motion of the Higgs Field.
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-  #1303 -  Antarctic Balloon experiments have mapped the Cosmic Microwave Background temperature.
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-   #1272  -  Anti-hydrogen was first produced in 2011.  Science shows America’s education and media system is a failure.  Here’s why.
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-  #1149  -  So far, Broken Symmetry is not near dominate enough to explain the dominate creation of Matter.
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-  #971  -  Once they realized the Universe is expanding they had to accept that it has a past and will have a future.
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-  #891  -  Does anti-energy exist.  Does anti-gravity exist.  Evidence is that for every 10,000,000,000 particles of matter there is on particle of anti-matter.
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-  #730  -  Anti-matter is made of 12 fundamental anti-particles.
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-  #607  -  Maybe Dark Matter is generating anti-matter in the Blackhole at the center of our galaxy?
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-  #880  -  Anti-matter and Blackholes
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Blackholes are the evolution of natural stages in physics

-  1891  -  Blackholes are the evolution of natural stages in physics and astronomy.  They are inevitable outcomes of interactions of mass and energy in the Universe.  The mystery remains, what happens after the Blackhole?
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------------------------  1891 -  Blackholes are the evolution of natural events.
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-  Blackholes are easy to explain and are the expected result of natural happenings.  Happenings that occur all over the Universe all the time.  So, how many Blackholes are out there?
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-  Mass and energy are the same thing.  Mass is simply concentrated energy according to E=mc^2.  Energy  =  mass  times  90,000,000,000,000,000.
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-  Mass bends , or warps, space-time.  Motion in space shrinks space and slows time, up to the limit of the speed of light.  Mass creates a gravity well that more mass falls in to.  Once enough mass is collected the gravity well is so steep, the gravity “ force” so strong, that not even the motion of photons can escape.  “c”  the speed of light, is not fast enough to climb the steep gravity well before falling back into the Blackhole.  “Black” because not even light can escape.
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-  Massive stars end their lives as supernovae explosions.  If the stars are large enough they leave behind a 3 to 20 Solar mass cinder with a radius small enough that a Blackhole forms.  There are super massive Blackholes at the center of most galaxies.  These Galactic Blackholes range in size from 1 million to 10 billion Solar Mass.
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-  Blackholes are a simple reality of evolution as gravity collects mass.  Enough mass and a Blackhole forms.  As a cluster of stars, or galaxies, grows denser, more mass lives at the center of the cluster.  Gravitational attraction between stars becomes stronger.  Stars orbit at faster rates.  Friction and temperatures rise.  The core gets denser and hotter and the outer regions expand.
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-  In the case of a single star the hydrogen to helium fusion produces gas pressure that holds the star up against the compression of gravity.  Heat is lost at the surface but nuclear reactions replace it.  Our Sun will do this for 10 billion years.  Our star is an intermediate mass and it will evolve into a Red Giant star ( a planetary nebula) with a White Dwarf star at its core.
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-  If the Sun were a larger star the greater mass and gravitational pressure would overcome electron degeneracy pressure ( collapsing atoms ) and even neutron degeneracy pressure collapsing into a Blackhole.  The Blackhole is inescapable for stars greater than 20 Solar Mass.
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-  When these natural processes go through enough stages in building compact cores the formation of a Blackhole is an inevitable outcome of general physics.  What happens next?  Where do Blackholes go from there?  Stay tuned as announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Blackholes:
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-  #1882  -  Could Blackholes explain Dark Matter?  The Universe expands into time, so, is there an edge to time?
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-  #1869  -  Blackhole mysteries,  how big can they get? NGC1600 is a Blackhole that is 2,700,000,000  Solar Mass.
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-  #1843  -  Great walls in space with Blackholes.
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-  #1819  -  New discoveries that may close the gap between stellar and galaxy center Blackholes.
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-  #1819  -  Lists 4 more reviews and there still remains 17 more on the subject.  Mysteries need lots of explanations.  Which ones will turn out to be right?
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9.5 billion lightyears away a supernova explodes

-  1890  -  A supernova far away betrays Dark Matter.  9.5 billion lightyears away a supernova explodes and gravitational lensing is used to study the new dimensions of astronomy exposed by this event.
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----------------------  1890  -  A supernova far away betrays Dark Matter.
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-  In a distant spiral galaxy 9.5 billion lightyears away the light started from a supernova explosion.  The explosion was too dim for astronomers to see directly.  It was “redshifted” into the infrared spectrum due to the extreme distance of expanding space in which the light traveled.
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-  The Earth and Moon were just forming 5 billion years after this event.  And, at about the same time the light from this supernova encountered an enormous cluster of galaxies that were in our line of sight.  The enormous gravity bent the light beams as they passed by and through this gravity well created by warped space-time.
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-  The bent light beams just happened to focus on the planet Earth 4.5 billion light years away.  It was like a gigantic magnifying glass that magnified the images of the spiral galaxy by 100 times.  There were multiple images as the bent light beams took different paths around the cluster on their way to Earth.  Astronomers were able to detect the supernova in the magnified images starting November 2014.  The four images were separated by mere days on their arrival.
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-  These images were bent around the boundary of the immense galaxy cluster.  That allowed astronomers to calculate the mass of the cluster.  Most amazing of all they calculated that this same image traveling the direct route through the cluster’s deepest gravity well would not arrive until a year later, November 2015.
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-  The Hubble Space Telescope began looking one orbit per month hoping to spot this same supernova again.  Einstein’s equations were precise.  They calculated the precise way the light interacted with the gravitational lens.  It is counter- intuitive but it took a year longer for the light to escape the gravity will through the cluster center and in our direct line of sight.
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-  It was the supernova that allowed astronomers to using the timing of this event in their calculations.  Without it the images would not be unique enough to identify that they originated in a single event 9.5 billion years ago.  What are the chances that this scenario could actually come together to allow such a prediction?
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-  In November 1915 Albert Einstein published his new theory of gravity.  He predicted that light would bend  as it took the shortest path through warped space-time as it moved past a massive object.  In 1919 Arthur Eddington detected this phenomena as background stars shifted as their light passed by an eclipsed Sun.
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-  In 1937 Fritz Zwicky predicted multiple images of a single galaxy would occur due to gravitational lensing from a foreground mass.  In 1967  Sjur Refsdal, a Norwegian astronomer, showed that gravitational lensing calculations could map the mass in the lensing galaxy, or cluster of galaxies.  These calculations could also be used to define the expansion rate of the Universe if the background galaxy contained an exploding star.
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-  In 1979 the first cosmic gravitational lens was observed.  In 2013 the Hubble Telescope was assigned a galaxy cluster target, MACSj1149.  In November 2014 Hubble spotted the first multiple images of the background galaxy directly behind his target.  And, with unbelievable luck also spotted the supernova and began plotting its light curve as it brightened to maximum and slowly faded in its intensity.
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-  The supernova was hydrogen- rich representing among the first stars formed after the Big Bang.  It was a blue supergiant star, and unlike a Type 1a supernova, it could not be used as a “ standard candle” to calculate its distance.  Instead the distance calculations were made using the method of “ redshifts” due to the expanding space in which the light traveled.
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-  Hubble is still watching this distant galaxy through the gravitational lens.  Gravity alone offers a factor of 100 times magnification power.  But, the supernova light is fading fast and will soon be out of sight.  Astronomers have serendipity to thank for the enormous amount of data collected.  New knowledge will surely come out about Dark Matter, galaxy formations, and the expansion of the Universe.  Who knows?  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about gravitational lensing:
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-  #1534   -  The diameter of the gravity lens ring is directly proportional to the mass.  Another calculation the mass of the galaxy cluster is measured by the orbital velocity of the galaxies about the center of gravity.  Example calculations are provided.
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-  #1885  -  Gravity a property of space and time.  Lists a dozen more reviews about gravity, space, and time.
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Friday, July 8, 2016  -----
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The evolution of the Milky Way Galaxy?

-  1889  -  Computer modeling and new extensive observations of our Milky Way Galaxy are telling us a story of galactic creation.  The greatest mystery still is the you are here learning about it.
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------------  1889  -  Evolution of the galaxies
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-  150 million years after the Big Bang the first stars were so large and bright in ultraviolet light that the UV radiation ionized the neutral hydrogen gas.  The UV radiation separated the electrons from the nuclei in the hydrogen atoms.  The re-ionization broke the UV light free to travel throughout the Cosmos.  Before this happened the Universe was opaque, like looking at the surface of a white cloud.  After this happened the Universe became transparent and light filled the heavens.
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-  Today, galaxies found at Redshifts of 7 or greater contain 1st generation stars and some galaxies have a large bubble of ionized gas around them.  Galaxies difficult to see are having their light blocked by neutral hydrogen gas.  Dimmer galaxies did not have the hot stars and UV light needed to break up the neutral hydrogen gas.  The fainter galaxies became shrouded from view.  Neutral hydrogen represented a “ Cosmic Fog
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-  To find these earliest galaxies astronomers must look in the infrared wavelengths because the light has been “ redshifted” traveling long distances in expanding space.  As space stretches these wavelengths towards the red end of the spectrum.  Also, to collect the dim light telescopes must stare at the same spot in the sky for long durations to detect these earliest and faintest galaxies.  Sometimes exposures have lasted over 1,000 hours.
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-  The images of these distant, earliest galaxies are as they were billions of years before the Earth and the Solar System were even formed.  By tracking this evolutions  through time astronomers hope to learn how the early Universe formed and in particular how Dark Matter played a role in our evolution.
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- Japan’s Subaru telescope in Hawaii has measured clusters of galaxies some 13 billion lightyears from Earth.  Measuring 3,000 ancient galaxies velocities and positions consistently confirm the equations in Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.  They further show that Dark Energy and Dark Matter are playing their roles in the expansion of the Universe.
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-  Computer modeling, or “ simulation”, experiments with different scenarios until a good match exists to observations.  To recreate the Milky Way and the 26 galaxies in out Local Group of galaxies that are locked in their mutual gravitational forces we need “ halos” of Dark Matter.
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-  Not just one massive halo but many thousands of smaller sub-halos.  The smaller galaxies formed are called “ satellite galaxies”.  These galaxies can orbit their host galaxy for billions of years.  Many merge causing the central galaxy to add large amounts of gas and stars.  These mergers trigger violent episodes of new star formation.
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-  Smaller halos form “ dwarf galaxies” which may be orbited by even smaller satellite sub-halos of Dark Matter.  This scenario readily appears in theoretical models run in computer simulations.  This mechanism offers an explanation to the origin of isolated spheroid dwarf galaxies orbiting the larger Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies.
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-  Now, lets look at “ observations” of our own Milky Way Galaxy:
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-  The Milky Way is made up of two main populations of stars.  The young metal- rich stars are in the disk.  And , the older, metal-poor stars are in the galaxy’s halo of stars.
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-  The Sun has orbited in nearly a perfect circle of the galactic center on which it was born.  It  is on its 18th  trip.  The young thin disk in which it resides is only 300 lightyears thick broadening to 1,000 lightyears at the Sun’s radius of 26,000 lightyears. The galaxies thick disk of older stars is 3,000 lightyears thick.
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-  The galactic center is a Blackhole some 4,000,000 Solar Mass.  The galactic halo enveloping this center comprises the oldest metal-poor stars.  If you extend the outer halo you reach some 100 small satellite galaxies.
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-  Beyond this halo of small galaxies is a the halo of Dark Matter holding all this dynamic mass together.  The Dark Matter halo spans 600,000 lightyears containing a trillion Solar mass of material.
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-  Theory has it that this formation for our galaxy started some 10 billion years ago and evolved into a flattened disk some 8 billion years ago.
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-  Our Milky Way Galaxy is still accreting smaller dwarf galaxies.  And, there are stars in the galaxy’s central bulge that are older than the galaxy itself.  Some stars were formed some 300 million years after the Big Bang.  Of the 14,000 stars studied 500 are older-metal-poor stars.  23 of these are so metal-poor that they are nearly pure hydrogen and helium.  They must be at least 13.5 billion years old.
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-  Our galaxy’s biggest merger is still in our future.  The Milky Way will merge with the Andromeda Galaxy some 4 billion years from now.  Meanwhile our Milky Way galaxy is swallowing dwarf galaxies.  One example is the Sagittarius dwarf spheroid galaxy that is currently falling into our Galaxy’s halo.
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-  If we look at the Milky Way using different frequencies beyond visible light we see the infrared heat coming from dust in the galaxy.  We call it heat but it is -251 Celsius.  Empty space is -273 Celsius.
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-  Add higher frequency exposes carbon monoxide gas where new stars are being born.  Higher frequencies still expose charged particles caught in magnetic fields.  These particles can be accelerated to nearly the sped of light causing them to radiate very high frequency energy.   Still another frequency is tuned to the radiation created  when free particles zip past each other without colliding.  This occurs in hot, ionized gas near massive stars.
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-  These images come from the Planck Space Observatory launched by the European Space Agency in 2009.  Studies continue to learn about our home in the Universe and how we got here.  The biggest miracle in the Universe still is that we are here thinking about how we got here.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about the Milky Way Galaxy:
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-  #1804  -  Placing 1,000 Milky Ways end for end spans 100 million lightyears which is the size of the Virgo Cluster of galaxies.
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-  #1703  -  Many of the dwarf galaxies that were swallowed up by the Milky Way have left streams of stars stretching across the sky.
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-  #1526  -  The galaxy center is like a pin ball machine.
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-  #1492  -  The diameter of the bulge at the center of the galaxy is 8,000 lightyears.
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-  #1348  -  During the time it took light from 13.7 billion lightyears to reach us the Universe has grown to 45 billion lightyears.
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-  #1337  -  The gas falling into the Blackhole at the center emits 50 times more energy than hydrogen-helium fusion would.
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-  #1337  -  this review lists 8 more earlier reviews about the Milky Way Galaxy
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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What is the Universe made of?

-  1888  -  What is the Universe made of?  What we observe , know , and think we understand is less than 5% of what is out there.  The research is accelerating to discover, what is Dark Matter?
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--------------------------  1888  -  What is the Universe made of?
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-  Everything we are familiar with, everything we can “ see”, is less than 5% of what composes the Universe.  95% is still a mystery.  23% is something that interacts with gravity.  We call it “ Dark Matter”.  73% is some form of energy existing in “ empty” space that is causing space to expand at an ever accelerating rate.  We call it “ Dark Energy”.
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-  The Dark Matter idea has been around since 1922.  It was a gravitational influence that did not follow Isaac Newton’s simple equations for gravity and momentum.    The structure, rotation, and motion of galaxies and later galaxy clusters, would not make sense unless there was something else, invisible out there that created an extra gravitational force.
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-  In 1933 Fritz Zwicky made the term Dark Matter wider known as he studied spiral galaxies and galaxy clusters , and concluded that without extra gravity all galaxies would be throwing off stars like a lawn sprinkler throws of water drops.
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-  In the 1970’s Vera Rubin studying these galaxies did the math to show that at least six times more mass must exist around galaxies in order to hold them together.
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-  The unseen particles that compose this unseen mass became know as WIMPS, Weakly Interactive, Massive, Particles.  Several other theories have names for the mystery particles include RAMBOs, gravitinos, MACHOs, axions and Kaluze-Klien particles.  When no theory can be proven, any one will due.
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-  Dark Matter does not emit, reflect, or absorb any electromagnetic radiation.  It is not black like a surface that absorbs all the colored light.  It does not interact with light at all.
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-  The Cosmic Microwave Background radiation has a structure of very slight temperature variations that also infer the existence of Dark Matter.
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-  One researcher has proposed that Dark Matter is a wave that can not be detected by “sight” but could be detected in “ audible” frequencies.  Another theory has Dark Matter as streams as long and dense filaments.
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-  Most agree that Dark Matter must be a mass in the form of a “ halo”, roughly spherical, extending beyond the visible matter in each galaxy.  There are over 10,000 science articles published today that have the term “ Dark Matter” in the title.  The search goes on.  What is it?
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-  Einstein started the search to better understand gravity in 1915.  He redefined gravity as not a force but a warping , or curvature, of space-time.  Mass is simply falling through the shortest space-time path of least resistance.
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-  In 1929 Edwin Hubble changed Einstein’s concept of a static, balanced,  universe to a dynamic universe with galaxies outside our own are accelerating away due to expanding space.  The conclusion was  made due to “redshifts”, or stretched wavelengths, of a known element’s wavelength that gets spread out as it travels through expanding space.
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-  Since the Big Bang the Universe has been expanding and cooling.  Today the average temperature is only 3 degrees above absolute zero.  All the galaxies, not gravitationally locked, are moving away from each other.  There is no center, no special galaxies experiencing something different.  The Big Bang is a “point” in time, not a point in space.
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-  In 1933 Fred Zwicky concluded that galaxy clusters were moving too rapidly to be held together by the visible matter.  Extra matter was needed to account for the extra gravity.  His concept of missing matter was further confirmed when multiple images of distant galaxies were discovered due to gravitational lensing, the bending of light beams around an intermediate massive object.  Still more evidence came with the discovery of colliding galaxies.  In the collision the electro-static forces on Normal Matter caused a separation from Dark Matter that was affected only by gravity.  This distinct separation lasts until gravity eventually pulls the masses back together.
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-  Computer simulations can match these astronomical observations if the calculations include the ratios of 4% Normal Matter, 23% Dark Matter, and 73% Dark Energy.  If these calculations are right, 4 / 23, or 80% of the total matter in the Universe is Dark Matter.  These matter particles have yet to be discovered.  So far just inferred.  The name for the favorite particle is WIMPS.  A WIMP particle would be 100 times the mass of a proton.  They would be their own anti-particle.  That is have different “charges” but do not annihilate each other.  But, not electromagnetic charges like Normal Matter and Anti-Matter.
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-  The Large Hadron Collider at CERN, Switzerland, hopes to discover these particles by smashing protons together at near the speed of light.  This research recently discovered the Higgs Boson particle that is 125 times the mass of a proton.  It is the Force Particle that allows all other particles to have the property of mass.  But, it does not explain the properties of Dark Matter that does not interact with the electromagnetic forces.
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-  The research is accelerating on many different fronts to discover the true nature of Dark Matter.  It remains one of the biggest mysteries in science today.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Dark Matter:
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-  #827  -  The Bullet Cluster and the collision of two galaxies.
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-  #1534  -  The calculations of mass from the rings of gravitational lensing.
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-  #1535 -  The Hubble Telescope used gravitational lensing to see galaxies back to 500 million years after the Big Bang.
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-  #1535  -  This review also lists eleven other Reviews on this same topic.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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What is the Universe made of?

-  1888  -  What is the Universe made of?  What we observe , know , and think we understand is less than 5% of what is out there.  The research is accelerating to discover, what is Dark Matter?
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--------------------------  1888  -  What is the Universe made of?
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-  Everything we are familiar with, everything we can “ see”, is less than 5% of what composes the Universe.  95% is still a mystery.  23% is something that interacts with gravity.  We call it “ Dark Matter”.  73% is some form of energy existing in “ empty” space that is causing space to expand at an ever accelerating rate.  We call it “ Dark Energy”.
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-  The Dark Matter idea has been around since 1922.  It was a gravitational influence that did not follow Isaac Newton’s simple equations for gravity and momentum.    The structure, rotation, and motion of galaxies and later galaxy clusters, would not make sense unless there was something else, invisible out there that created an extra gravitational force.
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-  In 1933 Fritz Zwicky made the term Dark Matter wider known as he studied spiral galaxies and galaxy clusters , and concluded that without extra gravity all galaxies would be throwing off stars like a lawn sprinkler throws of water drops.
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-  In the 1970’s Vera Rubin studying these galaxies did the math to show that at least six times more mass must exist around galaxies in order to hold them together.
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-  The unseen particles that compose this unseen mass became know as WIMPS, Weakly Interactive, Massive, Particles.  Several other theories have names for the mystery particles include RAMBOs, gravitinos, MACHOs, axions and Kaluze-Klien particles.  When no theory can be proven, any one will due.
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-  Dark Matter does not emit, reflect, or absorb any electromagnetic radiation.  It is not black like a surface that absorbs all the colored light.  It does not interact with light at all.
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-  The Cosmic Microwave Background radiation has a structure of very slight temperature variations that also infer the existence of Dark Matter.
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-  One researcher has proposed that Dark Matter is a wave that can not be detected by “sight” but could be detected in “ audible” frequencies.  Another theory has Dark Matter as streams as long and dense filaments.
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-  Most agree that Dark Matter must be a mass in the form of a “ halo”, roughly spherical, extending beyond the visible matter in each galaxy.  There are over 10,000 science articles published today that have the term “ Dark Matter” in the title.  The search goes on.  What is it?
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-  Einstein started the search to better understand gravity in 1915.  He redefined gravity as not a force but a warping , or curvature, of space-time.  Mass is simply falling through the shortest space-time path of least resistance.
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-  In 1929 Edwin Hubble changed Einstein’s concept of a static, balanced,  universe to a dynamic universe with galaxies outside our own are accelerating away due to expanding space.  The conclusion was  made due to “redshifts”, or stretched wavelengths, of a known element’s wavelength that gets spread out as it travels through expanding space.
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-  Since the Big Bang the Universe has been expanding and cooling.  Today the average temperature is only 3 degrees above absolute zero.  All the galaxies, not gravitationally locked, are moving away from each other.  There is no center, no special galaxies experiencing something different.  The Big Bang is a “point” in time, not a point in space.
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-  In 1933 Fred Zwicky concluded that galaxy clusters were moving too rapidly to be held together by the visible matter.  Extra matter was needed to account for the extra gravity.  His concept of missing matter was further confirmed when multiple images of distant galaxies were discovered due to gravitational lensing, the bending of light beams around an intermediate massive object.  Still more evidence came with the discovery of colliding galaxies.  In the collision the electro-static forces on Normal Matter caused a separation from Dark Matter that was affected only by gravity.  This distinct separation lasts until gravity eventually pulls the masses back together.
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-  Computer simulations can match these astronomical observations if the calculations include the ratios of 4% Normal Matter, 23% Dark Matter, and 73% Dark Energy.  If these calculations are right, 4 / 23, or 80% of the total matter in the Universe is Dark Matter.  These matter particles have yet to be discovered.  So far just inferred.  The name for the favorite particle is WIMPS.  A WIMP particle would be 100 times the mass of a proton.  They would be their own anti-particle.  That is have different “charges” but do not annihilate each other.  But, not electromagnetic charges like Normal Matter and Anti-Matter.
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-  The Large Hadron Collider at CERN, Switzerland, hopes to discover these particles by smashing protons together at near the speed of light.  This research recently discovered the Higgs Boson particle that is 125 times the mass of a proton.  It is the Force Particle that allows all other particles to have the property of mass.  But, it does not explain the properties of Dark Matter that does not interact with the electromagnetic forces.
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-  The research is accelerating on many different fronts to discover the true nature of Dark Matter.  It remains one of the biggest mysteries in science today.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Dark Matter:
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-  #827  -  The Bullet Cluster and the collision of two galaxies.
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-  #1534  -  The calculations of mass from the rings of gravitational lensing.
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-  #1535 -  The Hubble Telescope used gravitational lensing to see galaxies back to 500 million years after the Big Bang.
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-  #1535  -  This review also lists eleven other Reviews on this same topic.
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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Galaxies galore - astronomers have mapped the positions

-  1887  -  Galaxies galore  -  astronomers have mapped the positions and velocities of 8,000 galaxies reveling nested galactic structures of voids, sheets, filaments and nodes giving us a picture of the structure of the Universe.
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---------------------------------  1887  -  Galaxies Galore
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-  As astronomers continue to measure the distances to stars and galaxies , to measure their velocities, speed and directions, we gather a 3-D picture of the structure of the Universe
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-  What we are seeing is stars that gather into galaxies, galaxies that gather into “ clusters” of galaxies, and galaxy clusters that group into “ super clusters”.  These galaxy clusters are interconnected by “filaments” of galaxies, sheets ad “strings” of galaxies on the surface of giant “voids“.  The voids are like bubbles of expanding space.  The galaxies are like bubble surfaces that grow as galaxies separate apart.
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-  Even these super clusters seem to group into an even larger super-super structure.  Astronomers call this larger cluster “ Laniakea” .  The word is Hawaiian which means “immeasurable heaven”
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-  We are located in this 3-D map on the “ Orion Spur”, a spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy just 27,400 lightyears from the center traveling at 504,000 miles per hour.  The Milky Way galaxy is 100,000 lightyears diameter.  This is 0.1 million lightyears, or, 10% of a million lightyears, 0.1MLY, which I will use as the galactic unit of measure in this review.
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-  Within a diameter of 7 MLY there is a “ Local Group” of 26 galaxies.  The Milky Way and the Andromeda are the two biggest galaxies in this group.  Our Local Group of galaxies are part of the “ Virgo Cluster” of galaxies 50 MLY across.  The Virgo Cluster contains more that 1,000 large galaxies.
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-  The Virgo Cluster is part of a super cluster of  100’s of galaxy clusters spanning 100 MLYs.  These super clusters are interconnected by filaments and sheets of galaxies that are like the surface of bubbles.  The voids are empty of any galaxies at all.
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-  For some time astronomers believed this super cluster represented one part of a homogeneous structure for the entire Universe.  But, since 2014 evidence has compiled that this structure is part of an even larger structure that is a collection of 100,000 large galaxies across 400 MLY.  This is Laniakea.
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-  Measuring these structures ad their dynamics will hopefully lead to understanding “Dark Matter”.  This invisible matter is only evident by its gravity with no interactions with electromagnetic radiation, ie. with light.  The laws of gravity indicate that this Dark Matter composes 80% of all matter. It represents 23% of all matter-energy in the Universe.
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-  The dynamics of Laniakea will hopefully also help astronomers explain “ Dark Energy“, the 73% of all the mass-energy in the Universe.  Dark Energy is the energy that is expanding space separating galaxies at an ever increasing rate.  Today it is measured at 47,000 miles per hour per million lightyears of separation in space.
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-  There may be even larger super clusters to be discovered.  All  these structures are resulting from the “ tug of war” between gravity that is holding galaxies together and bringing them together and expanding space that is accelerating their separation.
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-  Measuring the velocities resulting from this “ tug of war” concludes that there is missing Dark Matter that is exerting the extra gravitational forces.  Measuring the positions and distances conclude with a structured distribution of matter and its accelerating rate of expansion.  How these measurements are made are footnoted at the end of this review.
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-  The 3-D map that begins to define the structures within the Universe is a dynamic structure of counter balancing forces that cause galaxies to flow in currents, swirl in eddies, collect in pools and nest into moving structures, nested into even larger moving structures.
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-  In 2008 astronomers had 1,800 galaxies measured and catalogued in this 3-D structure spanning 130 MLY.  In 2013 the catalogued included 8,000 galaxies spanning 650 MLY.  From this picture astronomers found that clusters of galaxies spanning 400 MLY were all moving together towards a “ Great Attractor”.  Only 20% of the galaxies have been measured in this group called “Laniakea”.
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-  Let’s begin with you reading this review sitting perfectly still.  Well not really.  Here is some of the dynamics you are experiencing and don’t feel it.  You will need your imagination to begin to realize these dynamics.  California is rotating on the Earth’s surface traveling east at 700 miles per hour.  Your path around the Sun is traveling 67,000 miles per hour.  Your path around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is traveling at 504,000 miles per hour.
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-  As a member of the Local Group of 26 galaxies you are moving toward the Constellation Centaurus at 1,342,000 miles per hour.  Inside this Local Group the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are gravitationally moving towards each other at 246,000 miles per hour.  The two galaxies will merge in 4 billion years from now.
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-  Beyond the Local Group of galaxies within 25 MLY is a Local “Sheet” of galaxies only 3 MLY thick.  Below this plane of galaxies is a “ filament” of galaxies called the Leo Spur.  Below that is emptiness called the “ Local Void”.
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-  The Local Void is expanding , inflating like a balloon, with a surface of under dense and over dense regions piling up at the boundaries.  Inside is a volume spanning 13 MLY containing 300 local group’s worth of galaxies, moving at 1,565,000 miles per hour.  This group is called the Virgo Cluster of galaxies at 50 MLY distance from the Milky Way.
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-  The Great Attractor in that direction is an area with seven clusters of galaxies the size each the size of the Virgo Cluster spanning 100 MLYs.  The Laniakea boundaries span 500 MLYs and encompass Normal and Dark Matter mass equivalent to 100 million billion Solar Mass.  These structures are separating at 1,565,000 miles per hour, but there are gravity wells that create “ peculiar velocities” of only 1,342,000 miles per hour.
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-  God only knows what all these structures are expanding into.  They extend out to the boundary of our Observable Universe 13.8 billion lightyears from us.  The 3-D map described above is only 10% , or , 1.4 billion lightyears of this distance.  What more is there out there to learn?  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  (1)  How are these distance and velocity measurements being made?
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-  If we know the wavelength of a particular light source, such as the radiation emitted by the element hydrogen, and we measure this wavelength to be much wider, that is redder.
Wider wavelengths are stretched towards the red end of the light spectrum, redshifted when moving away from us.  The amount of redshift can be used to calculate the receding velocity of this expanding light source.  The amount of redshift is also a rough estimate of the distance to the light source.
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--------------  Redshift  =  (wavelength observed  -  intrinsic wavelength)  /  intrinsic wavelength
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--------------  Receding velocity  =  speed of light * Redshift.
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--------------  Hydrogen intrinsic wavelength  =  656.3 nanometers.
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---------------  Observed wavelength is 662.9 nanometers.
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-------------  Redshift  =  6.6 nm  /  656.3 nm  =  0.01
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--------------  Receding velocity  =  3*10^5 km/sec  * 1%  =  3,000 km/sec
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--------------  Receding velocity  =  6,711,000 miles per hour.
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-  Another method to measure the distance is to use the Apparent Brightness of a light source.  If the Intrinsic Luminosity is known the distance can be calculated as the dimness increases as the square of the distance from the source.
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--------------  Apparent Brightness  =  Luminosity  / 4*pi*(distance)^2
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----------------   d^2  =  Intrinsic Luminosity  /  4*pi* ( Measured Brightness)
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-  Light sources that have known intrinsic luminosities include pulsating stars called Cepheid Variables that have a luminosity related to their rate of pulsation.    And, Type 1a Supernovae that explode at 1.4 Solar Mass and can outshine an entire galaxy for a brief moment of time.  A third method is the brightness of a spiral galaxy itself where rotation rate is related to its total luminosity.  This is called the Tully-Fisher relationship.
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-  The visible part of the Universe is being catalogued in this manner.  The invisible part, the Dark Matter, is inferred due to the gravitational attractions required to form the structures  and  to create the velocities encountered.
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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