Delving into Extreme Physics.

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-----------------  1762  -  Delving into Extreme Physics. 
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-  An X-ray image of the sky:

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-   Quantum Mechanics and Special Relativity are two all encompassing theories that help explain much of our real world.  However,  they do not encompass each other.  One works in the micro-world the other in the macro-world.  So, we must be missing something that encompasses both?
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-  Quantum Mechanics provides the math that accurately, without error, describes the sub-atomic world.  Special Relativity gives us the math to describe the Universe at large with extreme mass and extreme speeds.  The Big Bang and Blackholes are extreme events that require both sets of equations.  But, they both cease to work in each other’s realm.  There must be an over arching theory that works at both of these extremes?
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-  Just as Isaac Newton’s theory of gravity that gave us equations for all gravitational force.  And, as Albert Einstein’s theory of the curvature of space and time encompasses the force of gravity but carries it further to the constant speed of light and the relative nature of space and time.  Then, a new theory may be needed to encompass what we have today and carry us to the nest step.  We have yet to learn what that theory is.
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-  Our world should be described by the sum of its individual constituents, down to the smallest particles.  However, Quantum Mechanics requires that particles at the smallest level be waves having no definite position.  Individual particles have no exact locations.  The micro-world is fraught with these uncertainties.
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-  Quantum Mechanics requires that some particles can have their properties “entangled” with other particles regardless of their location or the degree of separation.  Somehow particles can be connected beyond “ locality”.  Beyond any ability to communicate with each other.
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-  “Non-locality” as it is described requires a communication between particles that can occur instantaneously, regardless of separation, and therefore, faster that the speed of light.  The Theory of Relativity says this can not happen.  Relativity does not allow absolute simultaneity.
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-  Can we understand the real world only by direct experience?
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-  Quantum Mechanics has evolved attributes that go beyond our experience, even contradicting it.  Attributes such as Superposition, Entanglement,  Randomness, Decoherence, are resources used to better understand reality using Quantum Mechanics Theory.
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-  Superposition is a quantum theory that claims an object is in all possible states and is only limited to a single state at the instant you measure or observe it.
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-  Quantum Entanglement is a physical occurrence where particles can share a property instantaneously while separated great distances.  Entangled electrons, one spin up, the other spin down , separated far enough the speed of light can not communicate between them.  Switching one electron to spin down will instantly switch the other to spin up, faster than the speed of light.
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-  Uncertainty Principle introduces a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of complementary properties can be measured.  The more accurately we measure “position” of a particle the less accurately we can learn about its “momentum“.
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-  Decoherence gives the appearance of  a Quantum Wave Function collapsing from many possibilities to a single possibility only when it is observed.
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-  Randomness is where something can not be predicted with probabilities.  However, statistically many “random” events at the microscopic level, such as atomic decay, can be calculated precisely at the macro level, such as the half-life of radioactive atoms.
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- Physicists, like anyone else, can succumb to a bad philosophy, or doctrine, that actively hinders the acquisition of new knowledge.  When a scientific paradigm shifts a radical change of perspective suddenly occurs.  Wholly new ideas become relevant.  Relativity and Quantum Mechanics are two such ideas.
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-  The evidence of objectivity is that experiments are observable and reproducible.  We see a new “reality“.  Relativity introduced a new “time and a new “ space”.  Quantum Mechanics introduced “ Entanglement” and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle”.  “Complementary” theory introduced the idea that all the information in a Blackhole is all on the surface of the Blackhole, like a hologram.
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-  How do we know that the reality we perceive is “ true”?  There is no way to remove the observer from his perception of the world.  The measuring devices in the human being are crude instruments.  There is so much of the world that we can not perceive directly.  We need math, technology, measurement instruments, experiments , that go beyond human perception.
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-  To take these even further there are attributes in the Quantum World that do not “exist” until we observe them.  The future is indefinite and exist only as a spectrum of possibilities.
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-  Our brains create the impression of a 3-dimensional space from the retina’s 2-dimensional data.
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-  Whenever our brain can develop a model of the world that successfully fits our observations we attribute that quality to be “ reality”.  New observation can reveal subtle and significant ways in which reality diverges from theory.  These become new vistas for exploration, more observations, more data.  Stay tuned, there is much more to learn at the Extremes.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Thursday, December 28, 2017  -----

The Big Bang , a Universe creation

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-----------------  1983  -  The Big Bang , a Universe creation 
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-

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-Thank your lucky stars you’re alive. It’s truly a miracle of nature. This has nothing to do with spirituality or religion and everything to do with science. Life itself may not be a single miracle. Although we haven’t found it elsewhere yet, our galaxy alone is so replete with Earth-like planets that, mathematically speaking, one of them must hold life, even if it’s just the microbial variety. Intelligent life may be another matter.
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 -  The universe itself is a miracle, as it should not exist at all. This is of course taken in reference to the Big Bang theory. Though the prevailing one, it’s not the only theory to explain how all and everything came into being.   It all starts with the singularity.
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-  According to the Big Bang, the universe began as a point the size of a grain of sand that was unimaginably hot, unfathomably dense, and packed tight with matter and energy.  Then it exploded, sending its contents sailing out and eventually, forming the universe as we know it. There’s a few problems with this theory:
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-   There is the increasing rate of universal expansion, known as the Hubble Constant. According to the Big Bang, things should be slowing down, or even contracting. Dark energy is the conventional explanation, but we can't prove it even exists.

There’s another problem:  The environment that produced the particles that make up the universe, as we know them now, should have created equal parts of matter and antimatter. But, anti-matter is surprisingly rare. A 50-50 split would have seen each particle uniting with its polar opposite, creating a burst of unimaginable energy and leaving nothing behind.  What is left would be a vast void of a cosmos. And yet, here we are reading this.
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-  One theory is that matter and antimatter must in some way be radically different. But, experiment does not find this to be the case. According to the Standard Model of physics, a  model for every known particle in the universe and how it operates, each type of atom has its polar opposite, its antiparticle, with the same mass, but with an opposite electrical charge.
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-   To learn any possible difference physicists have studied the magnetic properties of protons and antiprotons with uncanny precision. The findings to date support the Standard Model, as both particles behaved just as it predicts.
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-  The matter-antimatter imbalance has not been found.  All of our observations find a complete symmetry between matter and antimatter, which is why the Universe should not actually exist.  An asymmetry must exist somewhere but we simply do not understand where the difference is. What is the source of the symmetry break?"
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-  When matter and antimatter particles collide, a burst of pure energy is the result. If these were perfectly balanced in the early days of the universe, how could the cosmos exist at all?
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-  Protons and antiprotons were the last holdout when it came to particles which could explain the matter-antimatter imbalance. Scientists from Mainz University in Germany devised a manner to assess the magnetism of a particle of antimatter that is 350 times more precise than the previously available method. The readout was incredible, to nine places!  -2.7928473441 nuclear magnetrons.
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-  A proton has the same level of magnetism, only it's positive.   +2.7928473441 nuclear magnetrons.   Although the study failed to explain our universe’s extreme prejudice towards matter, it did give us a far better understanding of an antiproton’s magnetism.
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-  The measurement of antiprotons is extremely difficult.   Another breakthrough came with the revolutionary idea of performing the measurement with two particles at once. This result is the culmination of many years of continuous research and development, and the successful completion of one of the most difficult measurements ever performed.
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-  These scientists were probing the differences between particles and their opposites by comparing their electrical charge, magnetism, and mass. Next, there are plans to investigate anti-particles in terms of gravity, to see if a discrepancy exists there.
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-  CERN’s Large Hadron Collider is producing a beam of energetic protons that get diverted into a metal wall.  This collision  spawns a multitude of new particles including antiprotons.  The antiprotons are focused into a particle beam and slowed  by electric fields inside the antiproton decelerator. From here they are fed into various antimatter experiments.
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-  By cooling and trapping antimatter scientist can examine its properties without it encountering matter and spontaneously disappearing into energy.  Some of the traps can preserve the antimatter for up to a year.  They can also combine antiprotons with anti-electrons to produce anti-hydrogen.
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-  They have measured mass, charge , light spectrum, and magnetic properties  to high precision.  They have measured how anti-hydrogen is affected by gravity.  For example, what happens to a helium atom when one of its electrons is replaced by an antiproton? Except for opposite charge and spin , antimatter appears completely identical to matter.
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-  However, there must be some unpredicted disparities between these particle twins that can explain how matter over powered antimatter in the early Universe?
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-  Particles-in-motion experiments have observed some small differences.  The neutral “kaons”   decay into matter and antimatter particles at slightly different rates.  This first observation won the Nobel Prize in 1980.
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-  But, even with the success of uncovering these small discrepancies science is still very far from understanding why antimatter all but disappeared? Is there an antimatter universe somewhere beyond our ability to find it?
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-  There is more to learn before these two universes collide.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Tuesday, December 26, 2017  -----
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It is all about time,it's complicated

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-  1931  -  Time, it is about “time” that challenges our thinking.  General Relativity changed our thinking about time?  Math made it even worse?  Something we take for granted sure gets complicated.
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REQUEST #1931 TO GET AN EMAIL COPY OF THIS REVIEW.
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-----------------------------  1931  -  It is about TIME
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- Here are some quotes from previous reviews about time, each review available upon request if you are interested:
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-  Review # 1774  -  Time is a fundamental concept that Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity disagree about.
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-  “It’s about time”, that we are trying to learn about time.
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-  Time,  we can’t live without it.
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-  If time is an illusion, it is a very pervasive one.
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-  God created time to prevent everything from happening all at once.
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-  Review #1758  -  We see time as a constant march into the future.
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-  Astronomers see time as a variable that depends on gravity and the speed of motion.  Speed is space divided by time.
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-  GPS only works because equations use the Theory of Relativity when calculating distance that triangulate your position.
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-  An event that might be in the undecided future of one observer may have already occurred in another observer’s past.
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-   The act of the observer appears to prompt nature to decide what actually happens.
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-  #1735  -  Time is only strange if you think about it.
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-  Mass is simply a concentrated from of energy.
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-  Gravity is the curvature of space and time.
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-  The speed of light is always the same regardless .  It must be the same for all observers.
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-  #1691  -  Time moves slower as you move faster.
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-  #1621  -  Everything you see is younger then when you see it.
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-  #1341  Was time first created in the Big Bang?    Or, did it exist before then?
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-  #1189,  #1006  -  No two times are the same if they are separated in space.
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-  #910, #854, #842  -    To go from GPS time to Universal Time just add 19 seconds.
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-  #830, #814  -  10^-43 seconds is the smallest increment of time.  A quantum of time.
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-  #783,  #747  -  Why 60 minutes?
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-  #356  -  Zepto-seconds used to study the motion of atoms.
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-  #354  -  The Universal Calendar of all events starting at 10^-43 seconds to 80,000 years.  It is 60 ages long.
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-  #37  -  Deriving the Time Dilation equations using the Pythagorean Theorem.
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-  #1931  -  Time  -  It is about “time” that challenges our thinking about time
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-  The General Theory of Relativity merges time with space.
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-  Space is the geometric relationship between observable particles.  Maybe it is entirely separate from time?  Space is a 3-D geometry.  Time is just something we preserve because the Universe is constantly changing snap shots of space.
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-  All the laws of physics treat time as asymmetrical.  Mathematically time can move forward of backward.  Except!  Thermodynamics 2nd law of entropy.  Particles and energy always move in the direction of greater disorder, greater randomness.
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-  Somehow forward time must be linked to entropy?  A new theory puts increasing entropy as caused by increasing ‘ quantum entanglement”.
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-  If entropy is always increasing, then running it backwards, the Big Bang must have been the lowest entropy, or greatest randomness, or greatest amount of disorder,  and therefore the maximum entropy.  Entropy has been increasing ever since.
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-  Rather than trying to separate space and time maybe we just put them on an equal footing .  Particles can exist at one location and not another.  Maybe particles can exist at one time and not another.  Space and time are equal “ quanta”.
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-  Quanta are waves and particles and what ever is in between.  At the fundamental level the Universe is made up of quanta: mass, charges, momentum, etc.  These fundamentals work together to create protons, atoms, molecules, and whoever is reading this.
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-  Isaac Newton came up with laws that had the world that was flat, with empty, and absolute space.  Space was always fixed with 3 dimensions  Time was absolute, always traveling at the same rate.  This world works just fine today as long as you do not travel to the edges.
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-  Albert Einstein changed all that.  Time was not absolute, it was relative depending on motion.  Particles that travel close to the speed of light experience time differently.  Times dilates and space contracts.  Space and time are frame dependent depending on your motion.
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-  A “light clock” , due to the constancy of the speed of light, would run differently for observers moving at different speeds.  Observed time is a variable.  Distance divided by time is a constant.
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-  Quantum Field Theory uses “flat space”.  General Relativity uses “ curved space”.  The difference in Einstein’s discovery is that gravity and acceleration motion are the same thing.  You can not tell the difference.
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-  Curved space uses “ Metric Tensor” math,  invented by Riemann , it defines curved space-time due to gravity.  How our Universe is curved defines how matter and energy will move through it.  The curved space-time is called the geodesic.  It is the path taken with constant motion, but, it is not a “straight line”, although , it is the shortest distance between 2 points.
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-  We did all this just to show you how gravitational lensing works to see the edges of the Universe.
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-  It is more complicated.  Metric Tensor math is more complicated than just gravity.  The calculations include 16 different components including radiation pressure, vacuum pressure, pressure due to motion in 3 spatial directions, volumes changing, tidal forces, and gravitational waves , to name a few.
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-  If you know the numbers for all 16 components you could predict the future of the expanding Universe.  Each of the 16 components unfolds into the next frame of time.  One frame after another.  We are still working on the physics to describe “time”.  Physics is the study, the science, that tries to describe our world.  It is interesting that the more we learn the more mysteries we uncover.
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-  Time will tell.
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- But, there never seems to be enough of it.  Sorry , my time is up.
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-  Note (1):  Request any of the Reviews by number to learn more.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Friday, December 22, 2017  -----
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Quantum Physics of Determinism

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--  1982  -  Quantum Physics of Determinism.  Our natural world is deterministic yet the building blocks that make it up are indeterministic, totally acting at random?  How can this randomness determine life, reality?  At micro level it is random, probabilistic , yet, at the macro level determinism exists?  Do things happen only at the point of observation?
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- REQUEST REVIEW 1982 TO LEARN HOW THIS HAPPENS IN REALITY?
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-----------------  1982  -  Quantum Physics of Determinism.
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-

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-  Some things just happen at random.  With no rhyme nor reason.  Randomness seems to be a built in feature of our natural world at its foundation.
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-  Radioactive decay of atoms is totally random.
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-  Photons striking a mirror reflect or pass through randomly.
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-  The theory being that quantum mechanics is “ indeterministic”, it all depends on the statistics of randomness.
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-  Einstein came up with the theory in 1905 that light could be both a particle and a wave.  The wave function that determines this is in a perfectly deterministic equation, called the Schrodinger Equation.  His equation is the “determinism” of a wave function.
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-  Heisenberg viewed the wave function as a probabilistic “haze” of potential existences.  He concluded that only when you observe a particle does it materialize somewhere.  Before observation the wave function was spread over a huge region of space.  At observation it collapses into a narrow spike at a single position and becomes a “ particle”.  However, we have no laws in physics that govern this collapse.  It just happens at random?
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-  For Einstein wave collapse into a particle required instantaneous action at a distance.  He reasoned that no communications could travel faster than the speed of light.  Light speed was a Universal Constant at 186,000 miles per second.
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-  He had trouble with “ measurement” being the “ creation” of reality out of the act of observing it.
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-  Or, was the wave function collapse not a physical process at all but more simply the acquisition of knowledge inside our brains?
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-  What physics was trying to demonstrate was that a probabilistic event through the underlying reality was deterministic.  ( mind blowing!).
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-  The logic of physics says that indeterministic microphysics can lead to deterministic macrophysics.  Quantum randomness indeterminism averages out to reality.
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-  A baseball can have atoms behaving randomly yet its flight can be totally deterministic.  Gas molecules have random motion that together determine an exact temperature.  A “temperature” being the average of a large number of individual vibrating molecules.
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-  It appears that the real world is a layer cake of indeterminism and determinism.
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-  The Earth’s climate is dictated by laws of motion, daily, seasonally probabilistic events however, long term trends are still predictable.  Biology follows the same logic.
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-  Human self-determination follows this layer cake logic as well.  To truly have “free will” we need indeterminism.
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-  Macrodeterminism is your decision.  Microdeterminism is not.
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-  One gram of Uranium 238 contains 2.5*10^21 atoms.  Each atom is identical and indistinguishable.  Yet, 12,600 times per second one of these atoms will decay throwing off an alpha particle.  No theory in physics can pre-determine which atom will decay when.  It is a totally random process yet it is predictable in the macro sense.  Probability calculations  can determine accurately how long it takes for half of the atoms to decay (the half-life)
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-  Casualty means that events can be completely determined by prior states.  Is the entire Universe a single determinant system?  Is there an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the Universe?  Is the future determined completely by preceding events?
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-  Mathematical models involving differential equations ( equations measuring the rate of change over time)  are not deterministic because they involve randomness.  Their results have sensitive dependence on initial conditions.  Theory implies that even as small as a butterfly flapping its wings can cause a chain reaction that could lead to a hurricane years later.
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-  Chaos Theory tells us that it is impossible to predict real life events.  The Schrodinger Equation uniquely predicts the development of the wave function with time.  If the wave function is deterministic then Quantum Mechanics is deterministic and that could imply that there is one single wave function for the entire Universe starting at the origin.
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-  Our individual atoms are random in motion, yet the enormous mass of atoms that make up our bodies allow us to live and breath.  Human decision themselves reduce to the mechanics of atoms in our brains.  I have to stop thinking about this.  It makes me dizzy.
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-  Other reviews available on this weird physics:
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-  #1762  -  Delving into extreme physics.  How do we know that the reality we perceive is true?  There is no way to remove the observer from his perception.
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-  #1605  -  Physics wants a Theory of Everything combining Quantum Mechanics and Relativity.
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-  #1546  -  Paul Dirac’s physics.  Quantum Theory does not work when we push the laws to extremes, high energies , or small distances.
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-  #1183  -  Mysteries for science students to discover the answers to.
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-  #1074  -  Physics the way I learned it.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Friday, December 22, 2017  -----
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Gravity Bending Light

-  ---------------------  #1981  -  Gravity bending light.  What is the history of this discovery?    How did astronomers prove that light has mass and gravity will pull and curve its path?  Light travels with zero mass at 186,000 miles per second. But light has energy and mass and energy are two forms of the same thing.  Therefore the force of gravity can move it.  Or, if you prefer the curvature of space-time will make it appear to travel in a curved path. You can skip the math at the end of this review at your pleasure.
-    REQUEST 1981 TO LEARN MORE:
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--  ---------------------  #1981  -  Gravity bending light.
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-  Our 3 pound brains count on light traveling instantaneously and in a straight line.  When this does not happen our brains are in a house of mirrors and we have to over-think it to understand what’s going on.
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-  For astronomers it is light being bent by gravity.  Light is not traveling in a straight line at all.  It is not instantaneous, but, traveling at a fixed speed, 670,633,500 miles per hour.  If the light is taking different paths it will arrive at different times.  This is mind bending as well as light bending.
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-  In 1704 Isaac Newton wrote a paper claiming light was stream of infinitesimally small particles called corpuscles.  He assumed they had mass and would be susceptible to the pull of gravity.  He was ½ right.
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-  In 1800’s  Thomas Young did the 2-slit experiment and showed that light was a wave because the 2 slits transmitted an interference pattern on the screen behind the slits.  Only a wave could do this.  He claimed light was a wave, and massless, and not influenced by gravity.  He was ½ right.
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-  In the 1900’s quantum physics concluded that light was both a wave and a particle called a photon.  Wave-particle duality was described in Einstein’s Theory of Relativity claming light was massless but its trajectory would still be changed by gravity because light energy was the same as mass, E = mc^2.  He was right.
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-  In 1919 a total solar eclipse was used to “ prove” light was bent as it passed by the rim of the Sun’s immense gravity.  The background stars shifted because light was not traveling in a straight line as it zipped past the Sun.  We could only see those background stars during a solar eclipse.
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-  The bending of light by gravity was re-discovered in 1979 when viewing Twin Quasar, SPS 0957+561, which in fact was multiple images of the same object.  G2237+305 was a distant quasar that appeared as four separate images.
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-  A brightness change in one image would repeat itself 14 months later in another image.  Warped space from massive gravity of an intermediate galaxy causes one light path to travel more than 1 - lightyear farther distance to reach us.  The Quasar was 8.7billion lightyears away.  The foreground galaxy along our line of sight was 3.7 billion lightyears away. 
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-  To learn how gravity lensing measures mass, or, weighs a galaxy cluster were using RCS2-032727-132623.  You would think astronomers could figure out more romantic names for these galaxies.  RCS2 is 5.4 billion lightyears away in the Constellation Cetus the Whale.  A blue galaxy was directly behind this galaxy cluster at 9.7 billion lightyears.  The gravity lens ring that Hubble imaged was 38 arc seconds in diameter.
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-  The diameter of the gravity lens ring is directly proportional to the mass and the separation of the two galaxies and indirectly proportional to the product of their distances.
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---------------------a^2  =  M * 4* G ( d  - D )  //   c*2 * d * D 
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- There are several constants of proportionality.  Setting mass as function of ring diameter and distances the formula becomes:
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-------------------  M  =  a^2 * c*2 * d * D  //4* G ( d  - D )
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------------------  M   =   the mass in kilograms  .  1 Solar Mass =  2*10^30 kilograms
------------------  a   =  angular diameter is 38 arc seconds, 1 radian  =  2.06265 * 10^5 arcseconds.  1 arc second  =  4.848 *10^-6 radians
------------------  D  =  distance to the cluster  =  5.4*10^9 lightyears, 1 lightyear =  9.5 * 10^15 meters.
------------------  d  =  distance to the blue galaxy  =  9.7*10^9 lightyears
-------------------  c  =  speed of light  =  3*10^8 meters per second
------------------  G  =  Gravitational constant  =  6.67*10^-11 m^3 / ( kg*sec^2)
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-------------------  a  =  1.842 *10^-4 radians
--------------------  a^2  =  3.33 *10^-8 radians^2
-------------------  c^2  =  9 * 10^16 m^2 / sec^2
-------------------  D  =   51.3 *10^24 meters
-------------------  d  =   92.2 *10^24 meters
-------------------  d*D  =  4727*10^48 meters^2
------------------  (d-D)  =  40.85*10^24 meters
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----------------  M  =  (3.33 *10^-8) * (9 * 10^16)  *  ( 4.727*10^51 )       //                            4* 6.67*10^-11  *(40.85*10^24)
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-----------------  M  =  (radians^2) *  (m^2/sec^2)  *  (m^2) * kg * sec^2   //  (m*3) * (m)
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---------------  M  =  =  144.2*10^59//  1089*10^13
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----------------  M  =  =  0.1325* 10^46 kilograms   /  2*10^30 kilograms  /  Solar Mass
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----------------  M  =  =  6.6 10^14  Solar Mass
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-----------------  1 Galaxy Mass  =  10^12 Solar Mass
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---------------  M  =  660 Galactic Mass.
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-  THE MASS OF THE CLUSTER IS 660 TIMES THE MASS OF THE MILKY WAY GALAXY.
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-  The mass of he galaxy cluster can also be measured by the orbital velocity of the galaxies  about the center of gravity.  The average velocity   =   v  =   988 kilometers per second.  The average radius of orbit   =  R  =  9.5 *10^6 lightyears.
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-  The velocity is directly proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the radius of orbit.
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----------------------------  v^2  =  G * M / R
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---------------------------  M  =  v^2  *  R  /  G
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----------------------------  M  =  (9.88*10^5)^2  *  90.25*10^15  /  6.67*10^-11
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------------------------- M  =  6.6 *10^14 Solar Mass.
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--------------------------  M  =  660 Galactic Mass
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-  Astronomers use this formula a lot and it is easier to convert the Constant of proportionality into the arc seconds and lightyear units  and Solar Mass units most commonly used.  In this case the formula changes:
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--------------------  M  =  a^2 * c*2 * d * D  //4* G ( d  - D )  in radians, kilograms, and meters
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---------------  Constant  =  (0.4848 *10^-5  ) ^2  * ( 3*10^9  )^2  * 9.5 *10^15 m/LY )^2   //   4 *  (6.67*10^-11 ) * (9.5*10^15 ) * (2*10^30 )
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-------------  Constant  =  (radians^2)  *  (m^2 / sec^2)  *  ( m^2 / LY^2)   * (kg*sec^2)  * (LY) * ( Solar Mass)   //  (m^3)  * (m)  *  ( kg )
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---------------  Constant  =  40
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------------------  M  =  40 * a^2 * d*D // ( d-D)
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-   A MUCH SIMPER FORMULA when the units are in arc seconds , lightyears,  and Solar Mass:
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-------------------  M  =   40 * (38^2) * (5.4 * 10^9) * (9.7*10^9)  //  ( 9.7  - 5.4)* 10^9
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--------------------  M  =   40*(1.444*10^3)* ( 52.38*10^18)  //  ( 4.3*10^9) 
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---------------------  M  =  7 * 10^14 Solar Mass
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--------------------  M  =  700 Galactic Mass
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-   THE GALAXY CLUSTER THAT IS BETWEEN US AND THE QUASAR IS AS LARGE AS 700 MILKY WAY GALAXIES ALL GRAVITATIONAL BOUND TOGETHER
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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NASA mission innovations.

-  1980  -  NASA mission innovations.  Why continue funding NASA with the big bucks?  It is not just for the mission achievements that make history.  It is also for the fall-outs that come out of the innovations needed to accomplish the mission.  Request #1980 to learn some of these innovations you are sure to recognize.
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----------------  1980  -  NASA mission innovations. 
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-  We spend a lot of money on NASA.  What do we get in return from the National Aeronautical and Space Administration?  President Trump wants to cut it by 1%.  But, it is still costing $19 billion.
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-  Of course,, the President only recommends; Congress sets the budget.
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-  You really need to add up the costs mission by mission.   Then, decide which missions you do want to fund.  And , this has to compete with funding “climate change”.  Where do we get the most bang for the buck?
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-  Mission by mission overlooks a lot of return on investment the is not just the mission accomplishments but the innovations needed to create those accomplishments.  You may be surprised what came from these efforts we have funded.
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-  Take your cell phone camera for example.  NASA created today’s version in 1995 for some of their missions.  The design used a CMOS image sensor.  CMOS is new technology using Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-conductors.  Jet Propulsion Lab engineers made the sensor smaller, lighter, able to produce a clearer image.  The whole idea for the digital camera started in JPL in the 1960’s.  See what it is today.
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-  And there is the dust buster vacuum cleaner and the cordless drill.  Both came from a low-powered, battery operated Moon motor.  The design originated in 1981 to drill core samples from the lunar surface.
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-  Did you get a good night’s sleep due to the help of  a compfy pillow?  That came from the development of slow spring - back foam.  In 1966 it was designed to improve the comfort of rocket seats.
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-  In 1991 the ear thermometer was designed.  It was first  used in satellites to measure the temperature of stars by reading their infrared radiation.
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-  How do you feed astronauts on long duration deep space flights?  Well,  it is easy.

 You first cultivate nutrient- enriched algae with the addition of docosaesaenpic acid and arachidonic acid and polyunsaturated acids.
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-  Just the recipe I would have thought of.
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-  Actually these are the same nutrients found in breast milk.  Much easier to take on long trips in baby formula rather than breasts.
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-  In 1995 NASA needed to reduce hydroplaning when landing the space shuttle  on long runways.   They invented the use of thin grooves in the pavement.  The water would run off.  Now we find these groves in highways because  they have been proven to decrease highway accidents.
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-  1989  a superpower translucent  polycrystalline alumina used as a tooth straightener  It was developed by NASA for heat seeking missile technology.-
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-  1983  NASA researched in water purification.  That became a thin, plastic film to protect space suit visors.  Today it is being used to make the lenses in your glasses scratch resistant.
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-  1976  NASA developed wingtips.  Vertical folds at the ends of aircraft wings.  They reduce drag and save fuel.  They alone reduced the  cost of flying by billions of dollars.
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-  1996  NASA simulation for fluid flow in rocket engines became transferred to flowing blood through the human body.  This technology keeps heart patients alive while they are receiving a donor heart. 
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-  That’s a good note to end on.  Maybe we should be funding NASA just for the fallout innovations.
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-  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Monday, December 18, 2017  -----
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Circles and spheres in astronomy .

-1979  -  The circle is the perfect figure.  The sphere is the perfect geometry.  How and why did nature do it so well.  This review reports on astronomical measurements that give us other  nature’s secrets.  Request Review #1979 to learn about circle and spheres in astronomy.
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-----------------------  # 1979  -  Circles and spheres in astronomy .
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-  A sphere has the minimum surface area of any geometric shape.
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-  If a spherical object spins its midsection bulges.  As planets “circle” the Sun they travel in ellipses. This lack of perfect circles messed up the ancients for decades.  They came up with epi-circles to keep orbits circular and still match their observations. Finally the ellipse was used to get the math to match their observations.
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-  Gravity must create the most perfect spheres in Neutron stars.  These 12 mile diameter stars have the density equivalent to an entire freight train crushed down to the size of the period at the end of this sentence. That 12 mile sphere must be perfectly shaped?.
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-  Can that circle of perfection be beat?  There is a star the size of Vega that rotates so slowly it has a 100 day spin.  The equatorial diameter is just 2 miles longer than its polar diameter.  Interesting?  How could they possibly know that?
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-  We watch the Sun and the Moon rise in the east and set in the west.  The same happens with all he stars in the night sky.  You can certainly convince yourself that the Earth is the center of things and everything else rotates around us.
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-  How did anyone ever figure out that we were not in the center?  Actually someone did in 230 B.C.  The Sun was the center and we were rotating around it.  In 230 B.C. Aristarchus in ancient Greece came up with this theory.  At the time he was contradicting Aristotle who said the Earth was the center.  Aristotle’s incorrect theory remained the authority for centuries.
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-  It was not until Galileo in 1610 using the first telescope discovered the phases of the planet Venus.  Like what causes the phases of the Moon, phases that occur on Venus must be because it is orbiting closer to the Sun than Earth’s orbit.  If Venus and Earth were both orbiting the Sun then that must be the center of the Solar System.
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-  Astronomers were able to prove this theory again using parallax with the stars..  They calculated the diameter of Earth’s orbit to be 186,000,000 miles. By measuring the position of a nearby star, then, measuring it again 6 months later, the stars apparent position would shift compared to the distant background stars. This trigonometry  used in 1838 was proof again that the Earth was orbiting the Sun, the center of the Solar System.
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-  Friedrich Bessel used this same parallax method to estimate the distance to the star 61Cygni.
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-  In our modern era the Earth’s orbit around the Sun could be detected due to the tilt of incoming starlight.  Just as driving your car in the rain.  The rain appears to hit the windshield at an angle , a “ tilt”.  English astronomer,  James Bradley, did this measurement in 1725.  The tilt is created by the finite speed of light versus the Earth’s motion around the Sun.
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-  The Earth is a 5.97*10^24 kilogram rock circling the Sun at 29,800 meters per second while spinning at 464 meters per second.  In other words the Earth is a 7,926 mile diameter ball traveling 66,660 miles per hour while spinning 1,038 miles per hour.
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-  Is the Earth a perfect sphere?  The Moon looks like a perfect sphere.  Or, a perfect circle since we only see one side.  Actually the Moon differs from a perfect sphere by only 1.24 miles.  The Sun is a more perfect sphere being only 6 miles out of being perfectly round.  That is out of a 864,337 mile width.  If the Sun were a basketball the two diameters, polar and equatorial, would differ only ½ the width of a human hair.
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-  The real miracle in all of this is that you are here trying to figure this stuff out.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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(1)  An index of recent reviews available.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions and corrections. An index of all reviews is available.    Some reviews are at:  --------------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com 
,or: email request for copies to:   -------      jamesdetrick@comcast.net
or: ---- https://plus.google.com/u/0/  ,or,  “Jim Detrick” ------- www.facebook.com,
 ------ www.twitter.com  or cell:  707-536-3272    ------   Monday, December 11, 2017