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- Proton is simply the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. Hydrogen has one electron and one proton and is the simplest of the elements. Two hydrogen atoms form hydrogen gas. Two hydrogen atoms and an Oxygen atom form water, H2O.
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- If you have two protons in the nucleus and two electrons you have Helium. The list goes on all the way up to 92 protons. That is Uranium. These heaviest elements decay back to the lighter elements , like lead , which has 82 protons.
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-.------ If the atom were the size of a 10K race, 6.2 miles, in diameter then:
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-.------ The nucleus would be the size of a football stadium, including the parking lot.
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-.------ The Proton would be the football stadium.
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-.------ Electron would be a soccer ball.
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-. ------ The Quark would be a marble.
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-. The Proton has an equal and opposite electric charge to the electron.
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-. The Proton is a “Hadron“. A Hadron is a composite particle made of Quarks held together by Gluons. Gluons are the force carriers for the Strong Nuclear Force. There are two types of Hadrons. There are baryons such as protons and neutrons that are composed of 3 quarks. And, there are “Mesons” such as Pions that are composed of one Quark and one anti-Quark.
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-. Protons are the only stable Hadron.
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-. Free neutrons decay into protons in 15 minutes.
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-. Pions decay in 26 nanoseconds.
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-. Protons are composed of 2 up quarks and 1 down quark, and, contain a positive electric charge.
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-. Neutrons have 1 up quark in 2 down quarks, and, are electrically neutral.
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- Free protons exist in plasma where the temperatures are so high the electrons escape leaving 2 ions, the positive chargee proton and the negative charged electron.
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-. 90 % of the Cosmic Rays are free protons, entering the upper atmosphere at nearly the speed of light.
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-. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN, Switzerland, is a particle accelerator that smashes protons and antiprotons together. Protons are ½ spin “Fermions”. They include quarks and leptons. Leptons are electrons and neutrinos. Fermions and Bosons make up all of matter. Fermions have 1/2 integer spin and Bosons have integer spin.
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-. The proton-proton chain reaction is with one of the fusion reactions that occurs at the core of all the stars, including our Sun.
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-. The 3 quarks in a proton make up only 5 %of its mass. The Gluon force exchange particles are massless, like the photon. So, where is 95 % of the proton’s mass coming from?
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-. The answer is the 95 % is energy according to E = m*c^2.
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-. The mass of the proton is 938,272,310 electron volts / c^2
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- The proton is 1,836 times heavier than the electron.
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-. How accurately can we measure that?
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-. If a mosquito landed on a fully loaded Boeing 747 could we measure that?
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-. That is how accurately science recently made this measurement of the proton in relation to the electron.
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-.----------------- The proton is 1,836.15267377 the mass of the electron.
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-. 1,836 times is like comparing a rabbit to an elephant.
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-. We are saying the elephant weighs 1,836.15267377 times heavier than the rabbit.
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-. How is this measurement made?
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-. You start with a C 12 carbon atom. You remove all the electrons except one. He put the atom in a “Penning Trap“, a circular path with a uniform magnetic field. Accurately measure the time around the track. You measure the wobble of the spin of the electron which acts like a tiny dipole magnet circling in the magnetic field. The ratio of the wobble to the speed of one cycle is used to calculate the ratio the electron mass to the proton mass.
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-.----------------------- The proton is 1.672621 * 10^ -27 kilograms
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-. -------------------- The electron is 1 / 1836.15267372 *10^ -30 kilograms.
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-. The 95 % of proton mass lies in a Strong Nuclear Force that is holding it all together. The Universe contains 10 ^78 protons. Most of them are the nuclei of hydrogen.
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-. It is interesting to note that all of these protons add up to 5% of the mass-energy of the Universe. 95 % is Dark Matter and Dark Energy. “Dark” because we don't know what it is. And, we can't see it because it only interacts with gravity, not with electromagnetic energy, i.e.: light.
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-. Like the proton that gets its energy from vacuum fluctuations of virtual particles popping in and out of existence might the Universe’s missing mass-energy be the same thing?
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-.------- The Universe starts with Quarks that are 10 -19 meters in diameter
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-. ------- The universe diameter is to. 10^58 meters.
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-. That distance spans 77 orders of magnitude. When you compress this all back together again it all cancels out and you get “nothing“. Nothing is the singularity in the Big Bang from which it all started. But, let's get back to the proton. The last review #1652 was about Electron this is about its partner in every atom.
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- Put a proton and electron together and you get a hydrogen atom. Separate them and you get particles with a negative electric charge and a positive electric charge ,with one that is 1836 times heavier than the other.
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-. Put a charged particle in motion and its electric field will create a magnetic field. Put a magnetic field in motion and it will create an electric field. That is how electric motors electric generators work.
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-. Both electrons and protons contain many undiscovered mysteries. Recent discoveries involve smashing protons anti- protons together in the CERN particle accelerator to curate the Higgs Boson. This fundamental particle is, in theory, responsible for the mass that exist in all the other particles.
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-. The proton has a positive electric charge exactly equal to the electric charge of the electron. Unlike the electron it is NOT a fundamental particle.
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- The proton is not a fundamental particle because it is made up of other more fundamental particles. The proton is composed of 2 up quarks and 1 down quark. With the Gluons of the Strong Nuclear Force holding them all together.
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-. The proton is classified as a Baryon and baryons are all a Quark-based particles. Baryons participate in the Strong Nuclear Force.
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-. Protons are also classified as “Fermions“, particles with ½ spin
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-. Protons are classified as “Hadrons“, particles made up from quarks
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-. ---------- The proton has a mass = 1.672621* 10^-27 kilograms
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-. ------- Or, = 938.272 million electron volts.
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-. The protons electric charge = 1.602. 10^-19 coulombs
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-. The proton spin is 1/2 and, this is what makes it a “Fermion“. The proton’s diameter is somewhere between 0.8409 and 0.0879 femtometers. A femtometer is 10^-15 meters.
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-. The proton life time is 2.1 *10^29 years, a very , very long time.
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-. Leptons, like electrons, do not participate in the Strong Nuclear Force. They are affected by the electromagnetic force.
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-. Fermions like electrons, obey the Exclusion Principle, which states that no to fermions can occupy the same quantum energy state. That is why all atoms have 2 electrons in their lowest energy state and one must be “Entangled” with the other so that one is ½ spin up and the other is ½ spin down. “Entangled” because if either one switches up or down the other switches down or up instantaneously regardless of how far they are separated. This is today's mystery in science, how can entangled particles communicate faster than the speed of light.
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-. “Bosons” are force carriers like photons and they are allowed to share the same quantum states. That is they do not obey the Exclusion Principle.
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-. Protons can transform into neutrons through “electron capture“. This is the inverse of Beta Decay Radioactivity where neutrons decay into protons.
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-. In chemistry the number protons in the nucleus is known as the element’s “Atomic Number“.
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-. The Dirac Equation combines Quantum Mechanics and Special Relativity into a single equation to describe electricity and magnetism and how it interacts with light. Photons are the electromagnet force that holds electrons and protons together.
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-. Quantum Electrodynamics, QED, is the math used to investigate the protons internal structure. The science depends on virtual particles popping into and out of existence to create precise atomic energy levels.
-. The proton radius has a quantum mechanical interaction with the electron which behaves like a Wave Function Cloud spread out over the size of the atom. The square of the wave function defines a probability of finding electron in any given location.
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- There is a nonzero probability of finding an electron inside the proton itself. When inside the overall binding strength between the two particles decreases.
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-. When electrons are shot at a proton the electrons can scatter, deflectsing in another direction. This scattering transfers some of its momentum to the proton. This transfer of momentum energy is described as an exchange of a virtual photon.
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-. If the scatter is 180 degrees the electron has hit the Proton dead center. The virtual photons that result will have the shortest wavelength corresponding to the maximum momentum energy transfer.
-. Measuring the scattering's from minimum wavelengths to maximum wavelengths should define the full diameter of the Proton. The radius calculated was 0.879 femtometers.
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-. Using Muons instead of electrons for this scattering measurements arrived at a different answer. Muons are high-energy electrons that have 207 times greater mass.
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-. Laser pulses were used to determine how much time the muons spend inside the Proton during the scattering experiment.
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-. These measurements determine the radius of Proton to be 0.8409 femtometers + or - 0.0004 femtometers.
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-. One theory to explain the difference between the electron and muon scattering resutts was that the electrostatic force in the muons slightly deformed the Proton.
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-. Another theory involves discovering that electrons and muons have a magnetic moment. This magnetic effect is absent from the equations.
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-. More experiments are in the works. The goal is to get the math to match precisely the observations. That is what science is all about.
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-. (1) See “Lamb shift”
-(2)----. 0.84 + or - 0.001 femtometers is the Muon experiment results
--------- 0.87 + or - -0.001 femtometers is the Electron experiment results
-. (3) See Review #979, “Calculating the mass of the Proton“.
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RSVP, with comments, suggestions, corrections. Index of reviews available ---
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