Fermi Bubbles and Radio Bursts?

-  1879  -  Fermi Bubbles and Radio Bursts?  If we understood these bursts astronomers believe they could more accurately measure the distances throughout the Cosmos.  New calculation could confirm the ratios of Dark Matter and Dark Energy. The Gamma Ray bubbles may give new insights into the formation of our galaxy.
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------------  1879  -  Fermi Bubbles and Radio Bursts?
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-  August 24, 2001 astronomers discovered an ultra-bright, ultra - brief flash of radio waves.  We have spent over a decade trying to identify the source and explain the physics involved with these phenomena.
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-  The radio signal was 100 times brighter, but vanished in 5 milliseconds.  It was not until 2006 that closer analysis discovered the flash was  smeared over a wide range of radio frequencies.  The lower frequency waves were calculated to have traveled 3 billion lightyears over an expanding Universe.  If that were true the flash must have had more energy than our Sun emits in 1,000 years.
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-  In the last 15 years astronomers have discovered 16 of these Fast Radio Bursts.  But, those are only the ones we “ hear”.  Astronomers calculate that a Radio Burst arrives at Earth every 15 seconds.
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-  If these bursts get smeared across many frequencies and over time it is an indication that the signal traveled through clouds of plasma ( charge particles ).  The speed of light , 671 million miles per hour in a vacuum, slows down when traveling in plasma.  Lower frequencies interact more with free electrons.  The greater the “ dispersion” the more distant the source.  The data suggests that the pulses traveled through the inter-galactic medium encountering plasma clouds.
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-  The radio telescope has tunnel vision,  able to see, “ hear”, only 14.4 arc minutes across. (half the angular size of a Full Moon).  An ekxact source has not yet been conclusively identified.    Hear are some speculations:
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-----------------  Neutron stars pack the mass of 500,000 Earths into a sphere 10 kilometers across.  The flashes could come from Neutron stars inspiraling, colliding , or collapsing into Blackholes.
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----------------  Neutron stars could produce powerful magnetic fields producing flares when star quakes break the Neutron stars crusty surface. ( called Magnetars ).
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---------------  “Cosmic Strings” , defects in the structure of space-time,  could release bursts of energy.
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---------------  Pulsars are spinning Neutron stars known for regular, even bursts of radiation, but, occasionally give off a much stronger burst.
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-  One reason astronomers are so anxious to find the source for these bursts is that an accurate distance measurements would allow an accurate density measurement of intergalactic medium.  This in turn would allow a new calculation of the Universe’s visible matter.  Then , new calculations for the ratios of Dark Matter and Dark Energy.   Stay tuned and announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Another new discovery happens right here at home, in our Milky Way Galaxy.  We are sitting 27,000 lightyears from the center of the Galaxy. The diameter is 100,000 lightyears so we live about half way out to the edge of this flat disk of stars.
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-  The center is a bulge of stars but the galaxy still looks like a phonograph record.  Does anyone remember what these records look like?  Extending vertically above and below the bulge an the center of the galaxy are hourglass lobes that extend above and below by 25,000 lightyears.
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-   These gigantic lobes are known as the “ Fermi Bubbles”.  They were first discovered 6 years ago.  Astronomers studying them believe they are evidence of some violent activity that once occurred at the center of our galaxy.  Astronomers “ see” these lobes in the Gamma Ray and Microwave frequencies
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-  Microwave radiation can be created by electrons spiraling around a magnetic field.  If the electrons are high enough energy they can also produce Gamma Ray radiation, called the “Inverse-Compton Effect“.
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-  Much of this discovery comes from the Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope launched in 2008.  In 2010 the Fermi Bubbles were discovered in the data collected.  The Gamma Ray bubbles have distinct edges, almost appearing as the edge of a shock wave.  Other theories suggest a magnetic field traps charged particles at the edge.
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-  The lobes could be the result of jets of material exiting the poles of the Blackhole at the center of the galaxy.  The jets slamming into interstellar gas could compress into shockwave fronts.  Or, the lobes could have resulted from the stellar winds of stars and supernovae exploding near the galactic center.
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-  Astronomers have identified carbon and silicon atoms in the gas.  These heavier elements are only the result of fusion in the core of stars and supernovae explosions.  Measuring the redshift and the blueshift of the spectra of these elements tell astronomers the gas structures must be 2 to 4 million years old.  Further the gas slows down as it approaches the edges.  The flowing material abruptly stops at the edges.
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-  3-D computer modeling is busily trying to simulate these Fermi Bubble formation.  The model uses massive stars exploding as supernovae.  The outgoing material traveling a supersonic speeds creates shock waves laced with magnetic field lines.  The shock waves sweep up electrons and accelerate them to high energies.  Maybe,  multiple generations of exploding massive stars over 10 million years best fit the observations.
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-  Still not every thing simulated matches all the observations taken from radio frequencies out to Gamma Ray wavelengths.  Astronomers need more data and more analysis to solve the puzzle of Fermi Bubbles.
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-  As you have likely gathered astronomers do not have a clear explanation for Fermi Bubbles or Radio Bursts.  Stay tuned an announcement will be made shortly.
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Magnetic structures in the Galaxies.

-  1878  -  Magnetic structures in the Galaxies.  New mysteries are uncovered to understand how magnetic fields throughout galaxies affect star formation and galactic structure.  New tools are creating 3-D maps.  Dark Matter remains 85% of the undiscovered.
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------------  1878  -  Magnetic structures in the Galaxies.
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-  Our world is made of atoms.  We are made of atoms.  Atoms are made of charged particles.  Protons in the nucleus have positive electric charge.  Electrons orbiting the nucleus have negative electric charge.  Put them together in an atom and the neutron has a “ neutral” charge.  Separate these electric charges and set them in motion and they create an electro-magnetic field.
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-  Light itself is traveling waves of electro-magnetic fields.  Light photons are massless and can travel at only one speed in space 670,633,500 miles per hour.  All other charged particles that have mass travel at slower speeds.  Light also travels at slower “net” speeds when it travels in media other than a vacuum.  Light’s “net speed” slows down because it is being absorbed and re-emitted by all the atoms in that medium.
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-  Traveling charged particles and spiraling magnetic fields are everywhere in space.  There is an unseen Cosmic web of magnetism.  Electricity and magnetism are not separate forces but actually work together in amazing ways.
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-  Earth creates its magnetic field through its rotation causing its molten iron core to move creating an electric dynamo that generates a  magnetic field.  The field is actually about 10 times weaker that the common refrigerator magnetic.
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-  Earth’s magnetosphere is a shield that protects us from charged space particles striking the Earth’s surface.  Cosmic rays and other charged particles from the Sun, called the Solar Wind, are constantly bombarding the planet.  Our magnetosphere deflects this bombardment into the North and South magnetic poles.
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-  You can witness the result as these incoming charged particles excite atoms and gas molecules in the upper atmosphere creating the Aurora, the Northern Lights.
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-  For some unknown reason the Earth’s North-South magnetic field reverses itself every few hundred thousand years.  It actually disappears for a few thousand years between the poles flipping.  The last flip occurred 780,000 years ago.  We can not predict the next flip but the magnetic field today is 35% weaker than it was a few thousand years ago.
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-  Magnetic fields span the entire galaxy.  James Clark Maxwell’s equations from 1865 tells us that the energy in a magnetic field is its strength multiplied by its volume.  The strength of the Galaxy’s enormous volume creates magnetic fields equivalent to the radiation pressure of all of the stars within it.
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-  Astronomers are trying to “ see” the magnetic fields by detecting the “polarization” of the light.  Light being an electromagnetic wave acquires a particular orientation, called polarization, as it travels through a galactic magnetic field.  Astronomers can measure this polarization using radio telescopes.  Discoveries are starting to present the picture of magnetic structures.  Rather than being a tangled web they appear to acquire an orderly, spiral structure.
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-  This magnetic structure may play a significant role in the formation of stars inside the galaxy.  Observing the structure in the Whirlpool Galaxy M51, and NGC 5195, discovered galaxy interactions in the form of density waves, waves of compression that sweep through the galaxy disk.  The strength of the galaxy’s magnetic field correlates with the density of the interstellar gas within the galaxy.
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-  Explaining star birth by gravity alone does not work.  A proto-star would spin itself apart long before it could reach the mass needed to start a fusion core.  Current thinking is that the strong magnetic field creates a drag on rotation allowing the proto-star to gain the mass needed to become a star.
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-  Our Milky Way Galaxy disk is 150,000 lightyears across and 1,000 lightyears thick.  Gravity alone would allow the spinning disk to collapse into the plane and loose mass like a lawn sprinkler.  It appears it is the magnetic pressure that is providing the buoyant force that interacts with gravity and centrifugal forces.  Discoveries to date suggest that galaxies can generate magnetic fields quickly, within 100 million years.  But, how they do this is a mystery.
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-  Our Milky Way appears as though each spiral arm has its own magnetic field, independent of the other arms.  The field direction can change from one arm to the other.  Two bar magnets would repel, push each other apart, but how can we explain why that does not happen inside galaxies?
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-  New, larger, radio telescopes are being built in order to discover how galactic magnetic fields get generated and how they affect star formation and how they affect this structure of the galaxy.
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-  Since 1998 the Sloan Digital Sky Survey has been mapping the cosmic web of galaxies.  The survey is measuring the faint imprint of cosmic sound waves that have reverberated throughout the Universe since the Big Bang.
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-   SDSS had charted 1.5 million galaxies inside a cube of 7.5 billion lightyears on a side.  The map shows that on cosmic scales the giant galaxy clusters, filaments, and walls of galaxies are separated by giant voids 500,000,000 lightyears across.  These massive structures began as tiny density variations in the early hot plasma filled Universe shortly after the Big Bang.
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-  Cosmic Inflation Theory has the Universe expanding at a gigantic rate in a fraction of a second.  The Universe grew in size 100 billion times, from smaller that a proton to one meter across.  This earliest plasma of charged particles contained quantum fluctuations  which were small variations in density.
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-  The photons within density clumps produced enormous outward pressures.  The force of photons and particles in motion created “ sound waves”, density waves.  There were no stars or galaxies , the sound waves rushed about in the hot plasma.  Electrons and protons were too hot to settle down into neutral atoms.
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-  In this plasma soup the “ speed of sound” reached 57% the speed of light.  Protons and neutrons are together called “ baryons”.  And, the sound waves are called “ baryon acoustic oscillations”.
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-  After 380,000 years of expansion and cooling the electrons and protons combined into hydrogen atoms.  In this neutral charge environment the photons flew free, not bouncing off any charged particles.  The Universe went from opaque to transparent.  The release of pressure slowed down the speed of the sound waves.
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-  This expanding spherical shell would have a radius of 500,000,000 lightyears today.  Precise measurements show minuscule variations in temperature of a few parts in 100,000 due to these inflation - enhanced density fluctuations.  These “ baryon acoustic oscillations” result in “hot” and “cold” spots 1 degree in angular size across the sky.
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-  The radius of this 1 degree in the sky is 500,000,000 lightyears.  These sound waves have affected the abundance of galaxies in a specific pattern separated by 500,000,000  lightyears.  So, if we can make a Cosmic Map of these sound waves they could become “standard rulers” to measure cosmic distances.
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-  The other two methods used to measure cosmic distances is with Redshifts and with “standard candles”.  Redshifts are based on a known light source wavelength being stretched out as it travels through expanding space.  Wider wavelengths are shifted towards the “red” end of the light spectrum.  The amount of redshift is used to calculate the distance to the light source.
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-  The other method using standard candles depends on the source having a known luminosity.  By measuring dimness as light spreads out through space we can calculate distance.  Apparent Brightness versus Intrinsic Brightness of the source.
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-----------------------  Apparent Brightness  =  Luminosity  /  4*pi*distance^2
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-  “ Standard Rulers” offer a third alternative.  If we can map out the voids between galaxy clusters we can count the number of sound waves, 500 million lightyears each.  Combining the three methods have provided the most precise extragalactic distances measure to date.
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-  The result yields the conclusion that the Universe is 31%  Ordinary Matter and Dark Matter, and 69% Dark Energy.  The further conclusion is that the geometry of the Universe is “ flat”.  It is not “spherical” on our scales of measurement.
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-  Put a circle on flat paper and the circumference is 2 * pi * radius, or 6.3 times the radius.  However, the circumference over a sphere is 4 * pi.  The equator forms a circle on Earth, 24,902 miles circumference.  The distance from the North Pole to the equator is 6,214 miles.  That is 1/4th the circumference.  The circumference is 4 times the arc on the sphere.
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-  Now make these same measurements on the circumference of the spherical sound waves in the Cosmic Microwave Background.  The answer is the 3-D Universe is geometrically flat like a 2-D sheet of paper.  ( or, a sphere that is so enormous, enormously large that it appears flat.)
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-  And, comparing the void between galaxies over a range of Redshifts tells us the density of Dark Energy ( whatever is expanding the Universe) is constant over time.  When the Universe doubles in size the density of Normal Matter drops by a factor of 1.5.  Dark Energy comes from empty space and remains constant over time and space (location).  This combination means that the Universe is always accelerating in its expansion.
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-  Does Dark Matter have its own electro-magnetic force different from our Normal Matter?  We assume its interaction with gravity is the same as Normal Matter.  That is how we conclude that it exists.  Do you get the idea that there is a lot more to learn?  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Monday, May 30, 2016  -----
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life giving oxygen on Mars?

-  1877  -  What can we earn from Oxygen?  Burn some in your brain and see if you can learn where oxygen came from.  Can we find some of this life giving oxygen on Mars?
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------------  1877  -  What can we earn from Oxygen?
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-  There are 92  natural elements, but, oxygen alone has got to be the most important for life.  What we breath is 99.9 % nitrogen, oxygen, and argon.  Argon is an inert gas used to fill incandescent light bulbs.  Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and helium is the second most abundant element.  But, helium is used to fill balloons and not much else.
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-  Yet, in the cores of stars helium undergoes fusion creating Oxygen.  That is like the most important element, to us.  90% of water by weight is oxygen.  The rings of Saturn are mostly oxygen.  Our atmosphere is 21% oxygen.
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-  It is not physics that is producing this oxygen.  It is life, plants.  Plants absorb oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide, then use the carbon to produce structure.  For plants oxygen is a “ waste product”.  We are lucky enough to get the waste product to give us our structure.
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-  It was in 1772 that oxygen gas was first isolated in the air.  Oxygen bonds easily with other elements.  67% of animal bodies by weight is oxygen.  Half the Moon by weight is oxygen.  Remember, the Moon got splashed off the surface of Earth into its orbit.
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-  Originally oxygen got splashed into space by the explosion of giant stars, supernovae began exploding 100,000,000 years after the Big Bang.  That  process was first discovered by Arthur Eddington in 1920.  Four hydrogen atoms fuse into one helium atom in the core of stars.  This fusion continues until carbon and oxygen are left in a collapsed White Dwarf Star, a solid ball of oxygen and carbon.
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-  As the collapsing star ends its life it spreads some material into space as an expanding bubble.  This end-of-life process is called a “ planetary nebula”, although it has nothing to do with planets.  It was originally a case of mistaken identity.
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-  Oxygen did not show up in Earth’s atmosphere until 2,400,000,000 years ago.  After 300,000,000 years the Earth was thick with plants and oxygen in the atmosphere.  It was at 35% concentration.  Animal life were hyper-giants with all this oxygen to burn.
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-  An oxygen atom emits color when an electron falls to a lower orbit nearer the nucleus.  To observe this color you need to have oxygen atoms in an excited state, a higher energy level.  This occurs naturally in the “aurora borealis“, the “ northern lights”.
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-  The natural yellow-green light is 557.7 nanometers wavelength from energized oxygen atoms.  The blue-green light at 500.7 nanometers wavelength is emitted in planetary nebulae.  The hydrogen spectrum is at 656.3 nanometers wavelength.
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-  Oxygen has 3 stable isotopes where the nucleus contains up to 2 extra neutrons.  But, the nucleus normally contains 8 protons and  8 neutrons for an atomic weight of 16.  Designated as 0-16, but with extra neutrons it becomes 0-17 and 0-18.
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-  These oxygen isotopes are like “ fingerprints”.  Different ratios occur in different orbits in the Solar System.  That is how astronomers can identify that a particular meteorite originated on the planet Mars.  Other meteorites were identified coming from the large asteroid Vesta.  Our Moon has the same ratios as the Earth, because that is where it came from.
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-  A Boeing 747 SP has discovered oxygen in the Martian atmosphere.  Flying in our own upper atmosphere this special performance (SP) aircraft has been outfitted with a 100 inch telescope called, SOFIA, Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy.
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-  To observe the far-infrared wavelengths needed to detect atomic oxygen the observatory had to be high above most of Earth’s atmosphere and have highly sensitive instruments.  The 747 is flying at altitudes between 37,000 and 45,000 feet.
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-  The atomic oxygen detected was about ½ the amount expected.  SOFIA is continuing to make measurements to better understand the Martian atmosphere.
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-  A totally different study of Mars has to do with the geological shape of the once shoreline in its northern plains.  The shoreline was created by giant ocean waves created by meteorite impacts 3.4 billion years ago.
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-  This is indirect evidence of cold, salty oceans that were once on the planet and that could have sustained life.  The shoreline has widespread backwash channels that carried water back into the ocean.
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-  There exists evidence of two big meteorite impacts.  In the millions of years  between the 2 impacts Mars went through a frigid climate change that froze the oceans.  The ocean level receded to form a secondary shoreline.  The second giant wave formed rounded lobes of ice.
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-  These icy lobes retained their well defined boundaries and their flow-related shapes.  Cold, salty waters may offer a refuge for life in an extreme environment.  The salts could have kept the water liquid.  The ponded water appears to have emplaced lacustrine sediments, including evaporates  Lacustrine means, at the bottom, or along the shore of lakes , as geological strata.
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-  Water and Oxygen are two ingredients that astronomers hope to find in their search for extraterrestrial life.  The search goes on.  Stay tuned , an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Mars:
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-  #1860  -  The Reconnaissance Orbiter has completed 45,000 orbits and taken 200,000 pictures.  And, lists 9 more reviews about Mars.  #1796  to #24.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Tuesday, May 24, 2016  -----
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Exoplanets that are good candidates for life.

-  1876  -  A sample of Exoplanets that are good candidates for life.  Over 3,000 exoplanets have been discovered to date.  Our own giant gaseous planets have a 100 moons and a few of them will be early candidates to explore for life.
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------------  1876  -  A sample of Exoplanets that are good candidates for life.
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-  In searching for extraterrestrial life we think to look for similar stars to our Sun and similar planets to our Earth.  Habitable exoplanets are most likely found around middle-aged stars like our Sun and rocky planets like our Earth orbiting the right distance for liquid water to be on their surface.
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-  Stars in the later stages of life become Red-Giant Stars.  Our Sun will become one in another 5 billion years from now.  The habitable zone of a star system is the region in which a rocky planet can orbit and maintain liquid water.  Red Giants grow significantly in size.  When our Sun transitions to this stage it will engulf Mercury and Venus.  It will scorch Earth and Mars into barren rocks.
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-  However, this expanded solar source will bring new worlds into the habitable zone.  Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune with their 67, 47, and 13 moons will become the new habitable zones.  Planets in a habitable zone remain friendly to life from 200 million to 9 billion years.  The longer period is for stars with higher metal content.
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-  If life existed below the surface of an icy world such as Europa or Enceladus the dramatic alteration in the warmer atmosphere could allow life to flourish.  Red Giants would inflict powerful stellar winds.  Bodies lacking sufficient gravity would lose their atmosphere to space.  However, super-Earths and super - moons would have the gravity to maintain their atmosphere for a significant period of time.
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-  In this past year Kepler Space Telescope has discovered another 1,284 new planets orbiting their stars.  The total now is over 3,000 known exoplanets.
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-  The rockier the planet, the closer to the habitable zone allowing liquid water , the more likely alien life will be roaming the terrain.  Here are some of the new candidates to give a sample of what they are like:
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-   Kepler -422b  -  has characteristics more habitable than even found on Earth.  This near Earth sized planet was discovered in 2015.  It is 1,100 lightyears away orbiting a star slightly cooler that our Sun.
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-  Kepler - 186f - discovered in 2014 is Earth sized and  in the habitable zone.  It is 10% larger than Earth and a rocky planet.  It is 500 lightyears away orbiting a cooler and redder star than our Sun.
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-  Gliese - 6677Cc  -  discovered in 2011 orbit’s a type of cool, dim star called a Red Dwarf Star.  It is 24 lightyears away.  In the habitable zone it is 4 times the mass of Earth.
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-  Alpha-Centauri is a 3 star system just 4 lightyears away.  Our nearest stars.  An Earth-like planet has not been discovered there but the potential is great that one must exist there in a habitable zone.
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-  Trappist - 1  is an ultra cool dwarf star 40 lightyears away with 3 Earth sized planets in orbit.  Two of these planets are tidally locked to the star so the same side is always facing the star.  So, at the shadow line there could be formations of pockets of water that could harbor life.
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-  Kepler - 22b  -  discovered in 2011,  600 lightyears away is the most Earth-like comfortably circling in the habitable zone.  It is twice Earth size with an average room temperature of 72 degrees F.
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-  Kepler  -  62  -  is 1,200 lightyears away.  It is cooler than our Sun with two habitable planets discovered in 2013.  They are slightly more massive than our Earth.
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-  Kepler - 452b is a super-Earth 1,400 lightyears away orbiting a star that is 1.5 billion years older than our Sun, yet the same temperature.  Our Sun is 4.6 billion years old.
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-  Europa, one of Jupiter’s 67 moons, remains our best chance of finding extraterrestrial  life.  Its liquid ocean beneath the icy crust is interacting with the rocky core and could produce the life-giving chemicals.  The cycling of oxygen and hydrogen would be a major driver for Europa’s ocean chemistry to be home to alien microbes.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Europa:
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-  #1788, #1725, #1702, #1361, #1152, #812.
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- Request these Reviews to learn more about Exoplanets:

-  #1874  -  Will we likely find life n Exoplanets and Exomoons?  Also lists 14 other Reviews available on the subject.
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-  #1833  -  Exoplanets are starting to reveal their secrets.
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-  #1669  -  How many planets are there?  How is their mass and size determined?
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Monday, May 23, 2016  -----
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Mass, light, and gravity. Still learning.

-  1875  -  Mass, light, and gravity.  Still learning.  A new property of light to be used in Quantum Computing.  A new understanding of where mass comes from.  Discoveries of how gravity waves occur with binary Blackholes.
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--------------------------  -  1875  -  Mass, light, and gravity.
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-  You would think that we would know everything there is to know about mass, light, and gravity.  Physics has been exploring these fundamentals for over 400 years.  Recent studies surprise us, there is still more to learn.
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-  College physicists have demonstrated a new form of light with a total angular momentum that has a 1/2 integer spin.  Angular momentum is the rotation of the light beam around its axis.  The momentum is the inertia and velocity as the light moves forward at 670,633,500 miles per hour.  The beam is twisting as it moves forward.
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-  The angular momentum of a light beam has always been seen to be a  multiple of Planck’s Constant.
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-----------------   Planck’s Constant  =   “h”  =   6.625 *10^-34  Joule * seconds.
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-------------------------  h  =  Energy  /  frequency.
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-  Planck’s Constant is a uniform ratio of the energy in one quantum of light ( a photon ) of electromagnetic radiation  to the frequency of that radiation ( cycles per second ).  The ratio was “ always” a whole number, and integer number of Planck Constant.
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-  This new discovery is that there is a form of light where the photons angular momentum is just ½ Planck Constant.  First observed this year, yes, but mathematically predicted in 1980.
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-  Experiments put light beams through a crystal that transforms the beam into a hollow cylinder.  The beam is first passed through a polarizer ( an optical filter passing only horizontal or vertical polarized light).  Then, the beam is split inside an interferometer.  An interferometer measures the interference pattern bringing the split beams back together.  Precise measurements can be made of any displacement between the two beams.  ( See LIGO used to discover gravity waves,, Review # 1155 ).
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-  The split beam had a ½ rotation in one arm.  When recombined scientists expected to still see multiple rotations of Planck’s Constant.  However, the output had photons with ½ that angular momentum.
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-  This is an exciting new discovered property of light.  It could be used in Quantum Computing.  It could increase the bandwidth of fiber-optic communications.  Who knows how this new property will show up in innovations.
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-  Mass is another fundamental property receiving new discoveries as to where mass comes from.  Mass is just concentrated energy, E = mc^2.  Mass is a form of energy storage.  With the Big Bang everything was energy, massless, and traveling at the speed of light.  As the Universe expanded and cooled the Higgs Field turned on creating particles with mass.
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-  The Field somehow slowed down some elementary particles allowing them to condense with mass, concentrated energy.  Electrons and Quarks were formed which are a tiny proportion of the total mass in the Universe.  The Strong Nuclear Force created protons and neutrons which comprises the most mass.  The three Quarks are bound together in the Proton by Gluons  Gluons are the particles that carry the Strong Force.  All this bound together creates enormous energy density.  “ Mass is concentrated energy”.
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-  Neutrons are slightly more massive than Protons.  Neutrons decay in to protons with the Weak Nuclear Force.  Neutrons have 2 Down Quarks and 1 Up Quark.  Down Quarks interact more strongly with the Higgs Field giving the Neutron a bit more mass.
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-  Neutrinos are fundamental particles with extremely tiny masses, a million times smaller that an electron’s mass.  Neutrinos are electrically neutral and rarely interact with matter.
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-  Could neutrino mass be created differently?  Could it be from a brand new source, not the Higgs Field.  Could this new source be related to Dark Matter that represents 23% of all the Universes’ mass-energy?  Maybe a younger person reading this will find the answers to these questions?
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-  From the  least massive particles to the  most massive Blackholes:  OJ287 is a super- massive Blackhole , 18,000 Million Solar Mass.  It is a binary system with a 150 Million Solar Mass Blackhole orbiting it.  The smaller Blackhole punches through the disk of the superheated matter orbiting the larger Blackhole.  This happens every 12 years.
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-  By measuring the variation of light radiation that happens when this occurs astronomers have calculated that the rotation rate is 31% the maximum allowed by General Relativity Math.
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-   The second observation is that the orbital period of the smaller Blackhole is getting shorter with time.  The system is losing energy ass it radiates gravitational waves, ripples in space-time.  The result is the orbits are contracting and the two Blackholes are merging into one.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about gravity:
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-  #1037  -  The details of the two Pioneer spacecraft gravity anomalies.
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-  #974  -  Gravity can not be distinguished from acceleration.
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-  #816  -  Why is the strength of gravity so small?
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-  #1536  -  Gravity Probe B.  Gravity feels strongest where space-time is most curved.
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-  #917 -   Gravity Waves, a geometric effect that travels at the speed of light.
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-  #1728  -  Measuring the Universe with gravity waves as the measuring stick.
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-  #1155  -  Gravity waves come from the Theory of Relativity.
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--  Request these Reviews to learn more about mass:
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-  #631  -  Mass, momentum and inertia.  There is no way to measure mass that is in constant, uniform motion.
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---  Request these Reviews to learn more about light:
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-  #1845  -  Why is the sky blue?
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-  #1795  -  Just seeing light uses half your brain.  Lists 10 more reviews about “ light”
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-  #1386  -  I had no idea light traveled that fast.
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-  #934  -  Light’s mysteries.  The math describing wave motion.
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-  #1335  -  The light spectrum.
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-  #768  -  The wave - particle duality of light.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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Will we likely find life on Exoplanets and Exomoons?

-  1874  - Will we likely find life on Exoplanets and Exomoons?  Over 3,000 exoplanets have been discovered.  But, moons are the most likely first discoveries for life outside of Earth.  This review is a summary of what we have learned to date.
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-  I would like to get a survey of readers, please respond with any comment, recommendation.  I have a complete index of reviews that is easily searched for a particular topic.
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------------  1874  - Will we likely find life on Exoplanets and Exomoons?
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-  Let’s put together a scenario of how life formed on Earth, then, let’s see if the same thing likely happened on some of the over 3,000 exoplanets that have so far been discovered.  It is currently estimated that the average is at least one planet per star in the Milky Way Galaxy.  We have at least 100,000,000,000 stars, therefore, 100,000,000,000 planets in their own solar systems.
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-  Ok, back to Earth .  A billion years after formation the Earth was bombarded by large meteorites and comets.  Most of these impacts hit the oceans.  Water interacted with impact-heated rock to enable synthesis of complex organic organisms  The enclosed crater itself became a microhabitat within which life could flourish.
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-  The complex organic molecules included glycine, alanine, amino-n-butyni acid, and H2O, plus, the energy required for synthesis of these molecules.
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-  Human desire to explore new horizons has been grounded in finding life.  As we explore the planets and moons in our Solar System we often use the phrase:  “ Life as we know it”.  We accept that life as we know it defends on a very friendly environment having very limited variables.
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-  Even on planet Earth life as we know it keeps expanding as we discover new life living in extreme conditions.  Since the 1900’s when exploration of the Galapagos Rift came across giant volcanic chimneys in the depths of the ocean, alien creatures were surviving and thriving in this abyss.  Giant tube worms 10 feet tall.  Clams colonized by symbiotic bacteria.  New life forms that can replicate photosynthesis using only chemicals, no sunlight.  At 16,400 feet deep the ocean was alive with blind shrimp and anemones.
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-  This new life is know as extremophiles.  If this new life exists here in the  bottom of our oceans could it exists in other liquid oceans?  Astronomers have found liquid oceans on Saturn’s moons Titan, Enceladus, and Mimas.  On Jupiter’s moons Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.  Maybe even on the Dwarf Planets Pluto and Ceres.   Could these water worlds also support life, extremophiles?
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-  Europa, one of Jupiter’s 67 moons, has deep, salty oceans beneath an icy crust.  The chemical balance of these oceans are very similar to the ones here on Earth.  On Earth our oceans make hydrogen where salty seawater soaks into cracks in the Earth’s crust.  The water reacts with minerals to produce hydrogen and heat.
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-  Oxygen could form from the frozen water molecules on the icy surface.  The molecules cold be split apart by the cosmic radiation.  Both the hydrogen and the oxygen could be recycled into the depths of the ocean.  The oxidants from the ice are like the positive terminal of a battery, the chemicals from the seafloor, reductants, are the negative terminal.  Can the biological processes complete the circuit?
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-  To pick one environment most likely it would be the saltwater oceans on Europa.   Europa has the geological activity, underwater volcanoes, water vapor plumes.  This chemistry could deliver the nutrients for life.  The chemical energy could come from the hydrothermal vents.
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-  In 1977 Voyager I was the first visitor to Saturn and Jupiter.  We witnessed the volcanic blast off the surface of the moon Io.  In 1979 Voyager II witnessed the icy surface of Europa with the long, linear cracks crisscrossing its surface.  The somewhat eccentric orbits or Io and Europa create varying gravity pulls, tides, from mammoth Jupiter.
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-  In 1989 Galileo’s spacecraft made a dozen close flybys of Europa.  The images confirmed Europa to be a spinning shell of ice atop a large liquid water ocean.  The cracks and fissures were the evidence of a form of plate tectonics.  The magnetic field was detected evidence of a salty, global subsurface ocean.  Ice alone is not conductive enough to support a magnetic field.
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-  Much more research needs to uncover the true formation of life.  Other important elements include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur.  Europa’s orbit is only 400,000 miles from Jupiter, about twice the Earth-Moon distance.  Spacecraft require heavy radiation shielding from the high-energy electrons streaming off  Jupiter. A planned mission to visit Europa again in 2020 hopes to get a probe there under the ice to learn if the biological processes there are friendly to bring life into these oceans.
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-  Europa is 90% the size of our Moon, 1,944 miles diameter.  Our Moon is 2,160 miles diameter.  Europa’s ice shell is 12 miles thick with liquid water below that is 60 miles thick.
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-  The Cassini Mission to Saturn had some of the same issues.  With its last remaining life, the last 20% of its fuel, the last 155 orbits, Cassini’s flybys discovered hydro-thermal vents on Enceladus and rainfall on Titan.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Europa:
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-  #1788  -  Europa - moon of Jupiter.
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-  #1725  -  Europa at surface temperature of -300 F, how can it have liquid water?
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-  #1702  -  Europa gets 25 less sunlight than our Moon.
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-  #1361  -  Europa has no atmosphere to carry water vapor.
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-  #1152  -  Europa has had Pioneer, Voyager ( 1979), Galileo (1995), and Cassini ( 2004) spacecraft made flybys.
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-   Request these Reviews to learn more about Enceladus, Saturn‘s moon:
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-  #1786  -  Enceladus  is 311 miles diameter.  Cryo-volcanoes on the surface are spewing jets of water vapor and ice into space.
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-  #1714  -  There is an ocean about the size of Lake Superior under a 25 mile thick sheet of ice.
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-  $957  -  Enceladus reflects 100% of its sunlight.  Our Moon reflects 7% of its sunlight.
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-   Request these Reviews to learn more about Titan, Saturn‘s moon:
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-  #1787  -  The dense atmosphere is mostly methane.
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-  #1363  -  Titan is 3,100 miles in diameter, larger than the planet Mercury.  It orbits Saturn in 16 days.
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-  #1144  -  Titans average density is 1.88 grams / cubic centimeter.
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-  #818  -  Huygens space probe landed on January 14, 2005.
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-  #555  -  Biography of Christiaan Huygens who discovered Titan in 1655.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Sunday, May 22, 2016  -----
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Venus and Mercury, what's new?

-  1873  -  Venus and Mercury.  Space probes to the inner planets have brought us new knowledge of the Solar System formation.  Like expected new knowledge has brought new mysteries to solve.
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---------------------------  -  1873  -  Venus and Mercury.
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-  Venus and Mercury are the two rocky planets closer to the Sun.  It really shows on Venus where temperatures on the surface reach 480 degrees C.  The surface atmospheric pressure is 92 times greater than that found on Earth.  The high temperatures are not just because it is closer to the Sun.  It is shrouded in a thick blanket of clouds of sulfuric acid that trap the heat in a greenhouse effect.
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-  Size wise Venus is just 5% smaller than Earth.  A sister planet with such a harsh environment it could not have hosted life as we know it.  Venus has a similar composition to Earth but has no evidence of plate tectonics like Earth that continuously recycles the planet’s crust.  Yet, Venus has volcanoes and lava flows, so, there is evidence of the planets inner activity and dynamics.
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-  The atmosphere of Venus is equally fascinating.  The planet rotates so slowly, once ever 224 days, and opposite to the planets motion around the Sun, a retrograde rotation.  However, Venus’ clouds circulate once every 4 days, up to an altitude of 56 miles.  At the poles this atmospheric rotation creates a spectacular vortex, like the eye of a hurricane.
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-  Venus has many mysteries .  We need to learn more.  But, it’s hostile environment is not good biology for life.  So, to date science research has not given it much attention.  “Venus Express” launched in 2005 was our last attempt with a space probe.
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-  Mercury had  the “Messenger” spacecraft in 2011 that orbited the planet 4,000 times.  This probe gave us a topographic map of Mercury’s craters, ridges, volcanoes, and mountains that were 2 miles high.
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-  Mercury too has had volcanic activity and lava flows, some 60% the size of the United States.  Today the surface is shrinking due to the steady cooling of its core over time.  Evidence of this is the buckled crust and a ridge running diagonally across its surface.  Estimates are that this core cooling has reduced Mercury’s diameter by 8.5 miles since the planet formed.
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-  Unlikely as it may seem, in the north pole shadows , Mercury has areas containing water ice.  Mercury is 450 degrees C at the equator, but, there are parts of the poles that are continuously in the shadows.  Because  Mercury has no atmosphere to transport the heat around the planet this type of location could remain extraordinarily cold., sunlight never reaches it.
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-  This water likely arrived from asteroids and comets impact that came from the outer solar system.
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-  Mercury has a surprisingly volcanic history.  It surface has channels, hills  and vents formed by ancient volcanoes that are 3.5 billion years to as recent as 1 billion years old.
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-  Mercury is extremely dense compared to Earth.  It has a disproportionably large iron-rich core, 60% of the planet’s mass.  It is possible that a large impact 4.5 billon years ago ripped off its crust and mantle.  After all our Moon resulted from a large impact that splashed Earth’s curst into orbit.
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-  With little crust Mercury’s more volatile elements, like sulfur and ammonia, have vaporized away.  However, other volatiles like potassium, sodium, and chlorine have high levels on the surface.  The possible explanation is that the huge impact was at a very low angle ejecting material into space but not creating the heat needed to boil off all the volatiles.
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-  Mercury’s magnetic field is strangely off center, off by about 20% of the planet’s radius, shifted to the north.  Unlike Venus, Mars, and our Moon, Mercury has a distinct magnetic field of its own.  Again, this could be the result of the flow of the iron in its outer core.
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-  April 30, 2015 the Messenger spacecraft crashed into Mercury’s surface creating a 52 foot-wide crater.  The next Mercury space probe is planned for 2024, named BepiColombo.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Mercury:
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-  #1815  -   Mercury is 26% the diameter of Earth.  Plus there are 9 other Reviews listed.
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--  Request these Reviews to learn more about Venus:
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-  #1778  -      Venus has somehow managed to turn itself inside-out leaving no craters on the surface.  Plus there are 7 other Reviews listed.
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-  If you were on Venus you could walk and keep up with the stars overhead.
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-  75% of the sunlight that hits Venus bounces back before ever reaching the surface.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
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How many solar systems are there?

-  1872  -  New solar systems.  The evolution of our Solar System took place 3.8 billion years ago.  Today computer simulations are attempting to duplicate the process.  New discoveries are made of other solar systems in the Universe.  Are they like ours?
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---------------------------  1872  -  New solar systems.
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-  Our Solar System appears to be unique by comparison to the 2,325 exoplanets that have been discovered to date.  We have inner rocky worlds, outer gas giant planets and no planets closer to the Sun than the planet Mercury.
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-  That number, over 2 thousand other planets, are orbiting their star.  Our proto star started out as an opaque ring of gas and dust.  From this disk 4 rocky planets evolved with 88 day to 687 day orbits.
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-  What has been discovered to date are giant gas exoplanets with 12 year to 165 year orbits.  These gas giants are 150 times the mass of our 4 terrestrial planets.  How different can you get?
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-  The first discoveries of exoplanets occurred in 1996.  They were all gas giants planets orbiting very close to their star, completing an orbit in a few days.  This extremely hot environment for planet formation is contradictory to classical theories for a solar system.  To reconcile, the theorists concluded the planets formed farther out and then migrated inward to these tighter orbits.
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-  After thousands of exoplanet solar system discoveries the further conclusion is that they are all different.  There does not appear to be a standard model for solar system formations.  The “average” system contains “ super Earths” orbiting shorter than 100 days.  Only about 10% of the systems have gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn.
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-  So, why is our inner solar system depleted in mass, ( i.e. only the 4 rocky planets), rather than the super-Earths inside the orbit of Mercury , which is 88 days.  The best theories today is that planet orbits “drift“.  Once a planet grows large enough its gravitational influence propagates through the rotating disk.  This perturbation causes positive and negative feedback forces between the planets.  Exchanges of momentum and energy occur.
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-  Computer simulations are busy trying to simulate is happening for our Solar System.  One working theory is that because Saturn has lower mass its inward migration rate is faster than Jupiter’s  When their orbits reach a point of “mean motion resonance”, Jupiter completes 3 orbits as Saturn completes 2 orbits.  A 3 to 2 resonance occurs.
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-  The resonance orbits exchange momentum and energy to achieve an amplified common gravitational influence on each other.  These two giant planets cleaned out a giant gap in the planetary disk.
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-  Jupiter migrated outward from the Sun shepherding planetesimals in its path through the disk.  This triggered a collisional cascade that eroded the inner orbit planetesimal population.  The inner planets received swarms of debris bleeding off their orbital energy.  The 4 terrestrial planets, Mercury, Venus Earth, Mars, coalesced hundreds of millions of years later is all the remains.
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-  Jupiter - Saturn resonance locked in Uranus and Neptune into resonance orbits as well.  Their nearly circular orbits and resonances settled down into enduring stability for our Solar System.
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-  Beyond Neptune another mystery appeared.  The Kuiper Belt objects have an unexpected structure.  The orbits of the larger objects are highly clustered.  They seem to be subject to a common , large perturbation  To get the computer simulations to work we need an unobserved 9th Planet 10 times the mass of the Earth.  Its eccentric orbit would take 20,000 years.
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-  We have  more to learn to write the complete biography of our Solar System over its 4.6 billion years lifetime.  Here is the short story:
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-  Halfway out from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy a giant molecular cloud collapsed into its core creating a proto sun and a disk of gas and dust.  The spinning proto sun created  magnetic field that accreted into a star.  The orbiting disk was full of growing planetesimals , a few super Earths, and began accreting gas into proto-Jupiter and proto-Neptune.  Jupiter and Saturn lock in resonance and drift to the outer Solar System.
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-  The inner gap to the Sun was occupies by rocky debris.  The outer giant  planets were encircled by a ring of “icy” debris.  The 4 rocky planets and the asteroid belt formed from the rocky debris.  The outer planets shifted out of resonance creating chaotic shifts that may have ejected a 9th planet until the system restabilized their orbits.  The Kuiper Belt sent a barrage of impactors hurtling through the inner solar system.  Possibly bringing water and life to the planet Earth 3.8 billion years ago.
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-  The Earth’s and life’s biography continues to be written.  The miracle resides in the fact that we are here writing and reading this biography.  It is like your hand drawing a sketch of itself drawing a hand.  Whose hand is guiding the whole process?
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-  This past year 1,284 more exoplanets have been discovered in “other solar systems“.  Previously 1,041 planets had been discovered starting in 1996.  The breakthrough in the rate of discovery was made by software.  The NASA Kepler telescope collects the data on hundreds of candidates at once.  The software parses out the true signal from the noise.  Astronomers were working on one at a time.  The new software analyzes 100’s all at once.
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-  Kepler requires 3 planet transits to  prove the candidate is an orbiting planet.  84 have orbital periods longer than 100 days.  The longest period is 510 days.  Obviously , we need to watch the same spot for a long time to capture 3 of these transits.  It is 15 years of hard work ( See Review #   1070  The Kepler Space Telescope )
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-  Today there are over 3,000 planet candidates to be validated.  1,284 that have been validated our mini-Neptunes in size, at the lower limits of being a giant gas planet.  The biggest sample are super-Earth size, some Earth size and some Neptune size.
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-  How do astronomers measure orbits to tell if a candidate is a transiting planet?
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-  They measure the redshift of lightwaves.  It is the Doppler Effect like with sound waves except with lightwaves.  As the light source is coming towards us the wavelength is shortened, the frequency appears to increase, and the lightwave is shifted towards the blue end of the light spectrum.
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-  If the edge of the star is rotating towards us the frequency is “ blue shifted”  Lightwaves sourced on the opposite side of the star are traveling away form us.  They are  “redshifted”.  The wavelengths appear wider, or stretched, towards the red end of the spectrum.
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-  If there is a planet orbiting the star, And, if its orbit plane is in our line of sight, the planet will block the blue-light shift and an orbit time later will block the red-light shift.  Repeat this several times to make certain the data is pure and not corrupted by sunspots of interstellar clouds, or systematic errors in measuring the light intensity.
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-  Then the data can be used to calculate the rotation  rate of the star, the rotation rate of the planet’s orbit, and the distance of the planet from the star.
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-  This artificial color shift created by the planet blocking the light is called the “Rossiter-McLaughlin Effect”
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-  If the orbit is “ retrograde” with the star blue-red sequence is reversed.
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-  It is only a couple decades ago we had only 9 planets to study, including Pluto.  Today we have “ Dwarf Planets” outside Pluto and possibly another 9th planet in our Solar System.  And, we have another 2,325 exoplanets to study , with more discoveries to come.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
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-  #1826  -  How big is our Solar System?  Does the math for calculating the mass in our Solar System.  Evidence of Dark Matter and Planet X.
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-  Lists 5 other Reviews about our Solar System.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Monday, May 16, 2016  -----
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Asteroids and their Trojan orbits..

-  1871  -  Asteroids and their Trojan orbits.  In order to predict asteroids trajectories we need to learn about their composition.  Missions will soon visit two asteroids to learn more.  Maybe, where life originated.
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---------------------------  1871  -  Asteroids and their Trojan orbits..
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-  4.6 billion years ago the Solar System was a tumultuous landscape of giant planets mixed with small planets, asteroids , and comet nuclei.  The bigger planets consumed millions of these smaller bodies.  The Earth consumed such a large body the impact “splashed” the Earth’s surface into orbit that eventually coalesced in to our Moon.  Our Moon is made of Earth earth.
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-  Some of these smaller bodies were still orbiting in our Solar System.  Some have acquired “ stable ‘ orbits and are known as Trojan asteroids.  These small bodies occupy gravity balancing points 60 degrees ahead and behind our planet’s orbit.  Called the Lagrangian Points because Joseph - Louis Lagrange first discovered them.
(See Footnote 1)
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-  In 1765 Leonhard Euler defined these gravity balancing points mathematically.  There are 5 balance points.  3 are in “ convex  stability”. One point lies between the Sun and the planet (L1), a second just beyond the planet in line with the Sun (L2), a third 180 degrees on the opposite side of the Sun (L3).  These 3 balancing points are “ convex” because the slightest shift away and these asteroids will leave their stability regions.
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-  The 4th and 5th points are in “ concave stability”.  These balance points are preceding and trailing the planet by 60 degrees.  These points are “ concave” because if they shift away they will tend to return to the stability area.  They can remain in these stable orbits over the age of the Solar System.
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-  The first Trojan asteroid was discovered to share Jupiter’s orbit in 1906.  Today 6,300 Jupiter Trojans have been identified.  Saturn and Uranus have no known Trojans likely because of the massive gravity pulls of Jupiter and Neptune on either side.  Earth lacks Trojans because of the pull of Venus, Mars, and Jupiter.
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-  Although Earth has captured a small asteroid a few thousand years ago in the L3 balance point.  Mars has a few Trojans at L4 and L5 balance points.
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-  Studying these balancing orbits astronomers are convinced that the major planets did not always have today’s circular orbits.  The early Solar System was a chaotic place and the gas giants were closer together in their orbits.  Trojans were captured when the friction of gas drag, or collisions , brought them into a balance region with the right orbit speed.
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-  As the gas giant planets navigated out from where they first formed their gravity scattered  smaller objects allowing more  Trojans to be captured.  Planet - planet interactions even suggest there was a massive, eccentric 9th planet a few hundred  AU’s from the Sun ( AU = Earth - Sun distance)
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-  A pair of asteroid binaries orbiting each other allow the masses to be calculated.  Estimating their size gives a density calculations of 0.8 grams per cubic centimeter (water is 1.0 gm/cm^3). This would suggest asteroids are mostly porous ice.  This also suggests they are more like comets and less like rocky asteroids.  This in turn suggest these Trojans originated in the outer Solar System and migrated inward.
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-  Trojans will continue to be studied to help us understand the origins and evolutions of the planets.  We live one of eight , or is it nine?  We will soon be visiting two asteroids orbiting between Earth and Mars, named Bennu ( ¼ mile across)  and Ryugu ( ½ mile across).
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-  The NASA mission will visit Bennu in 2019.  The Japanese mission, Hayabusa 2, will land 3 times on Ryugu.  The first landing in 2018 will come a year before NASA gets to Bennu.  Each mission will spend 1.5 years studying the asteroid.  Each will attempt landing, collecting samples, and returning them to Earth.
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-  The 2 missions hope to learn more about possible asteroid impacts on Earth and secondly how likely life could have evolved due to the asteroid impacts on Earth.
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-  Asteroid trajectories are difficult to predict due to the “ Yarkovsky Effect”.  The asteroid is rotating.  It absorbs sunlight from one direction.  The asteroid surface heats up, then radiates infrared energy in a different direction.  This release of heat can push the asteroid off its original trajectory.  The degree of the effect depends greatly on the composition of the asteroid surface.
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-  Each mission has a different method in collecting the composition samples.  NASA (OSRIS-Rex) in 2019 lands on Bennu’s surface and extends a mechanical arm that will release a jet of nitrogen gas.  Loose rocks and grains will be collected in a chamber on the end of the arm.  It plans to collect between 2 ounces and 4 pounds of different sized particles.  It is designed to attempt this same landing 3 different times if necessary.
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-  The Japan mission to Ryugu , Hayabusa 2, plans to land 3 times on different sites to learn of any variations in surface composition.  Japan has done this once before when Hayabusa 1 visited asteroid 25143 Itokawa returning a handful of pebbles in June 2010.
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-  Hayabusa 2 will fire a bullet into the asteroid and collect the debris.  On the 3rd landing they intend to use a 10 pound explosive to carve a 33 foot crater.  The spacecraft plans to be on the opposite side of the asteroid when the explosion occurs, leaving only a camera, then swoop around to collect the freshly exposed rock.
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-  In addition to learning enough to better predict the motion of asteroids, 100’s of years into their future to avoid Armageddon, science hopes to learn if life on Earth may have come from space.  The theory is that desert Earth gained its oceans from the arrival of ice-laden meteoroids.  This water may have contained the first organic molecules.
-
-  Comets that originate beyond Neptune are unlikely carriers because measurements of water vapor in the tails of these comets are different nuclei, containing ah higher ratio of deuterium ( hydrogen with a neutron).
-
-  Bennu and Ryugu are carbonaceous chrondites formed in the early Solar System unchanged for 4.5 billion years.  We would like to learn if their molecules are the same as found on our planet.
-
-  Both missions NASA and JAXA have very active websites if you yearn to learn more.   The idea of what they bring home could tell us about life on Earth in the past and life on Earth if our future.
-
-  In the meantime we can learn more from meteorites that visit our planet.  Meteorites are meteors that avoid burning up in the atmosphere and manage to reach the surface of Earth.  Lawrence Livermore Labs just received two walnut size meteorites the are discovered in the Antarctica.
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-  If we are going to be successful in deflecting an incoming asteroid from impacting the Earth, we need to learn more about their composition.  These meteorites will be cut and polished down to a thickness of a few hundred microns.  Then, they will receive a nanosecond laser pulse that will vaporize the sample.  Detailed spectroscopy data will be collected to understand their composition.
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-  To deflect an Earth-bound asteroid a nuclear explosion or a hypervelocity projectile will be sued.  The goal is not to destruction but a nudge to  redirect its trajectory.  Knowing the composition will allow scientists to design the best plan to deflect it without shattering it.  A near miss rather than hitting the Earth with buckshot.
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-  NASA has identified 14,000 of these near Earth objects.  ( discovering 1,500 per year).  Already 1,600 have been identified as “ potentially hazardous”.  Hopefully our planning and research will be completed before we need to use it.   Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
-
-  #1829  -  Dwarf planets and asteroids.  Pluto has greatly exceeded expectations with its diversity of land forms and environmental processes.    This review lists 11 other reviews about asteroids.
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-  Footnote:  (1)  Joseph Louis Lagrange ( 1736 - 1813) was French but raised in Italian Piedmont.  Youngest of 11 children.  By age 18 he was teaching geometry in Turin.  He became the head f the Berlin Academy at age 40.  He published “Analytical Mechanics” in 1788.  Newton’s law of gravity works with two bodies.  Lagrange worked out the math for 3 bodies.  He named them the “ Trojan System”.  In 1795 he helped devise the “ metric system of measurements”.
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Saturday, May 14, 2016  -----
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How fast does gravity move?

-  1870  -  Is Gravity a Quantum Force?  At the smallest scales is Gravity granular?  Each grain being a “ Graviton”?  Is space-time a foam with voids?  Do gravity waves travel at the speed of light?
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---------------------------  1870  -  Is Gravity a Quantum Force?
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-  “There is plenty of room at the bottom”.  Meaning when you get to the smallest microscopic structures there is a wide world of diversity and opportunity.
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-  Your eye makes visible 10^-3 meters ( a tenth of a millimeter).  Using our best technology instruments we can resolve down to 10^-19 meters, that is the wavelength of a proton.
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-  The quantum effects of gravity are estimated to be at 10^-35 meters.  This length has been given the name “ Planck Length”  We have 16 more orders of magnitude to get down to this resolution.  From the above paragraph you can see it took 400 years to get the first 15 orders of higher magnitude resolution.  How long will it take to get to the next 16 orders of magnitude?
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-  The name given to this undiscovered granular gravity is “ gravitons”, a single quantum of a gravitational field.
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-  Direct detection of these smallest of small particles may be impossible.  But, indirect detection may still work for us to learn more.
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-  How to test for Gravitons?
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-  There is a technique called “ Lorentz-Invariance” that is evidence of a violation of symmetry.  Other tests look for the “ weak field limit of quantum gravity”.  In the early Universe quantum fluctuations of space-time would lead to temperature fluctuations appearing in matter.  Today we can detect these temperature variations in the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.  Temperature variations of only 1 part in 100,000 around an average temperature of 2.73 Kelvin.
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- LIGO has detected gravity waves for the first time in 2016.  ( See Review # 1858 ).  Maybe now it is possible to detect these primordial gravitational waves in the CMB.  This could become evidence of quantized gravity.
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-  The search is on to prove if gravity truly is a “ quantum force”.
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-  Our experience is that space-time is a continuous object, without gaps of discontinuities.  However, quantum Gravity would have a “ texture”, a granularity at the tiny scale of 10^-35 meters.  A texture of a variable mesh of solids and voids, a “ complex foam”.
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-  This concept of smallest scale granularity runs contrary to Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.  Distance shortens as motion approaches the speed of light and time slows.  But, what happens to the shortest unit of measurement in space.  By definition it can not shorten even traveling at the speed of light where matter shortens and time stops.
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-  This idea is called a violation of the “ Lorentz Invariance”.  String Field Theory and Causal Set Theory are trying to find scenarios that are compatible with both Granularity and Special Relativity.  The goal is to define the boundary, a transition zone, where space-time becomes “ granular” and physics becomes “ non-local”.
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-  The Lorentz Invariance is a little too deep for me to explain.  When theories go too deep try something else, that is easier.  “  Is the speed of gravity  the same as the speed of light?”
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-  The Sun is 93,000,000 miles away and it takes light 8 minutes and 20 seconds to reach us.  Does gravity get here at the same time as sunlight?  Is gravity too moving at 186,282 miles per second?  Isaac Newton thought gravity was instantaneous.  Einstein thought otherwise.
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-  If the Sun instantly winked out of existence would Earth instantly fly off in a straight line, or, would we have to wait another 8 minutes?
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-  It is not the mass of the Sun that determines this, it is the mass that is curving space-time that determines this.  So, how long will the curvature of gravity last?  How fast would space-time go from curvature to flat?  Recently discovered, September 2015, and announced, February 2016, gravitational waves were detected by LIGO, Laser Interferometer Gravity-wave Observatory.  The snapping motion of the Sun disappearing would send very large gravity ripples propagating across the Universe (at the speed of light?)  ( See Review #          for more about LIGO)
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-  Since gravitational waves are massless., like light photons, with finite energy levels they must move at the speed of light.
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-The other variable for us on Earth is that each planet’s velocity affects how it experiences gravity.  However, the two effects of changes in the gravitational field and velocity-dependent interactions observationally nearly cancel out.  If something moves at a constant velocity in a constant gravitational field there is no observable affect of time difference of the speed of gravity.
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-  To see this affect we need to observe “ massive objects” in “ close orbits” like two Neutron stars.  One being a “ pulsar” that allows the time change of orbits to be precisely measured.  This measurement was done in 1980 concluding that light and gravity have the same speed to within a 0.2% measurement error.  ( the Hulse-Taylor binary).
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-  In 2002 Earth , Jupiter, and a radio Quasar lined up.  The gravitational bending of Jupiter moving between Earth and the Quasar allowed a measurement of the speed of gravity.  The conclusion was gravity’s speed was between 255,000,000 and 381,000,000 meters per second ( The speed of light is 299,792,458 meters per second).
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-  February 2016 LIGO concluded that gravity waves could be measured with two observatories located in Washington State and Louisiana.  But, the inability to accurately triangulate from where these waves originated, an accurate gravity speed could not be calculated.  Ballpark estimates supported earlier results but precision was not good enough to improve on these previous measurements.
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-  Now that gravity waves can be detected more measurements are sure to follow.  The speed of gravity waves will be accurately measured one of these days.  What do you want to bet Albert Einstein was right 100 years ago, light and gravity travel at the same speed?
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-  Albert’s ideas are always being tested.  Space-time is curved by the presence of matter, energy and momentum.  Another attempt to prove this is happening is occurring on a satellite named “Microscope”.
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-  The satellite contains two different metals, one titanium, the other platinum-rhodium alloy.  Both together in free-fall orbit.  Will both move identically.  If there is any difference detected then Einstein’s theory needs some modification.
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-  Given the theory of gravity and the theory of Quantum Mechanics it is evident that us humans have not yet grasped all there is to grasp about the Universe.  Learning something new will propel humanity to the next level.  Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more:
-
-  #1858  -  Gravity, LIGO, and Gravity Waves.  Plus 10 other references about gravity.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Wednesday, May 11, 2016  -----
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What do Neutron lifetimes have to do with it?

-  1868  -  What do Neutron lifetimes have to do with it?  Why do we need to know what happened to anti-matter?  How can pure science lead to a single atom engine?
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----------------------  1868  -  What do Neutron lifetimes have to do with it?
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-  A Neutron is a proton and an electron combined to become a neutral charge.  Normally protons are in the nucleus and electrons in orbital rings around the nucleus.  Protons are positive charge and electrons an equal and opposite negative charge.  The Neutron in the nucleus is a combined proton and electron that unstable over time.  But how much time?
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-  How long does the Neutron live before radioactive decay and it separates into its two components again?  Decaying back to its fundamental particles is a question known as the “ Neutron Lifetime Puzzle”.
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-  Science knows the decay process involves the nuclear “weak force” interactions.  The “strong nuclear force” is what holds the protons together, like  positive charges, in the nucleus.  If science knew the Neutron Lifetime they could calculate the abundance of the other elements and support or refute current theories that are addressing this puzzle.
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-  The physics of nuclear decay is well understood ( we think?).  In “ beta decay” a Neutron breaks down into a proton, and electron, and an anti-neutrino.  The resulting particles carry the difference in mass in the form of kinetic energy ( the energy of motion).
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-  The timing of this decay is a “random quantum phenomenon”.  Science gets an average lifetime by studying the decay of many, many Neutrons.  But, any single decay is random.  Statistics is the math that comes up with the answer using large numbers.
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-  Neutrons easily pass through the walls of any container making them difficult to count.  The trick is to tarp extremely cold Neutrons that have very low kinetic energy.  The kinetic motion must be reduced to speeds of a few meters per second.  Neutrons are normally traveling at 10,000,000 meters per second.
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-  Statistical error arises because any experiment can only measure a finite sample size of neutrons.
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-  Having 2 different methods of measurement help to reduce these measurement uncertainties.  Another experiment uses the “ beam method” sending a stream of cold Neutrons through a magnetic field.  A ring of high voltage electrodes trap positively charged particles.  If a neutron decays within the trap the protons are counted as the decays occur over time.
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--------------------  The beam experiment got a lifetime of 887.7 seconds + or - 0.3 seconds statistically and + or - 1.9 seconds systematically.  So, a 2.2 second uncertainty.
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-------------------  The bottle experiments measured a lifetime of 878.5 seconds + or - 0.7 and + or - 0.3 seconds.  A + or - 0.8 second uncertainty.
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-  What we have left is 9 seconds of disagreement.  This is not good enough.  We need more accurate knowledge of Neutron decay in order to understand the Weak Nuclear Force responsible.
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-  Determining the “ exact” rate of decay should help us understand Big Bang Theory and the early evolution of the Cosmos.  In the first seconds the universe temperature was 10 billion degrees, which is too hot for nuclei to even form.  After 3 minutes the expansion and cooling allowed protons and neutrons to form.  Deuterium, a heavy hydrogen isotope, first formed.  Deuterium atoms combined to form helium, and some lithium.
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-  Neutron decay rate versus cooling rate is critical to understanding the ratios of hydrogen and helium in the early Universe.  All the heavier elements in the Periodic Table were formed in the cores of stars composed of just these first, lightest, two elements, hydrogen and helium.
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-  In order for science to mathematically predict the ratios we observe we need to know the precise value of Neutron lifetimes.  If predictions disagree our theory might indicate we are missing other exotic particles yet to be discovered.  Maybe Dark Matter particles?
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-  Deeper knowledge may explain why matter out-numbers anti-matter.  Our theories tell us equal amounts of each had to come form “ nothing” in the Big Bang.  If an asymmetry did not happen we would have an empty, cold Universe instead of the one we live in?
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-  Discovering the matter-anti-matter imbalance is the search for “ new physics”, rare decays of Bottom Quarks, Charm Quarks, and Tau Leptons.  This stuff really gets complex.  It can only be studied in very high energy particle accelerators or in the stars.  In effect science is trying to recreate the first seconds of the Universe.
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-  This new physics is not just theoretical stuff you are not interested in.  Spin models of atoms may lead to new digital computers, new neural networks, even understanding proteins and social networks.
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-  Even the design of the smallest engines, a single electrically - charged calcium atom.  The single atom is both the fuel and power plant with equivalent thermodynamic efficiency of an automobile engine.
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-  The atom power plant is heated by electrical noise and cooled by a laser beam.  This could lead to tiny motors, single-ion refrigerators, heat pumps.  Who knows/  new science leads to new innovations. These innovations you should be interested in. Stay tuned, an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more  Particle Physics:
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-  #1848  -  Particle physics a history lesson.  Biographies of the famous physicists.
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-  #1799  -  Primer on particle physics.
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-  #1693 -  How can a Quark and an anti-Quark decay into an Electron?
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-  #1512  -  Getting familiar with the Standard Model.
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-  #1573  -  The math is beautiful.  The challenge of physics is to discover evidence that it represents reality.
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-  #1511 -   Sterile Neutrinos in particle physics.
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-  #1217  -  How to find the Higgs Boson.
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-  #1136  -  Our whole world in only 6 particles.
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-  #1097 -  Nature’s constants and particles.
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-  #1046  -  Particles of everything.  18 fundamental particles?
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-  #977  -  Fermions and Bosons
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-  #973  -  Physics in a nutshell.
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-  #960  -  Phonons, Plasmons, and Magnons
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-  #811  -  Large Hadron Collider.
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-  #632  -  The force carriers, gluons , bosons, and photons.
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-  #631  -  Mass , momentum, and inertia.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Monday, May 9, 2016  -----
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Blackhole mysteries, how big can they get?

-  1869  -  Blackhole mysteries, how big can they get?  How do you calculate their mass?  Is the firewall of destruction actually visible?  Can entangled particles actually escape the Blackhole?
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------------------  -  1869  -  Blackhole mysteries, how big can they get?
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-  Jupiter is 17 times the mass of the Earth.
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-  The Sun is 500 times the mass of the Earth.
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-  The Milky Way Blackhole is 4,000,000 times “the mass of the Sun“.  Called the Solar Mass. One Solar Mass is 2*10^30 kilograms.
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-  Astronomers have found a Blackhole that is 17,000,000,000 Solar Mass.  In an isolated galaxy 200 million lightyears from us is a Blackhole 17 billion times the mass of our Sun.  That is an extremely massive Blackhole at the center of a large galaxy in a relatively empty area of space.  It is over 4,000 times bigger than the one at the center of our Milky Way galaxy.
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-  Astronomers expected to find these super massive Blackholes in Galaxy Clusters, not in isolated space like this particular galaxy, NGC1600.  Astronomers are studying this galaxy closely to learn how such a massive body could form all by itself.
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-  As stars and interstellar gas orbit closer to the Blackhole their velocity increases in order to stay in orbit  and to not be swallowed up by the immense gravity.  For over a century astronomers have known that the “period of orbit squared” is equal to the “ radius of orbit cubed”.  The period is the time of orbit in years.  The radius of orbit is in Astronomical Units ( AU).  An AU is the Sun-Earth distance which is 93 million miles.
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---------------------------  p^2  =  r^3
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-  Converting this formula from years and AU to metric units, kilograms, seconds, and meters:
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------------------  p^2  =  4 * pi^2  * r^3  /  G * M
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------------------  M  =  4 * pi^2  * r^3  /  G * p^2
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------------------  p  =  2*pi*r / v
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--------------------  M  =  r * v^2  / G
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----------------  G  =  the gravitational constant  =  6.6710^-11  m^3 / kg * sec^2
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-  Using the Doppler Shift , redshift, blueshift, of the frequency of light of orbiting ionized gas we get the speed of orbit to be 800 kilometers per second, ( 1,790,000 miles per  hour).  The radius of orbit is measured to be 60 lightyears ( 5.6 * 10^7 meters).
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---------------------  M  =  ( 5.6*10^17)  *  ( 8.0*10^5)  /  (6.67*10*-11)
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---------------------  M  =  5.4*10^39 kilograms
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-  Converting this to Solar Mass, which is 2*10^30 kg:
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-------------------  M  =  2.7*10^9 Solar Mass
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-  Therefore the mass inside the orbit is 2,700,000,000,  2.7 billion ,  times the mass of the Sun.  Nearly all this mass must be in the Blackhole.
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-  Our theory of how massive Blackholes form coming from the study of NGC1600 is that two galaxies collided and merged.  The Blackholes at the centers became a binary system orbiting each other.  The binary system would destabilize the orbits of nearby stars.  Some stars would be swallowed by the Blackhole.  Some stars would get sling shot out of the galaxy into free space ( action equals reaction).  Each ejection would be a loss of energy and the binary orbits of the Blackholes would get smaller.  Eventually the two Blackholes would merge into a single suppressive Blackhole.
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-  Blackholes are still the most mysterious objects in the Cosmos.  And, our Universe could be riddled with these monster Blackholes.
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-  Another mystery with Blackholes is the math tells us there is a “ firewall” orbiting any Blackhole that annihilates any matter that crosses that boundary.  The math comes form Einstein’s’ Theory of Relativity.  The massive object bends space-time so steeply it folds back on itself and not even the sped of light does not have the escape velocity needed to get past this boundary.
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-  However, in 1970 Stephen Hawking proposed that if particles were “ entangled” they could get separated at the boundary.  One would get sucked into the Blackhole and the other would be flung into outer space to escape.
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-  Quantum Mechanics has two principles, “ Quantum Determinism” and “ Reversibility” that suggest that “ Information” must always be preserved, even inside the Blackhole.  The mystery is if Information is lost when it crossed the “firewall“?
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-  Hawking suggested that his Hawking Radiation allows matter to escape from a Blackhole.  Does information escape with it?  In 2012 physicists proposed that the high-energy density firewall did not exist because the space-time curvature is negligibly small at the Event Horizon of  very large Blackholes .
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-  Would the “surface” of the Blackhole destroy anything falling in?  Including information?
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-  This new math analysis suggests that the region of quantum-mechanical destruction can migrate outside the Blackhole due to Quantum fluctuations in Hawking Radiation.  In this case the actual “ firewall” would be visible from outside the Blackhole.  In this case the actual destruction of in falling material would be visible.
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-  So, the mysteries continues.  Just how black is a Blackhole?  Is all information on the structure of matter lost inside the Blackhole?  Is some entangled matter allowed to escape?  Would these entangled particles that escape duplicate the  information that is inside the Blackhole so information can be preserved?  Stay tuned , an announcement will be made shortly.
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-  Request these Reviews to learn more about Blackholes:
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-  #1843  -  Great walls in space with Blackholes.
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-  #1819  -  new discovies many close the gap between stellar Blackholes and galactic Blackholes.  It is estimated that there are 100,000,000 Blackholes in our own galaxy.

-  There are 21 more reviews available listed in these reviews.  Too many to list here.
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Monday, May 9, 2016  -----
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