- How much for the pocket knife?

-
---------------------------- -  2327      - How much for the pocket knife?
-

-
-
--
---------------------------- -  2327  - How much for the pocket knife? 
- 
-  When I was 10 years old I was in the garage with my Dad and I was admiring his pocket knife.  It had a bone handle and there blades.  I still have it today.  But, my Dad first told me that he could not “give” it to me.  If he did that and I cut myself he would feel bad.  But, he said if I bought the knife from him then I would feel responsible for myself .  So, I went up to my bedroom and emptied my mason jar to get the money.  If you solve the problem that follows you will learn how much I  paid for the pocket knife:
-
----------------------
-
-    Gene and Lukas sold their herd of cattle and received as many dollars
     for each animal as there were cattle in the herd.  With that money
     they bought a flock of sheep at $10.00 a head and then a lamb with
     the rest of the money.
-
-    Lambs cost less than $10.00.  Finally , they
     divided the animals between them, with Lukas  obtaining  an extra
     sheep and Gene got the lamb.
-
-    Lukas felt sorry for his friend Gene who got
     stuck with the lamb and gave Gene his pocket knife as even
     compensation.  What was the pocket knife worth?
   
  -  Solve the problem to learn ,or, send  request to learn how much I paid for the pocket knife.
-
     ----------------   here is the solution:
-
 -    n = the number of cattle
-
 -    n = the price of each cow
-
 -    n squared  =  the total value or price of the herd of cattle
  - 
  -   The number of 10's in “n square” is the number of sheep and “n square/10”
     must be an odd number because there is one sheep left over.
   - 
   -  Here is where it gets tricky:
-
-     Start squaring numbers, since “n“ is the number of cows and ‘n squared “ is the total price for the cows:
- 
-     “n^2”  =  4    16      25      36      49      64      81      100     121     144 
-                                                                           
-        196     256     576     676     1156    1296
 -   
 -    When you divide by ten dollars to get the number of cows and the number of sheep must be an odd number  because there was a remainder to pay for the lamb that is left over, so this leaves :
 -   
 -   16   36      196     256     676     1156    1296      They all end in
     six with this particular series.
 - 
  -   Pick any one.  Say Gene and Lukas had $256 worth of cows.  That was 16
     cows, because 16^2  =  256.     So with that money they bought 25 sheep  at
      $10 each with one lamb left over when they split these up.
-
-    Lukas has 13 sheep worth $130.  Gene has 12 sheep worth $120 plus a $6 lamb.
-
-     Lukas owes Gene another $4
-
-    So the lamb is worth $6.  It is a $4 addition that we need to try to even things
     out.  Lukas gives his dad a $2 pocketknife.  He is less $2 and his dad
     is plus $2.  The $4 difference is the split we needed to even things out.
-
-  I still have my $2 pocket knife that I paid for with my own money.  And, I still
carry the lesson learned that I need to take responsibility for my own actions.
-
-  April 6, 2019.                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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 ---------------------   Saturday, April 6, 2019  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Calculating Milky Way’s Black Hole

-  2325 -  -  Black Holes are both simple and complex.  We can calculate their mass, radius, lifetime, energy consumption using simple algebra.  At the same time, their immense gravity causes space to bend, lengths to shorten, time to slow and mass to increase. 
-
-

-
-----------------------  2325  -  Calculating Milky Way’s Black Hole
- 
-  The theory of relativity comes into play big time when you study a Black hole.  This review will make the simple calculations and you just have to realize things are more complicated than that.  It is a start in our understanding of our Universe.
-
-  Let’s start with a simple calculation for the mass of the Milky Way Galaxy.  We observe the Large Megellanic Cloud which is a smaller galaxy orbiting the Milky Way in our Local Group of galaxies.  The distance from the center of the Milky Way to the Megellanic Cloud is 160,000 lightyears.  The orbital velocity of the Cloud is 300 kilometers / second.
-
-  The Megellanic Cloud is in an elliptical orbit but we can approximate things by assuming it is a circular orbit and the circumference of the orbit is 2* pi* radius, (2pi*r).
-
-  Since we assumed the orbit to be circular we can assume the orbital speed to be constant at 300 km/sec.  Velocity = distance / time, and the time is the period of the orbit.
-
--------------------  The period of orbit  =  distance / velocity.
-
--------------------  The period of orbit  =  2*pi*radius / velocity.
-
-  Using Kepler’s and Newton’s laws of motion we know that the period of orbit squared equals the radius of orbit cubed.  ( period^2  =  radius^3).  To get this into units we measure the formula becomes:
-
----------------  period^2  =  4*pi^2 *  radius^3 / Gravitational Constant * Mass
-
---------------  4*pi^2* radius^2 / velocity^2  =  4*pi^2 *  radius^3 / Gravitational Constant * Mass
-
----------------  Mass  =  radius * velocity^2 / Gravitational Constant
-
-  Using this formula we can calculate the mass of the Milky Way, given the Gravitational Constant = 6.67 * 10^-11 meters^3/ kilogram*seconds^2:
-
----------------  Mass  =  160,000 lightyears * (300 km/sec)^2 / 6.67 * 10^-11 meters^3/ kiogram*seconds^2
-
-----------------  Mass of the Milky Way  =  2.042 *10^42 kilograms
-
----------------  The mass of the Sun = 1.9891*10^30 kilograms
-
----------------  Mass of the Milky Way = 10^12 Solar Mass
-
-  Therefore, the mass of the Milky Way could contain 1 trillion stars the size of our Sun.  1,000,000,000,000 solar mass.  Or, 1,000,000,000,000 stars.  But, how much of this mass is located in the Black Hole in the center or the Milky Way?
-
-   Only recently have we been able to see stars near the center of the Milky Way because the interstellar dust is blocking our view.  Using infrared telescopes astronomers can see stars orbiting the center of the Milky Way. 
-
-  And, over the last 20 years they have measured several orbits.  One star was in circular orbit at a radius of 20 light days traveling at 1,000 km/second.  Using this same formula we can calculate the mass of the Black Hole:
-
----------------  Mass  =  radius * velocity^2 / Gravitational Constant
-
----------------  Mass of Black Hole  =  20 lightdays * (1,000 km/sec)^2 / 6.67 * 10^-11 meters^3/ kilogram*seconds^2
-
-----------------  Mass of the Black Hole  =  7.77*10^38 kilograms
-
----------------  The mass of the Sun = 1.9891*10^30 kilograms
-
----------------  Mass of the Black Hole = 3.91*10^8 Solar Mass
-
-  The Black Hole at the center of the Milky Way has a mass of 391 million solar mass.  That hardly puts a dent in the 1,000,000 million solar mass of the galaxy.
-
-  The Black Hole at the center of the Milky Way is inactive for the most part.  It has very modest X-ray and Gamma ray emissions compared to other active galaxies.  This means that our Black Hole is not supporting a massive rotating accretion disk at this time in its evolution.
-
-   X-ray flares have been observed from time to time indicating to astronomers that material is falling into the Black Hole. 
-
-  When things fall in to a Black Hole 10% to 40% of its matter gets radiated away before it disappears beyond the Hole’s event horizon.  The faster the Hole rotates the longer the material radiates, up to 40%.  The slower the rotation, like expected with our Milky Way Black Hole the lesser the time for the material to radiate.  We will therefore use 10% mass to energy radiation for our calculations.
-
-  The apparent brightness radiation is equal to the actual luminosity / 4*pi*radius^2.  The distance to the Milky Way center is 28,000 lightyears.  Astronomers us this formula to estimate the luminosity of the flares to be 10^40 watts in power.  Watts is energy radiation per second.  And, 10% of the mass is consumed in radiation.  Therefore mass = 10 * Energy / speed of light^2.  ( M = 10*E/c^2)
-
----------------  Mass =  1.1 * 10^24 kilograms / second.
-
---------------  Mass  =  3.5 * 10^31 kilograms / year.
-
----------------  Mass  =  17 Solar Mass / year.
-
-  The Milky Way Black Hole is consuming 17 Solar Mass per year.  If it was consuming this amount over its entire life time or 10 billion years then it would have consumed 170,000,000,000 Solar Mass up to this time.  That is 170 billion stars the size of our Sun that have been consumed assuming it had a constant appetite.
-
-  Now that we have calculated the mass of the Black Hole we can easily calculate the radius of its Event Horizon.
-
-------------  Radius of Black Hole  =  2 * G * Mass / c^2
-
-------------  Radius of Black Hole  =  2 *  6.67 * 10^-11 meters^3/ kiogram*seconds^2* 7.77*10^38 kilograms / (3*10^8 m/s)^2
-
---------------  Radius of Black Hole  =  11.52 * 10^11 meters
-
---------------  One Astronomical Unit = 1.496 * 10^11 meters
-
---------------  Radius of Black Hole  =  7.7  Astronomical Units, an AU is the distance from the Earth to the Sun, about 93 million miles.  The Black Hole is only about 15 AU across.
-
-  Also with the mass of the Black Hole we can calculate the lifetime of the Black Hole:
-
-----------  Lifetime  =  10,240 * pi^2 * G^2 * Mass^3  /  h * c^4
-
-----------  Lifetime  =  1.01065 * 10^5 * (6.67 * 10^-11 meters^3 / kilogram * seconds^2 ) ^2  *  ( 7.77 * 10^38 kilograms)^3  /  (6.63 * 10^-34 kg*m^2/sec ) * (3*10^8 m/sec)^4
-
-----------  Lifetime  =  39.28*10^99 seconds
-
------------ Lifetime  =  12.45*10^92 years
-
-  Not to worry, this Black Hole in the middle of our galaxy is going to live for a long time.
-
-  So, with simple algebra we calculated the mass, radius, energy consumption, and lifetime of the Black Hole at the center of our galaxy.  Our lifetimes are but a blink when you look at the big picture. 
-
-  March 24, 2019.                     855
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   Sunday, March 24, 2019  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ASTERIOID - Bennu and Ryugu

-  2323   -  See Reviews 2226 about the Ryugu asteroid mission and Review 2203 about the Bennu mission.  Review 2044 is about asteroid Oumaumau and its appendix lists 11 more reviews about asteroids in general.  This Review focuses on the early results of their asteroid encounters, as of March, 2019.
-
-

-  Asteroid Ryugu 
-
--
---------------------- 2323  -  ASTERIOID  -  Bennu and Ryugu             -
- 
-  A NASA spacecraft that will return a sample of a near-Earth asteroid named Bennu to Earth in 2023 made the first-ever close-up observations of particle plumes erupting from an asteroid’s surface.
-
-   Asteroid Bennu also revealed itself to be more rugged than expected, challenging the mission team to alter its flight and sample collection plans, due to the rough terrain.
-
-  This OSIRIS-REx mission began orbiting the asteroid on Dec. 31, 2018. Bennu, which is only slightly wider than the height of the Empire State Building, may contain unaltered material from the very beginning of our solar system., over 4,500,000,000 years old.
-
-  The discovery of plumes is one of the biggest surprises. And , the rugged terrain went against all earlier predictions of what astronomers expected to find. 
-
-  Shortly after the discovery of the particle plumes on Jan. 6, 2019.  Increasing the frequency of observations subsequently detected additional particle plumes during the following two months. Although many of the particles were ejected clear of Bennu, the team tracked some particles that orbited Bennu as satellites before returning to the asteroid’s surface.
-
-   Bennu is the smallest body ever orbited by spacecraft. Studying Bennu will allow researchers to learn more about the origins of our solar system, the sources of water and organic molecules on Earth, the resources in near-Earth space, as well as improve our understanding of asteroids that could impact Earth.
-
-  The team didn’t anticipate the number and size of boulders on Bennu’s surface. From Earth-based observations, the team expected a generally smooth surface with a few large boulders. Instead, it discovered Bennu’s entire surface is rough and dense with boulders.
-
-  The higher-than-expected density of boulders meannt that the mission’s plans for sample collection had to be adjusted. The original mission design was based on a sample site that is hazard-free, with an 82-foot radius. However, because of the unexpectedly rugged terrain, the team hasn’t been able to identify a site of that size on Bennu. Instead, it has begun to identify candidate sites that are much smaller in radius.
-
-  The smaller sample site footprint and the greater number of boulders will demand more accurate performance from the spacecraft during its descent to the surface than originally planned.
-
-  The original, low-boulder estimate was derived both from Earth-based observations of Bennu’s thermal inertia, or its ability to conduct and store heat, and from radar measurements of its surface roughness.
-
-   Now that they have revealed Bennu’s surface up close, those expectations of a smoother surface have been proven wrong. This suggests the computer models used to interpret previous data do not adequately predict the nature of small, rocky, asteroid surfaces. The team is revising these models with the data from Bennu.
-
-  The team has directly observed a change in the spin rate of Bennu as a result of what is known as the YORP effect. The uneven heating and cooling of Bennu as it rotates in sunlight is causing the asteroid to increase its rotation speed. As a result, Bennu's rotation period is decreasing by about one second every 100 years.
-
-  Separately, two of the spacecraft’s instruments have made detections of magnetite on Bennu’s surface.  This bolsters earlier findings indicating the interaction of rock with liquid water.
-
-  There is another mission visiting another asteroid at the same time.  The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency’s Hayabusa 2 is in orbit around Asteroid Ryugu. The Japanese team is a bit ahead of their American counterparts, having arrived roughly six months earlier.
-
-   Upon approach, the team found the same kind of unexpectedly rough terrain that NASA ultimately found at Bennu.   Ryugu is peppered by boulders and rocks several meters in diameter, which threaten the spacecraft as it retrieves samples from the surface.
-
-  Hayabusa 2 has successfully deployed three landers that floated to the asteroid’s surface, snapping pictures along the way. The mothership has also already completed one of the three expected touchdown maneuvers.
-
-  During these touchdowns, the spacecraft extends a sample retrieval mechanism, which looks like a 1-meter-long limb that ends in a canister for gathering samples. When the canister is close enough to the surface, a special mechanism within the limb shoots a pinball-sized bullet to the asteroid’s surface, stirring the regolith in the hopes that some of the surface material will end up inside the canister.
-
-   However, there is no way to know for sure how much they obtained, since the spacecraft has no mechanism to weigh or estimate what’s inside the sample chamber.
-
-  Ryugu and Bennu are so similar in appearance, it’s hard to tell them apart in images. Both have been called “rubble-pile asteroids,” collections of a variety of different-sized debris held together by gravity.
-
-  Their low densities imply their interiors are full of hollow spaces, like Swiss cheese. These objects probably came together out of the pieces left over from larger asteroids, which may have come apart during impacts in the early solar system.
-
-  Both objects are shaped like spinning tops, as their rapid rotation causes a ridge to form along the equator. But while Bennu’s rotation is accelerating, Ryugu appears to have slowed down, and it’s unclear why.
-
-  Ryugu’s current rotation period is 7.6 hours, but researchers estimate that at some point in its past, it must have rotated more quickly, with a period shorter than 3.5 hours, in order to acquire its current shape.
-
-  Ryugu is about 900 meters (or about half a mile) wide.
-
-  There is a big difference in age between the two asteroids.  . While Bennu is ancient, with an estimated age ranging from 100 million to 1 billion years, Ryugu appears to be much younger, less than 100 million years old.
-
-  Ryugu is also darker than Bennu, reflecting on average half the light that that Bennu does. With a reflectivity, or albedo, of 2%, it’s one of the darkest objects known in the solar system.
-
-  Another unexpected difference is in the amount of water that researchers have found on the two asteroids. While there are hydrated minerals on both objects, Ryugu appears to be much dryer than researchers expected, which suggests that its parent body didn’t have much water either.
-
-  This is in contrast with Bennu, which has more abundant hydroxyls. These molecules contain hydrogen and oxygen atoms bonded together and are probably associated with clay minerals, hinting at past interactions with water.
-
-  Unraveling why the two asteroids have different water content will be important for understanding how Earth obtained its water. Solar system formation models often assume that most of the water found on Earth today arrived onboard meteorites and comets both from the asteroid belt and from the outer rims of the solar system. The existence of dry asteroids in Earth’s neighborhood could mean that these models need to be adjusted.
-
-  The next step for the Hayabusa 2 mission doesn’t sound very high-tech but it’ll be spectacular. On April 5th, just 2 weeks from now,  the spacecraft will fire a 5.5-pound projectile at Ryugu In order to create an artificial crater on its surface. The blast aims to make a hole at least 10 meters wide and 1 meter deep.
-
-  With this maneuver, the team expects to learn more about how asteroids react to impacts, which will help scientists better understand Ryugu’s history and evolution.
-
-  Information about the impact might also come in handy in case one of these things ever comes too close to Earth, and we have to blast it out of the way.
-
-  Creating the crater will also enable researchers to peek at what lies below the surface. Two weeks after shooting the cannon, Hayabusa 2 will attempt a second sampling maneuver, aiming for the bottom of the crater.
-
-  Then, in November or December this year, 2019,  the spacecraft will start its one-year return trip to Earth.  Let’s hope for happy landings.  And I hope I can report more results in the future, stay tuned, there is still more to learn. 
-
-  March 23, 2019                                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 --------------------------   Saturday, March 23, 2019  --------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Entropy and Evolution

-  2321 -  Entropy is the 2nd law of thermodynamics.  It is the law that prevents us from building a perpetual motion machine.  The law states that everything in the Universe tends to move in the direction of disorder, not the other way, unless you add energy to the system.
-
-

-
-------------------------------- 2321   -  Entropy and Evolution
-
-  The Universe is expanding , creating more disorder (random separation of matter) as it moves.  In fact, the expansion of the Universe is accelerating, creating more disorder ever faster.  This expansion eventually pulls all matter and all particles apart having less and less probability of getting together again to recreate order.
-
-  Eventually (using the word in its broadest sense) all matter is gone and the Universe is only energy again.  So, the Universe becomes empty, just a vacuum of ever expanding energy. And it ends empty, just expanding energy.
-
-  Until God snaps his fingers and two such expanding Universes collide causing a tremendous explosion.  Energy so concentrated in this big bang that it exceeds 900,000,000,000 kilograms per square meter per second squared and mass is again created according to the ratio mass = Energy / (speed-of-light)^2.
-
-------------------------------------        E=mc^2
-
-    Mass collides with itself inside this explosion and new matter is created.   First, the fundamental particles, quarks and electrons, held together by a single force.  Then, as the expansion of the big bang continues the new Universe cools to the degree that the force of gravity is frozen out of the inferno, later comes the strong force, then the weak force, and lastly the electromagnetic force.
-
-  As the new forces interact with matter the fundamental particles begin to recombine.  Quarks combine to form protons, then protons combine with electrons to form neutral hydrogen.  When this happens the neutral hydrogen atmosphere at the edges of the Big Bang release electromagnetic energy and for the first time photons escape and high energy gamma rays burst into the void.
-
-   Today we can still see these same gamma rays that have cooled down to 2.7 degrees Kelvin, 2.4 Ghz of microwave background radiation that baths our Earth from all directions.
-
-  The Greeks were the first to record their scientific perception of the “reality” they observed in the Universe.  They came up with the concept that if you continually divided matter into smaller and smaller parts you would eventually get to an elementary particle that was indivisible. It is these smallest particles that make up the entire Universe.  The Greeks called this indivisible element, the atom.
-
-  When the elements of the periodic table where first discovered scientists thought that the molecules and atoms of these elements were the indivisible elements the Greeks had predicted.  Later it was discovered that heat and chemical reactions could separate the electrons from their nucleus.  The negative electron and the positive proton became the next indivisible elements.
-
-   When science began to understand the isotopes of the elements they discovered the neutron to also be part of the nucleus of atoms.  Now we had only three indivisible elements, electrons, protons, and neutrons.
-
-  The nucleus of positive protons are bound together by the Strong Force and it takes a great deal of energy to divide a nucleus.  The tool physicists use to split a nucleus is the particle accelerator.  Like shooting a particle from a canon they fire at the target nucleus to see what gets blown apart. 
-
-  What they found were a bunch of new particles.  These particles were too small to see however physicists were using cloud chambers and photographic films to see the tracks that the charged particles left in their wake.  This is much like looking at a contrail of a high flying jet.  The jet may be too far away to be seen but the giant plum of white water vapor makes its trail clearly visible.
-
-  Physicists studied the vapor trails of the exploding particles that make up the atom’s nucleus.  Quarks, electrons, muons and neutrinos were discovered and each was defined for its mass, velocity, energy, polarity, spin and direction.  The list totaled 12 fundamental particles and four fundamental force carriers. 
-
-  Were these the indivisible elements the Greeks had predicted?
-
-  Most of these particles have very short life times.  Some have very long lifetimes.  Nature apparently allows localized areas to evolve with a certain combination of elements.  There are 92 elements that occur naturally on Earth from these long lived fundamental particles.
-
-    Everything on Earth, all life, our own bodies are made up of these some of these 92 elements (240 elements if you count the isotopes of these 92).  Nature has her own particle accelerator.  It comes in the form of cosmic rays that constantly bombard the Earth.  These cosmic rays can also have the effect of dividing the elements and atoms into their fundamental particles.
-
-  Throughout our lives these cosmic rays, high energy protons and helium nuclei, bombard our bodies and cause mutations in our DNA.  Some mutations are good.  They correspond to the heredity that formed when the X and Y chromosomes with their mutations combined when your mother and father conceived you in your mother’s womb.
-
-  Heredity could give you fast-twitch muscles that allow you to run the 100 meter dash in record time.  Or, slow twitch muscles that allow you to have the endurance to win the marathon race. Or, blue eyes.  Or, olive complexion.  These are all characteristics of heredity and mutations handed down in the DNA from generation to generation.
-
-  Good mutations win out in evolution because by definition good mutations are those that help us survive to pass them on.  Bad mutations loose out because by definition they handicap survival and tend to disappear on their own account.
-
-  From the time we are born our life exists as long as our bodies have the ability to grow and repair themselves.  Eventually, the bombardments win out and the body deteriorates to the point it can no longer continue the repair process. 
-
-  This too is entropy - matter continues towards disorder and disintegration.  Eventually, everything gets reduced to pure energy.
-
-  My corollary for entropy-to-live-by is that things naturally and eventually always get worse.  You have only so many heartbeats in your lifetime.  When you get to the last one you’re done.
-
-  So, enjoy the good times when you can find them and find as many as you can.  Entropy will eventually win no matter what you do.  Words to live by.
-
-  Other Reviews available about Entropy:
-
-  1917  -  How entropy controls the fate of the Universe.
-
-  1914  - Entropy is the arrow of time.  Thermodynamics and the fate of the universe.     Was 964.
-
-  770  -   Too much information. 
-
-  March 22, 2019                 530                       
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 --------------------------   Friday, March 22, 2019  --------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Natural World versus the Quantum World?

-  2320   -   All the laws of physics that we discover and all the natural constants that we encounter are so precisely tuned and, somehow, ideally suited for life on Earth.  The probability of all this happening on Earth by mere chance is totally beyond reason.  The Natural World versus the Quantum World?
-
-

-
---------------------- 2320   -  Welcome to the Natural World
-
-  The last review 2319 was entitled “ Welcome to the Quantum World”.  It was about the small stuff at the atomic level that you can’t see. Let me know if you missed a copy.  This review addresses the Natural World, I will call the Universe, the big stuff that you also can’t see.
-
-  Of course, the Quantum World is what the Natural World is made of.  It is just the part we observe that you can see.  When we observe the Universe it seems to be too fine tuned to be a statistical accident.
-
-   All the laws of physics that we discover and all the natural constants that we encounter are so precisely tuned and, somehow, ideally suited for life on Earth.  The probability of all this happening on Earth by mere chance is totally beyond reason.
-
-  The four fundamental forces, electromagnetism, gravity, strong and weak nuclear forces control every object in the Universe.  These forces control every atom in your body and they are somehow precisely tuned for life.  Even the slightest change to the farthest decimal point of these force attributes would render the Universe lifeless.  Yet, here we are?
-
-  Not only are all the laws of physics so precisely tuned they are enormously complex and simple at the same time.  To calculate the probability of a single DNA molecule forming spontaneously is so small as to be mathematically impossible.  Then, somehow, you have all the DNA molecules in the human body all working together in a miraculous system to create life and consciousness.
-
-  In order to supply the proper number of chromosomes to an offspring, each parent’s reproductive cells under go a remarkable process called “ meioses”  Meioses leaves the cells of each parent left with half the usual number.  This process prevents the offspring from having too many chromosomes.
-
-   Normal body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes ( 46 total).   Meioses in egg cells and sperm produce single sets of chromosomes instead of the pairs.  During fertilization an egg unites with a sperm to form a single cell again in the fertilized egg with the correct number of chromosomes.
-
-  This same process is occurring in all the species.  How did the first mother and the first father get the right number of chromosomes in their reproductive cells to begin with?  If the process happened gradually through evolution, how did the species survive while these vital features were only partially formed?  The chance that this reproductive interdependence could arise in one species after another throughout all the diversity of like defies reasonable explanations.
-
-  If evolution proceeded over eons of time we should be able to find intermediate links between the major types of living species.  After countless fossil finds the missing links are still missing. 
-
-  Whenever any basically different type of life first appeared on Earth, it was complete with organs, structure and fully functioning.  Animals and plants continue to reproduce after their kind.  The in between forms have never been found.  This is true for all the species not just humans, although we are still looking for the right monkey that will fill this gap.
-
-  Richard Philips Feynman, renowned physicist, told a graduating class at the California Institute of Technology that scientists need a specific, extra type of integrity.  It required bending over backwards to show how maybe you are wrong.   It is your responsibility to have this level of modesty, humility and integrity.
-
-  The more we learn about the complexity and order for the Universe the more we are awed by its design.  Somehow there is an intelligent design evident in nearly everything we observe in the natural world. 
-
-  Science cannot establish proper morals and values.  There are no equations for these things.  Evolution is but a struggle for survival how can it explain the human qualities needed for a moral, good life?
-
-   Human knowledge will forever remain limited.  But, we must continue to pursue the truth and be bending over backwards to show that truth is wrong, or that it can be improved. 
-
-  The ancient Greeks at the time of Homer, Hesiod, and Thales, 585 B.C., saw the natural “ world as something ordered and intelligible, its history following an explicable course and its different parts arranged in some comprehensible system.”
-
-  There is always simply something more behind the complexity of the grand design.  The journey of life is to keep trying to find truth but not to expect enlightenment without a great deal of faith.  Science is constantly searching for simplicity. 
-
-  The Egyptian astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy in 150 A.D. held that nature, under its complexity and astonishing diversity, hides an order that can be articulated in terms of simple elements and their interactions. 
-
-  The most incomprehensible thing about the universe is that we are here trying to comprehend it.  If you are not totally confused by this you obviously do not understand the problem.  We have had 2,500 years of scientists working on this and they are still confused.  Enlightenment is a long process.  We have much more to learn.  If you are not confused you do not understand the problem.
-
-  Other Reviews available;
-
-  1110 -  What is the smallest life possible?
-
-  1846 -  Nanotechnology from chemistry to biology.
-
-  664  -  Nanotechnology today.
-
-  574   -  Engineering using the science of quantum mechanics.
-
-  March 21, 2019                 68                         
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 --------------------------   Friday, March 22, 2019  --------------------------
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QUANTUM - Welcome to the Quantum World

-  2319   -  The Declaration of Independence reads more like a mathematical theorem than a political document.  It attempts to define truth, rights, and reality.  The fundamental goal of science is also to define reality.  The heart of science and mathematics is shrewd honesty that springs from really wanting to know what the hell is going on.
-
-

-
---------------------- 2319  -  QUANTUM -  Welcome to the Quantum World
-
-  Newton came up with only three laws to explain what was going on.  He explained how all motion in the universe works:
-
-----------------------  (1)  The law of inertia, objects in motion tend to stay in motion.
-
-----------------------  (2)  Force is equal to the mass times its acceleration,  F = ma
-
----------------------   (3)  Action equals reaction
-
----------------------  (4)  Gravity force equals the product of masses divided by the square of the distance between them,   F = G*M*m/r^2
-
-  Einstein changed the rules to explain what was going on.  He determined that only relative motion applied to Newton’s basic laws.  He said that there was no physical means by which one can observe a body’s absolute motion through space.
-
-   Einstein chose the math that would describe space and time so that changes in space cancel changes in time and they would both appear the same to everyone.  To do this he declared that gravity was not a force at all, but, a curvature in space-time, and, that the speed of light was a constant, the same for all observers.
-
-----------------------    There are only two laws to explain thermodynamics:
-
-----------------------  (1)   Conversation of Energy
-
-----------------------  (2)   Entropy, limits the utilization of energy (and information)
-
-  Maxwell had only four laws to describe electricity and magnetism, later extended to apply to light and the electromagnetic force.
-
-----------------------  (1) Electric force = Charge * Field strength, F = qE = k*q1*q2/r^2
-
-----------------------                     E = dB/dt
-
-----------------------  (2) Magnetic force = q * velocity * Field strength, F = qvB with charge moving at right angles to the magnetic field,
-
---------------------                           H = J + dE/dt
-
-------------------  (3)  Electric current causes magnetic fields,          E = rho E
-
-------------------  (4)  There is no isolated magnetic pole, divergence,        B = 0
-
-  These are all simple mathematical formulas.  Math seems to be unreasonably effective in describing the natural reality that we live in.  The real business of science is matching mathematics to measurement attempting to  understand the reality of our world.
-
-  The emergence of unexpected knowledge forces us to develop new theories and laws to describe things as they really are.  But, it is dangerous to extend theories beyond the range of our experiments that verify them.  There is no “reality’ in the absence of observation.

-  Enter the quantum world:  An electron, it seems, simply does not have any parts.  It is a fundamental particle in the make up of the universe.  Electrons evidently behave like waves no matter how much you dilute them.
-
-  In contrast, water waves depend on many molecules of water collectively in order to behave like a wave.  Electrons behave like a wave as a single particle.  Waves do not follow ordinary arithmetic because waves can amplify and interfere with each other. -
-
-   Waves of equal amplitude can come together and combine to produce an amplitude anywhere between zero and twice the amplitude of a single wave.  It all depends on the relative phase of each wave as they develop their interference pattern.
-
-   The energy of the wave is proportional to the amplitude squared.  For the electron the quantum wave amplitude squared is the same as the “probability“.  Energy is conserved only with the random superposition of waves.  Waves that are not random can produce energies from zero to twice their original value. 
-
-  Ordinary waves added with definite phases do not conserve energy (amplitude squared).  Waves create local regions of energy surplus and energy deficits.  When waves are randomized energy is conserved everywhere.  In the same way quantum waves added with definite phase do not conserve probability everywhere.
- 
-  The Fourier theorem states that any wave can be produced from a unique sum of individual sine waves.  The little cochlea coil in your ear acts as a biological Fourier analyzer.  Each location along the coil responds to a specific sine wave frequency.  It is the reason why music is universally pleasing to the human ear.
-
------------------------  Each attribute of an electron has a particular waveform:
-
------------------------  Position  -  impulse wave
-
-----------------------  Momentum  -  spatial sine wave
-
-----------------------  Energy    -  temporal sine wave
-
-----------------------  Spin magnitude  -  spherical harmonic wave
-
-----------------------  Spin orientation  -  spherical harmonic wave
-
-  The amplitude of the quantum wave is “possibility“.  The square of possibility is probability and probability is a measure of the relative number of ways a particular event is likely to happen. 
-
-  When tested with experiment this theory matches the facts of observation, no exceptions.  It has passed every test human ingenuity has devised down to the last decimal point.
-
-  The electron’s realm of position possibilities is simply the size of the atom, 40 billionths of a centimeter.  The nucleus is 200,000 times smaller and contains 99.9 % of the atom’s mass.
-
-   If the nucleus were the size of our Sun, the hydrogen atom ( in its ground state ) would be 20 times larger than our solar system.
-
-   Considered as a wave, the electron fills the atom brim to brim.  The wave is the realm of possibilities.  When you push your hand against the wall, it is the atom’s  possibility wave that is pushing back at you. 
-
-  The atom itself is mostly empty space and the electron is too small to stop your hand.  Possibility waves are pretty strong, huh?  We as observers express actualities in a classical language while the unmeasured quantum world is represented as a superposition of possibility waves.
-
-  Light travels one foot in a billionth of a second, a distance bigger than a billion atoms.  A single light photon from a distant star can vary from a few feet in diameter to an area the size of Texas. 
-
-  Physicists can determine the width of a photon wave by putting parabolic mirrors on railroad boxcars, focusing the light beam into an interferometer to get an interference pattern, and moving the mirrors farther apart.  At the wave boundary the pattern will disappear. 
-
-  Betelgeuse, for example, shines a beam on Earth that is 10 feet in diameter.  The Betelgeuse light photon is about the size of your hot tube when it reaches the surface of the Earth.  This beam left Betelgeuse 520 years ago.  The 10 feet is how far the photon drifted out of the beam during this 520 year transit time. 
-
-  Using Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle a small spread sidewise in momentum requires a compensating large spread in sideways position.  This is why the photon is 10 feet wide when it gets here.  However, if you go to detect or measure that photon it reveals itself as a point particle, with zero radius.  The photon wave collapses to a point.
-
-  In contrast, the Sun’s photon wave is a small fraction of a millimeter.  And, the photon wave of some very distant stars are considerably wider than the Australian continent.
-
-  Somehow in the quantum world the photon is a wave but when it is detected, measured by your eye or another instrument, enters the classical world only as a point particle with no known radius.  The quantum world seems objective but objectless.
-
-  No matter what the circumstances, the photon, or any quantum atomic particle, has a realm of possibilities at least equal to Planck’s constant of action.
-
--------------------  Planck’s constant of action  =  h  =  6.625 * 10^-34 kg*m^2/second
-
--------------------  Momentum  =  h * spatial frequency
-
--------------------  Energy  =  h * frequency   =  h / wavelength
-
--------------------  Spin  =  h  *  number of modal circles in the spherical harmonic wave
-
-  Action in physics is energy times time.  One erg-second is the amount of action in a blink of an eye. One erg  =  10^-7 Kg*m^2/sec^2
-
 ---------------------  Planck’s constant  =  h  =  6.625 * 10^-27 erg-seconds.
-             
-  The essence of local interaction is direct contact.  “Local forces” are mediated by the exchange of particles:
-
-----------------------------  Force  -----------------------  Force Carrier
---------------------------   -------------                            ----------------
-
---------------------------  Gravity graviton  ( yet to be detected )
-
---------------------------  Electromagnetic Force photon
-
---------------------------  Strong Force             gluon
-
---------------------------  Weak Force weak boson
-
-  However, if a quantum wave phase is connected then it stays connected and becomes
 “ non-local”.  There remains a mechanism of instant connectedness where a single waveform is joined in a manner that is unmediated, unmitigated, and immediate (faster that the speed of light).
-
-  Known as Bell’s theorem of non-locality after CERN physicist John Stewart Bell.  It has been demonstrated using polarized photons and spinning electrons and has yet to see contradictory evidence.
-
-  It is as if a bit of each particle’s phase is being lodged in the other.  Each quantum particle leaves some of its phase in the other’s care, and this phase exchange connects them forever regardless how remotely separated they become.
-
-  The concept is called entanglement.  For example, if you were a baseball pitcher pitching matched pairs of photons, meaning your light source was phase-entangled in a state of parallel polarization, one photon went to home plate and the other photon to second base.  Batters at both positions would hold their bats at any particular angle.  No matter where they put their bats a hit at home plate was a hit at second base.  A miss was a miss. 
-
-  This entangled phase occurs no matter how far you separate second base and home plate.  You can put second base on Betelgeuse and wait a year later and the result will be both polarizations of the photons remain identical, both are hits, or both are misses.
-
- The quantum world is non-local and the exchange of information is immediate, which means the information between the particles travels faster than the speed of light.
-
-  How is this possible?  Consider this, to a physicist all matter, physical systems, is a computer.  Every electron, photon, atomic particle, stores bits of data.  When particles interact information content is exchanged and linked.  Like the conservation of energy, quantum mechanics conserves information.
-
-  Entropy is proportional to the number of bits registered by the positions and the velocities of the individual particles (called qubits).  A liter of matter (1 kilogram) can theoretically perform 10^51 operations per second, 10^31 bits of information can flip 10^20 times per second.  Compare this to today’s computer that flips 10^9 times per second, stores 10^12 bits of information using a single processor.
-
-  This quantum world’s supraliminal underpinnings is almost completely concealed.  The real world is in truth bound together everywhere by faster-than-light connections.
-
-   Even in the midst of this quantum supraliminal reality, no quantum measurement result can be connected in the classical world faster than light.  These classical measurements are the only means we have to make contact with reality. 
-
-  The very atoms of our bodies are woven out of a common supraliminal fabric.  It is not necessary to believe in the supernatural for miracles, the natural is miraculous enough.
-
-  March 21, 2019                 67                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 --------------------------   Thursday, March 21, 2019  --------------------------
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Getting hydrogen fuel from San Francisco Bay ?

-  2316  -  -  Researchers have devised a way to generate hydrogen fuel using solar power, electrodes and saltwater from San Francisco Bay.  They have demonstrated a new way of separating hydrogen and oxygen gas from seawater via electricity. Existing water-splitting methods rely on “very highly purified” water, which is a precious resource and costly to produce.
-
-

-
---------------------- 2316  -  Getting hydrogen fuel from San Francisco Bay ?
-
-  Theoretically, to power cities and cars, you need so much hydrogen it is not conceivable to use purified water.  We barely have enough water for our current needs in California.
-
-  Hydrogen is an appealing option for fuel because it doesn't emit carbon dioxide. Burning hydrogen produces only more water and should ease worsening climate change problems.
-
-  As a concept, splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen with electricity, called electrolysis, is a simple and old idea.  All you need is a power source connected to two electrodes placed in water. When power turns on, hydrogen gas bubbles out of the negative cathode and breathable oxygen emerges at the positive anode.
-
-  Most High School chemistry labs have set up this same experiment and seen it working. 
-
-  But negatively charged chloride in seawater salt can corrode the positive end, limiting the system's lifespan. Researchers needed to find a way to stop those seawater components from breaking down the submerged anodes.
-
-  The researchers discovered that if they coated the anode with layers that were rich in negative charges, the layers repelled chloride and slowed down the decay of the underlying metal.
-
-  They layered nickel-iron hydroxide on top of nickel sulfide, which covers a nickel foam core. The nickel foam acts as a conductor transporting electricity from the power source and the nickel-iron hydroxide sparks the electrolysis, separating water into oxygen and hydrogen.
-
-   During electrolysis, the nickel sulfide evolves into a negatively charged layer that protects the anode. Just as the negative ends of two magnets push against one another, the negatively charged layer repels chloride and prevents it from reaching the core metal.
-
-  Without the negatively charged coating, the anode only works for around 12 hours in seawater.  The whole electrode falls apart into a crumble.  But with this layer, it is able to go more than a thousand hours.
-
-  Previous studies attempting to split seawater for hydrogen fuel had run low amounts of electric current, because so much corrosion occurs at higher currents. But researchers were able to conduct up to 10 times more electricity through their multi-layer device, which helps it generate hydrogen from seawater at a faster rate.
-
-  Another research group has also discovered a catalyst that minimizes the production of chlorine gas during salt water electrolysis.

-  In the electrolysis of salt water, such as seawater, the ultimate goal is to produce hydrogen at the cathode.  The product formed at the anode is ideally oxygen, because that is harmless to the environment.
-
-  However, during salt water electrolysis toxic chlorine gas can also form at the anode. The researchers have now produced a catalyst that minimizes the formation of chlorine gas in favor of oxygen formation.
-
-  The catalyst consists of two metal oxides of iridium oxide with a layer of manganese oxide only a dozen nanometers thick. Iridium is a material that exhibits high catalytic activity for the formation of both oxygen gas and chlorine gas.  The manganese oxide acts as a kind of membrane that prevents the supply of chloride ions and suppresses the formation of chlorine gas."
-
-  The electrolysis of water is an important step for the production and use of hydrogen as an alternative energy carrier. An anode that counteracts the formation of chlorine gas enables water electrolysis where it is not necessary to first rid the water of dissolved salt, the process of which still costs significant amounts of energy and capital. It allows the direct production of hydrogen from seawater.
-
-  A useful side effect of salt water electrolysis is the production of very pure fresh water. If the extracted hydrogen gas is ultimately used as fuel, for example in a fuel cell of a car, the hydrogen reacts back to water with oxygen gas from the atmosphere.
-
-   That way, the large-scale application of water electrolysis and hydrogen in fuel cells will lead to large quantities of this 'waste product' being pure water.
-
-  Most of their tests were in controlled laboratory conditions, where they could regulate the amount of electricity entering the system. But they also designed a solar-powered demonstration machine that produced hydrogen and oxygen gas from seawater collected from San Francisco Bay.
-
-  Without the risk of corrosion from salts, their device matched current technologies that use purified water.   Electrolysis using seawater will open doors for increasing the availability of hydrogen fuel powered by solar or wind energy.
-
-  The technology could be used for purposes beyond generating energy. Since the process also produces breathable oxygen, divers or submarines could bring devices into the ocean and generate oxygen down below without having to surface for air.
-
-  Other Reviews:
-
-  1477  -  Hydrogen to fuel cars?  Today we use plant technology to produce our Oxygen from water.  Hydrogen produces 2.5 times more energy per pound than gasoline.
-
-  528  -  The hydrogen economy will take awhile, written in 2004.  Hydrogen is the simplest and most common element in the Universe.  However on Earth is is locked up in other elements , like water H2O
-
-  509  -  Cures for Global Warming may be hydrogen fuel. 
-
-  March 18, 2019                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 --------------------------   Wednesday, March 20, 2019  --------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ATOM - how was it discovered?

-  2315  -  How was the atom discovered,  This review covers the first 100 years of discovery that started in 1808.  John Dalton conclusively argued for the existence of the indivisible atom, and at the same time as Einstein was provided a way to directly measure those atoms, Thomson and Rutherford discovered that the atom wasn't indivisible at all. Instead, it was made of even tinier bits.
-
-

-
---------------------- 2315  -  ATOM  -  how was it discovered?
-
-  In 1808, chemist John Dalton developed a very persuasive argument that led to an amazing realization: Perhaps all matter is made of tiny, little bits. Fundamental bits. indivisible atomic bits.
-
-  The concept had been floating around off and on for a few millennia. Ancient cultures were certainly aware of of the general idea that matter was composed of more fundamental elements and they knew that these elements combined in interesting to make complex things.
-
-  The question persisted: If I isolated a single element and chopped it in half, then chopped those halves in half, and so on and so on, would I eventually find a smallest possible bit of element that I could no longer chop? Or would it go on for infinity?
-
-  After years of careful examination, Dalton found a surprising relationship among the elements. Sometimes, two elements can combine to form various compounds in multiple ways with different ratios, like tin and oxygen can do. But the proportions of each element in the various combinations always reduced to very small numbers.  If matter was infinitely divisible, with no smallest possible bit, then any proportion ought to be allowed.
-
-  Instead, he found that a certain amount of one element might combine with an equal amount of another element. Or with twice or three times the other element. Dalton found only simple proportions, everywhere, in all cases. If matter was ultimately indivisible, if it was made of atoms, then only simple proportions and ratios would be allowed when combining elements.
-
-  A hundred years later, this "atomic" theory of matter didn't seem completely nonsensical. One of the most challenging things about it, however, was that if atoms really existed, they were way, way too small to see. How could you prove the existence of something you couldn't directly observe?
-
-  One clue to the existence of atoms came from the newly established studies of thermodynamics. In order to understand how heat engines worked physicists realized that they could view gases and fluids as if they were composed of a nearly numberless quantity of tiny, even microscopic, particles.
-
-  For example, "temperature" really measures the average motion of all those gas particles hitting your thermometer, transferring their energy to it.
-
-  Albert Einstein was a big fan of these kinds of physics. Just like all the other physics that he became a fan of, Einstein revolutionized them.
-
-  He was interested in the problem of Brownian motion, first described way back in 1827 by Robert Brown. If you drop a large grain inside a fluid, the object tends to wiggle and jump around completely on its own. And after a few carefully executed experiments, Brown realized that this has nothing to do with air or fluid currents.
-
-  Brownian motion was just one of those random unexplained facts of life, but Einstein saw in that a clue. By treating the fluid as something composed of atoms, he was able to derive a formula for how much the innumerable collisions from the fluid particles would nudge that grain around.
-
-  And,  by putting this connection on solid mathematical ground, he was able to provide a pathway for going from something you can see , how much the grain moves around in a given amount of time, to something you can't ,the mass of the particles of the fluid.
-
-  In other words, Einstein gave us a way to weigh an atom.
-
-  Operating in parallel with Einstein was a wonderfully gifted experimentalist by the name of J.J. Thomson. In the late 1800s, he become enraptured with ghostly beams of light known as cathode rays. If you stick a couple electrodes inside a glass tube, suck all the air out of the tube, then crank up the voltage on the electrodes, you get an effervescent glow that appears to emanate from one of the electrodes, the cathode, hence, cathode rays.
-
-  This phenomenon raised questions for physicists. What made the glow? How were charges linked to the concept of electricity connected to that glow? 
-
-  The cathode ray would bend under the influence of both electric and magnetic fields. That meant that the glow was connected to the charges themselves. The light was somehow separate from the charges, then it would sail straight on through, regardless of the field interference. And it also meant that cathode rays were made of the same stuff as electricity.
-
-  By comparing the amount of ray deflection in the electric fields versus in the magnetic fields, Thomson could derive some math and work out some properties of these charges. These "corpuscles" were about 2,000 times smaller than hydrogen, the lightest known element and therefore the smallest atom. These were "electrons".
-
-  It was up to the next generation of scientists to settle the puzzles raised by Thomson's results. How can something be smaller than an atom, and what does that mean for the structure of atoms themselves?
-
-  It was Thomson's own former student Ernest Rutherford, together with his own students Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, who decided to shoot things at gold to see what would happen.
-
-  These scientists chose gold because they could make very thin sheets of the material, so they could rest assured that they were probing atomic physics. And they shot very tiny bullets: alpha particles, which are charged atomic nuclei of helium.
-
-  Most of the ‘alpha particles” sailed on through the gold as if it were tissue paper. But every once in a while, the particles would careen off in a random direction. And once in a great while (about 1 out of every 20,000 shots,  counted manually, an alpha particle ricocheted off the gold, slammed straight back the way it had come.
-
-  What were these little particles telling us about gold atoms? The only explanation that made sense, the researchers concluded, was that the vast majority of the mass of the atom was concentrated in a very small volume. And this "nucleus" must be positively charged.
-
-  Since the total charge of the atom had to be neutral, then the electrons must be very, very tiny and orbiting around that nucleus in a loose cloud.
-
-  So, when the alpha particles blasted through, they almost always encountered just plain empty space. But a severely unlucky particle might glance off, or hit head-on,   the nucleus, dramatically altering the particle's trajectory.
-
-  Thus, almost a hundred years after Dalton conclusively argued for the existence of the indivisible atom, and at the same time as Einstein was providing a way to directly measure those atoms, Thomson and Rutherford discovered that the atom wasn't indivisible at all. Instead, it was made of even tinier bits.
-
-  So, at the same time we solidified atomic theory, we got our first taste of the subatomic world. From there, it got a lot messier.  Stay tune, there is still a lot more to learn.
-
-  March 19, 2019                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 --------------------------   Tuesday, March 19, 2019  --------------------------
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Asteroid hit us on December 18, 2018

-  2314  -  On December 18,  2018, an asteroid barreled through the atmosphere at a speed of 72,000 miles per hour , on a steep trajectory of seven degrees.  Measuring several meters in size, the space rock exploded 16 miles above the Earth's surface, with an impact energy of 173 kilotons.
-
-

-
---------------------- 2314  -  Asteroid hit us on December 18,  2018
-
-  The asteroid blast was the second largest of its kind in 30 years, and the biggest since the fireball over Chelyabinsk in Russia six years ago.
-
-  But, it went largely unnoticed until now because it blew up over the Bering Sea, off Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.
-
-  This space rock exploded with 10 times the energy released by the Hiroshima atomic bomb.  A fireball this big is only expected about two or three times every 100 years.
-
-  At about noon local time on  December 18, the asteroid sped through our atmosphere at a speed of 72,000 miles per hour , on a steep trajectory of seven degrees.
-
-  Measuring several meters in size, the space rock exploded 16 miles above the Earth's surface, with an impact energy of 173 kilotons.
-
-  That was 40% the energy release of Chelyabinsk ateroid, but it was over the Bering Sea so it did not have the same public effect.
-
-   Astronomers believe that steroid impact risks are underplayed.  Military satellites picked up this blast in December and NASA was notified of the event by the US Air Force.  It was not something NASA had discovered.
-
-  The fireball came in over an area not too far from routes used by commercial planes flying between North America and Asia. So researchers have been checking with airlines to see if there were any reported sightings of the event.
-
-  In 2005, Congress tasked NASA with finding 90% of near-Earth asteroids of  460 feet in diameter or larger by 2020. Space rocks of this size are expected to affect whole regions if they collide with Earth. But scientists estimate it will take them another 30 years to fulfill this congressional directive.
-
-  Once an incoming object is identified, NASA has had some notable success at calculating where on Earth the impact will occur, based on a precise determination of its orbit.
-
-  In June 2018, a small 10 foot  asteroid was discovered by a ground-based observatory in Arizona eight hours before impact. The Center for Near-Earth Object Studies at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory then made a precision determination of its orbit, which was used to calculate a probable impact location. This showed the rock was likely to hit southern Africa.
-
-  Just as the calculation suggested, a fireball was recorded over Botswana by security camera footage. Fragments of the meteor were later found in the area.  Japan's Himawari satellite had also captured the fireball's steep descent.
-
-  This latest event over the Bering Sea shows that larger objects can collide with us without warning, underlining the need for enhanced monitoring.  A more robust monitoring network would be dependent not only on ground telescopes, but space-based observatories as well.
-
-  A mission concept in development would see a telescope called “NeoCam” launched to a gravitational balance point in space, where it would discover and characterize potentially hazardous asteroids larger than 140meters.
-
-  If the mission does not launch, projections are that it would take us many decades to get there with the existing suite of ground-based surveys.  But , if we have an infrared based telescope in orbit we could attain the capability much faster.
-
-  How important is it to see what’s coming?
-
-  Other reviews available:
-
-  2296  -  Asteroids are rocky world orbiting our Sun.  Asteroids can reach as large as Ceres that is 583 miles across.  More than 150 asteroids are known t have companion moons.  Ironically, the collisions that could mean death to humans may be the same reason we are alive today.
-
-  2250  -  Asteroid visits and impacts.  We had a spacecraft visit the asteroid Itokawa in 2005 and the asteroids Ryugu and Bennu in 2019.
-
-  2226  Asteroid Ryugu.  Spacecraft landed on the surface on September 2018.  What have we learned?
-
-  2209  Asteroid Oumuamua is from another sola system outside our own. 
-
-  2203  Asteroid Bennu.  Arrived December 2019 and will inspect every square inch of the asteroid before returning home in 2023. 
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-  2044  -  Oumuamua is a needle shaped asteroid that will exit solar system. This Review lists 15 other reviews about asteroids.
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-  1923  -  When will the big one hit?  In 2017 50 asteroids passed us at a distance closer than our Moon. 
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-  1825  -  Asteroids responsible for evolution on Earth?
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-  1554  -  Asteroids are fossils with stories.
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-  1375  -  There is an asteroid following us in orbit.
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-  1309  -  Vesta and Ceres get a visit from the Dawn spacecraft.
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-  1296  -  When an asteroid hit Manson , Iowa?
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-  March 18, 2019                           
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 --------------------------   Tuesday, March 19, 2019  --------------------------
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Our Whole World is Only Six Particles?

-  2313  -  In our everyday world, when you get down to the fundamentals, everything we see or touch is made of only 6 fundamental particles.  There is more beyond this Universe at ground level.  At higher energies more particles exist.  But, where we are at our low level energy of matter and electromagnetic energy there are only six particles.
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-

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---------------------- 2313  -  Our Whole World is Only Six Particles?
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-  Our world s so complex.  From the diversity to the complexity of all of nature it is extremely complex.  A lifetime of education can not comprehend it.  But, where does all that complexity come from?
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-  Really!  In our everyday world, when you get down to the fundamentals, everything we see or touch is made of only 6 fundamental particles.  That is amazing.  There is more beyond this Universe at ground level.  At higher energies more particles exist.
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-   But, where we are at our low level energy of matter and electromagnetic energy there are only six particles, called Quarks, electrons, photons and bosons.  Welcome to he world of particle physics.
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-  We have only 2 Quarks in the nucleus of atoms that make up protons and neutrons.  An Up-Quark and a Down Quark are in every element nucleus in the Periodic Table.
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-   Then the electron that orbit’s the atom’s nucleus and is in every neutral element in the Periodic Table and that is the link pin for molecules in chemistry is one more.  The electron is also responsible for the electric charge and a moving electric charge is responsible for magnetism.  Light is photons of electromagnetic waves.
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-  Protons have a positive charge and would not stay together in the nucleus of atoms without our forth particle, the Gluon.  Gluons are the force carries for the Strong Nuclear Force that holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of atoms.
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-  The 5th particle is the photon that is the force carrier for all electromagnetic energy.  This is the energy that carries light, electric force, magnetic force and holds electrons and protons together in the atoms of all the elements.
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-  The 6th particle we have just seen in our largest particle accelerators..  It was there in theory but has never materialized in experiment.  It is the Higgs Boson another force carrier that gives mass to all matter.  Matter in turn is responsible for all gravity, in our everyday world.  Energy creates gravity too but we do not see this effect in our everyday world.
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-  That is it!  Everything we see and touch is comprised of just these six particles.  The 3 that are matter are called Fermions.  The 3 that are force carriers are called Bosons.
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----------  3 Fermions  =  Up-Quark, Down-Quark , Electron
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----------  3 Bosons  =  Photon, Gluon, Higgs Boson
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-  Like we mentioned.  There are more particles at higher energy levels.  But, only 12 more exotic, high energy particles have been discovered so far.  This does not include gravity because we have not decided if it has force carriers or is a geometric property in curved space-time.
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-   These high energy particles have been discovered in high energy particle accelerators and in nuclear reactions.  But, they are short lived and decay quickly in our everyday world.  However, all of these particles interact consistently and follow physical laws and known mathematical formulas.  They are perfectly predictable in the “ Standard Model of Particle Physics.”
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-  It should be pointed out that each of these particles of matter have an equal and oppositely charged anti-matter particle.  Here again, we do not usually run across anti-matter in our everyday world. 
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-  When a particle and an anti-particle come in contact with each other they annihilate each other into a flash of energy, usually Gamma Rays.  Anti-matter does exist in our world, but, it is obviously not prevalent or there would be a whole lot of explosions going on.
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-  Mass and energy are two forms of the same thing according to E = m*c^2.  The speed of light is a constant, so is c^2 is a constant.  Therefore Energy = mass * 90,000,000,000,000,000.  Since they are the same thing, physicists use the same units for mass and energy, called electron-volts.
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-  The energy an electron needs to travel through one volt of potential energy is one eV.  It is a very small amount of energy, less than one flashlight battery.  So, mass expressed in electron volts always assumes that we mean electron-volts / c^2,  mass = E / c^2.  Below is a table of all 17 particles with their mass expressed as a billion electron-volts ( GeV):
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------------  Fermions , the particles of matter:
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------------  GeV  -------Everyday -------- Higher Energy  ----------  Highest Energy
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-------------1,000  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------- 100  ---------------------------------------------------------- Top-Quark
---------------  10  ----------------------------------------------------------  Bottom- Quark
---------------- 10  ----------------------------------------------------------  Tau  Electron
--------------     1  ---------------------------Charm Quark
--------------- 0.1  ---------------------------Strange Quark
--------------- 0.1 --------------------------  Muon Electron
--------------- 0.01  ----- Down Quark
-------------  0.001 ------Up Quark
-------------  10^-4 ----  Electron
-------------  10^-5
-------------  10^-6
-------------  10^-7
-------------  10^-8
-------------  10^-9
-------------  10^-10----------------------------------------------------------Tau Neutrino
-------------  10^-11  --------------------------Muon Neutrino
-------------  10^-12 ----Electron Neutrino

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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------------ Bosons, the force carriers of energy:
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------------  GeV  -------Everyday -------- Higher Energy  ----------  Highest Energy
-------------1,000  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------- 100  ----------------------------------------------------------  Higgs Boson
--------------  10  ------------------------------------------------------------ W and Z Bosons
-------------- zero --- Photons are massless
-------------- zero  --  Gluons are massless.
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-  This Standard Model in particle physics is the most successful theory of nature man has ever produced.  Every experiment, every math formula works with every experiment.  However how good it is as a theory, it is not complete.  There are still unanswered questions:
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-  (1)  If the theory is right the Universe should be full of energy.  Full of virtual particles in the vacuum of space.  The energy calculated is so great the Universe should have already curled up or expanded into oblivion by now.  Somehow the effect of vacuum energy in space is very, very small and we can not explain why that is.
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-  (2)  The Universe is expanding at an ever increasing rate.  It is called Dark Energy, but, its force carrier is not in the Standard Model.
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-  (3)  Cosmic Inflation is a theory that explains the uniformity of the Universe after the Big Bang.  However, Inflation can not be explained in the Standard Model.
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-  (4)  The model says the Big Bang created from a burst of energy should have created equal amounts of matter and anti-matter.  The Model can not explain why matter dominates our world.  Where is the equal amount of anti-matter?
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-  (5)  25% of the Universe is Dark Matter that we can not see or explain with the Standard Model.
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-  (6)  The Higgs Boson is in the Model to describe the effects of mass and inertia, but, this particle remains a newly discovered mystery.
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- (7)  The Model predicts the Higgs Boson’s huge mass, >100 billion electron volts.  The model would make all particles have huge mass.  The result seems inconceivable.
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-  (8)  Gravity and its force carrier, the Graviton, are not in the Model.  Assuming gravity even has a force carrier?
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-  (9)  The values of particle masses come from experiments and not from any derivation of fundamental math.  We have no idea why the masses are what they are.  We just use what they are and the math works.  Math does not define the particles, the particles define the math?
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-  (10)  The three generations of particles and the three different energy levels are totally consistent with the Model, but, we have no idea why three generations for  particles exist. Why are there not more?
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-  The answers to these questions remain mysteries.  How can such a consistent, successful theory be so incomplete?  Obviously, there remains much more to be discovered. 
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-  It is amazing that our everyday world can be explained with only 6 of these particles. So, why do we run in to these out-of-this-world particles anyway?  For some reason we need to understand the out-of-this-world particle mess before we can explain why our world is the way it is.  Some day we will figure this all out.  Stay tuned.  I am still working n it:
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-----------
-   Other review articles on Particle Physics can be found in these Reviews:
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-  2290  -  The universe of fundamental particles.
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-  2290  -  Particle physics and quantum fields. 
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-  2018  -  A lesson in particle physics.  Includes listing of 7 more reviews on the subject.
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-  1868  -  What do neutron lifetimes have to do with it? Includes a list of 16 more reviews.
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-  1848  -   Particle physics, a history lesson.  Includes 7 biographies of famous physicists. 
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-  973 -  Physics in a nutshell.
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-  811  -  The large Hadron Collider.
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-  631  -  Mass, momentum and inertia?
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-  March 18, 2019                             1136
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 --------------------------   Monday, March 18, 2019  --------------------------
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Universe - how fast is it expanding?

-  2312  -  Measuring the expansion rate of the Universe is getting two different answers.  73 an 67, a more than 10% difference.  Certainly good science must bring the expansion rate into better agreement than that.  To translate, the Universe is expanding at 49,306 miles per hour for every million lightyears distance but with +or - 10% error.
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---------------------- 2312  -  Universe - how fast is it expanding?
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-  In the beginning, all of space rang like a bell.
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-  The ringing was caused by the big bang, and the universe was filled with a high energy plasma.  Plasma is energetic , charged particles and radiation. Although the plasma was remarkably smooth, it wasn’t completely smooth. There were slight density and pressure gradients that pushed material around which amounted to be sound waves in the medium of expanding space.
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-  The ringing happened everywhere, so intensely that we can still detect it 13.8 billion years later. It has been detected directly in the cosmic microwave background, the afterglow left over from the big bang’s release of the first light.
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-  This primordial reverberation is so well measured and modeled that it has been used to deduce the precise rate at which the universe is expanding, a number known as the Hubble constant. That constant which is the number 67 or 73 is the cornerstone of our modern understanding of the size, age and structure of the universe.
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-    The units  for 67 and 73 are kilometers per second per mega parsec distance.  A mega parsec is 3,262,000 lightyears distance.  Or, in more familiar units 49,306 miles per hour for every million lightyears distance.
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-  The value derived by extrapolating from the ancient sound waves should match up exactly with the value derived from independent studies of the light from distant stars and galaxies.
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-  In reality, the two approaches yield a vexing disagreement, and,  the more diligently researchers attack the problem, the more definitive this conflict in expansion rate seems to be.
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-   Following the big bang, sound waves produced by the intermingling of light and matter traveled freely through the hot, plasma-filled universe.   After some 380,000 years matter cooled enough to form atoms, decoupling from light and dampening the sound waves. Suddenly, the ringing stopped, impressing a final, frozen pattern of waves into the escaping light, which we see today in the cosmic microwave background.
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-  The sound horizon defines the size of those final waves.  How far the sound disturbances propagate by the time the plasma disappears is called the “sound horizon“.
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-  Just as you can measure the qualities of a bell from the way it rings such as a small glass bell sounding entirely different than a large brass one, researchers can infer the precise properties of the universe from its sounds as recorded in the microwave background radiation.
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-   That is how they can confidently declare the cosmos consists of 4.8 percent ordinary matter, 26 percent of the unseen dark matter and a full 69 percent dark energy which is a mysterious anti-gravitational force that stretches empty space apart.
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-  In 2015 microwave measurements from the European Space Agency’s Planck spacecraft revealed the universe is expanding at a rate of 67.8 kilometers per second per mega parsec. Cosmologists typically drop that mouthful if units at the end and simply say that the Hubble constant is between 67 and 68.
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-  Meanwhile competing groups of astronomers have been studying the expansion of the universe in a distinctly different way, by seeking out variable stars or supernova explosions of known distance and then directly measuring how quickly they are moving away from us.
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-  This “distance ladder” method measuring distances across many millions of light-years is a subtle, time-consuming task plagued with the possibilities for many kinds of systematic errors. Get the location of a star wrong, and the entire calculation is wrong.
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-  Every time you improve the accuracy by steadily beating down on the uncertainties and drawing on the latest observations of variable stars the astronomers get an answer for the constant of 73.2. 
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-   To ferret out any non-obvious problems astronomers are developing a new type of distance measurement using red giant stars as reference points.  A third way of measuring the expansion rate.
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-  Cosmologists on both sides are also looking to outside groups for guidance. So far, those referees are only deepening the mystery. A University of California, Los Angeles, study that looks at how light is bent by distant galaxies gives a Hubble constant of 72.5, close to the distance-ladder result.
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-  Meanwhile an equally convincing study looking at how primordial sound waves affect the distribution of galaxies in the universe gives a constant of 67.
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-   Calculations of the Hubble constant anchored to the sound horizon consistently give a lower number than ones based on observations of stars and galaxies.
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-  There is one way all of the measurements can be correct, and that is if something is wrong with scientists’ interpretations of those measurements.  Everything we know about the origin of the sound horizon depends on a theoretical model of how the universe behaved during its “unseen” initial 380,000 years.
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-  If the models are wrong and the size of the sound horizon is different than what they predict, that adjustment would change all of the numbers derived from it, including the Hubble constant.
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-  A smaller sound horizon, by just 7 percent, and all of the studies happily agree with one another. The problem is, it is not at all clear what could account for such shrinking. In almost every other way, the model and the observations fit together tightly.
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-  It is much easier to tick off the things that do not work: Undiscovered special kind of neutrino? Nope. New type of interaction between photons?  Nope.  They all conflict with the data.
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-  The most convincing explanation is that the very early universe was expanding slightly faster than expected. If so, it would have cooled more quickly and frozen the sound horizon in place a little sooner. Then the sound horizon would be smaller than the one theorists have plugged into their models, and problem solved!
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- Or, the problem is kicked down the road again, because now we need some explanation for what made the early cosmos take off more quickly.
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-  Potentially where this is leading us is to a new ingredient in the arena of Dark Matter and Dark energy.  Those invisible components of the universe that do not interact with radiation in any way. One is holding galaxies together and the other is spreading galaxies apart
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-  Researchers already invoke dark matter to explain galactic motion and dark energy to account for the universe’s accelerating expansion. The divergent measurements of the Hubble constant may be the first sign of the existence of a third dark component, a “dark turbo“, that added to the energy of the early universe, hastening its expansion and changing the pitch of its sounds.
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-  A related possibility is dark energy has more than one form, or changes over time in complicated ways. A recent study of 1,598 distant quasars using NASA’s Chandra X-Ray Observatory offers intriguing preliminary evidence for the interpretation that dark energy changes over time.
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-  It may seem like cheating to invoke something new and unseen to explain away a confusing result.   The Hubble constant conflict may be bringing into view an aspect of the universe that had completely eluded detection until now.
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-   New observations of the early universe by the South Pole Telescope in Antarctica and the Atacama Cosmology Telescope in Chile will further probe the sound horizon.
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-  A next-generation ground-based project called CMB-S4 intends to map the polarization of the microwave sky with greater sensitivity.
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-   Studies of gravitational waves will provide a completely independent way to assess the true Hubble value as well.
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-  Soon enough, data will settle whether scientists have been chasing errors or advancing on an undiscovered sector of the universe.  It may turn out to be fundamental new physics.  Now that would be interesting.  Stay tuned , there is still more to learn. 
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-  Other reviews on this subject:
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-  2292  -  Accelerating the Universe from unknown force.
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-  2263  -  The Universe as we know it.
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-  2262  -  The Universe, how fast is it expanding?  This review list 2 other reviews on this subject.  All available upon request.
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-  March 17, 2019                           
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
-  to:   -------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 --------------------------   Sunday, March 17, 2019  --------------------------
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