ASTRONOMY - extremes noted in 2020?

-  2601  -  ASTRONOMY  - extremes noted in 2020?  -   Stars in the universe range from extraordinary hyper-giants to stars so small they look more like gas giant planets than burning balls of hydrogen. Some stars move so fast they may leave their galaxies entirely, while theoretical stars may exist that stretch the boundaries of known physics.
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------------------------   2601  -  ASTRONOMY  - extremes noted in 2020?
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-  Astronomy finds that 70 percent of all stars in the universe are tiny red dwarfs, so faint and so dim they are hard to find.  But this “average star” lies in the middle of a true breadth and sheer weirdness of the universe’s stellar extremes.
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-  The red hypergiant star “UY Scuti” is the largest star known. It has a radius about 1,700 times larger than the Sun. For comparison, the Sun has a radius about 110 times that of Earth.  This hyper star lies 5,100 light-years away in the small southern constellation of Scutum. It’s much like the red supergiant Betelgeuse but some three times larger and, like Betelgeuse, it’s expected to end life as a supernova.
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-  RMC 136a1, the most massive star known.  It is 315 solar masses.  But despite its hulking mass, the star stretches just 30 times the radius of our Sun. It’s part of a cluster of very hot, bright stars at the center of R136, the central concentration of stars in NGC 2070, a star cluster in the Large Magellanic Cloud’s Tarantula Nebula.
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-  This massive star is beyond red-hot and even blue-hot; at 50,000 Kelvin it is 'purple hot' with its radiation output peaking in the extreme ultraviolet spectrum.   Its future is as a likely supernova although one of sufficient progenitor mass that it will leave behind a black hole rather than a neutron star.
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-  The smallest star is just larger than the planet Saturn.   “EBLM J0555-57Ab”  has just enough mass to enable the fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. Located about 600 light-years away and part of a binary star system, 57 Ab was identified as it passed in front of its much larger companion.
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-  The Fastest stars are the hypervelocity stars speeding through our galaxy at such a high rate of speed that most will eventually break free from the Milky Way. Until recently, scientists thought the only way stars could reach such speeds was through the interaction of a binary star system with the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy.
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-  The hypervelocity star  “PG 1610+062” was accelerated to such phenomenal speeds after a companion star exploded in a core-collapse supernova. Alternatively, the binary pair could have gained its velocity from gravitational interactions with young and dense stellar clusters. In such scenarios where two stars are locked in orbit around each other, their interaction with other stars in dense clusters can catapult the less massive star in the binary system into a hypervelocity trajectory.
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-  The  “Thorne-Zytkow objects’ ,“TZO  stars“, which exist only in theory thus far, are thought to form when a compact neutron star is surrounded by a large, diffuse envelope of hydrogen gas.  Supergiant TZOs are predicted to be almost identical in appearance to red super giants.  And they have unusually strong heavy-element and Lithium lines present in their spectra.
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-  First hypothesized to exist by theoretical physicists TZOs are thought to come from a scenario wherein a star going supernova “kicks” its leftover core, now a neutron star,  into another star.  Astronomers do have one candidate TZO, called “HV2112“, located in the Small Magellanic Cloud some 200,000 light-years away in the southern constellation of Tucany.
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-  Finally our Sun itself, which we sometimes forget is a star, qualifies as a bit strange, even though it’s long been billed as an ordinary yellow dwarf star.  Why is the Sun odd?  It’s oddly massive. Even though it's in the middle of the range of possible sizes for stars Star’s range is sizes from roughly an eighth of a solar mass to some 100 solar masses. More than three quarters of all stars are less massive than our Sun.
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-  And although half of all solar-type stars are thought to have a companion, our Sun apparently never did. In comparison to other stars in its spectral range, the Sun is photo -metrically pretty stable. That means the Sun’s brightness doesn't vary by much ,perhaps one factor key to the evolution of life on Earth.
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-   So far no planetary system with a structure similar to ours has been found orbiting a Sun-like star.  So, maybe that is an extreme case in its own rite.  How rare is it that you are even here and reading this?  You can your lucky stars you got this one.
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-  January 31, 2020                                                                         2601                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------          Friday, January 31, 2020    --------------------
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MAGNETARS - magnetic stars? -

-  2600  - MAGNETARS  -  magnetic stars?  Magnetism is one manifestation of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four forces known in the universe.  All material that we know of is magnetic at some level. The electrons spin about the atom and the electrons themselves spin so that each atom becomes a tiny atomic magnet.  To go from the smallest to the very largest magnetic fields we need to go from atoms to stars. 
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---------------------------------   2600 - MAGNETARS  -  magnetic stars?
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-  More than 60 years ago astronomers have realized about 10 percent of massive stars have powerful magnetic fields bursting from their surfaces. But the exact origins of these magnetic fields, which can reach hundreds to thousands of times the strength of the Sun's magnetic fields has so far remained a mystery.
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-  They may be due to a collision between two normal stars.  Magnetism itself is a mystery.  We learned that a refrigerator magnet  is created when the atoms in a metal all line up in a particular direction causing a net magnetic force. And, that the little magnet  stuck to the refrigerator is so powerful it can over come the pull of gravity coming from the mass of the entire Earth. 
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-  Magnetism is 1,000 times stronger than the force of gravity
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-  Magnets created by massive stars are called “magnetars“.  These magnetic mergers occur when two stars collide, it sends the star surfaces spinning and simultaneously kicks off enormous amounts of turbulence. This dramatically boosts the final star’s magnetic field.
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-  As the star spins, its inner layers rotate faster than its outer layers, a process called differential rotation. Running through and connecting each of these layers are magnetic field lines.  Because each layer rotates at a different speed, the magnetic field lines connecting the layers get twisted and tangled up. This serves to amplify the overall strength of the magnetic field. 
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-  This turbulence further stirs the magnetic field lines, exponentially increasing the star's magnetism.  “Blue stragglers” are a unique class of stars that masquerade as stars younger than they truly are. These "rejuvenated" stars are much hotter, much bluer, and brighter than your average main-sequence  middle-aged star of a similar apparent age.
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-  But the fountain of youth that keeps blue stragglers looking so fresh is a mystery? A leading theory is that merging with another star will do the trick. The typical main-sequence stars power themselves by fusing hydrogen into helium in their cores. But when the hydrogen in their cores runs out, they move on to fusing concentric shells of hydrogen around their now-inert cores. This causes the star to balloon up into a red giant, moving it off the main-sequence and into the so-called red giant branch.
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-  But if two main-sequence stars collide, their material gets mixed together. The resulting merged product now has a restocked reservoir of hydrogen in its core, which allows it to expand along as a more massive, yet still main-sequence , blue straggler instead of evolving into a red giant.
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-  This means that post-merger stars have more nuclear fuel to then live longer.  But that only makes the newly formed star appear younger. The blue straggler could have lived for a long time as lower-mass stars and then merged to become this more massive blue straggler.  It’s high mass fooling us into thinking it must be younger.
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-   Scientists first suggested a collision between two stars could generate strong magnetic fields more than a decade ago. But until now, astronomers were not able to test this hypothesis because they didn't have the necessary computational tools.  But thanks to the newest computer programs the researchers are finally able to show that two merging stars, which originally lacked much magnetism, can join forces and create a new, highly magnetize star.
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-  These studies show that massive blue straggler stars seem likely to be the progenitors of magnetars, perhaps giving rise to some of the enigmatic fast radio bursts observed, and their supernovae may be affected by their strong magnetic fields."
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-  Magnetars are a rare breed of neutron stars with absurdly powerful magnetic fields that reach some 5 quadrillion (one quadrillion is 1,000 trillions) times stronger than Earth's. Magnetars are thought to have the strongest magnetic fields in the universe.
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-  Magnetars could be the natural end product of main-sequence stars and probably also pre-main-sequence mergers.   The biggest and yet-unsolved question is whether the magnetic field produced in the merger can survive up to the supernova stage, and then whether the magnetic field is indeed maintained in the forming neutron star when the core of the star collapses.
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-  This still needs to be seen.  The research goes on. Astronomy is finally beginning to understand the origin of magnetars and their strong magnetic fields.
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-  Other reviews about magnetism available upon request:
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-  2341  -  Magnetism is one manifestation of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four forces known in the universe.  All material that we know of is magnetic at some level. The electrons spin about the atom and the electrons themselves spin so that each atom becomes a tiny atomic magnet.  To go from the smallest to the very largest magnetic fields we need to go from atoms to stars. 
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-  2154  -  Magnetism is a force that exerts attractive or repulsive force on other materials.  All materials are influenced to a greater or lesser degree by the presence of a magnetic field.  All materials!  Magnets come in two basic types, permanent magnets and electromagnets.  Magnetism is ultimately the result of movement of an electric charge.  The most common use of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance is in medicine.
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- 1878  -  Magnetic structures in the Galaxies.  New mysteries are uncovered to understand how magnetic fields throughout galaxies affect star formation and galactic structure.  New tools are creating 3-D maps.  Dark Matter remains 85% of the undiscovered.
-  1383  -  Magnetars are lethal Neutron Stars.
-  1223  -  Where do big stars go when they die?
-  1159  -  What are Magnetars?
-   704  -  Magnetars in the heavens.
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-  January 30, 2020                                                                         2600                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------          Friday, January 31, 2020    --------------------
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SUN - End of Humanity?

-  2599  -  SUN  -  End of Humanity?  The Sun is 4.6 billion years old.  It will live another 5 billion years then its hydrogen will have mostly burned off and the core of the Sun will be solid helium.  It will continue burning but it will be twice as hot.  Humanity will need to have found another home.
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---------------------------------  2599  -  SUN  -  End of Humanity?
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-  I just know I am going to die in an airplane crash.  If I don’t die of something else first.  That is the way it is.  Humanity on Earth will end.  That too is the way it is.  If humanity does not blow itself up starting with Iran, and if some super bug does not kill us off with an incurable disease, and if an asteroid does not hit us and turn Earth into a cemetery in an instant, then our Sun will eventually cook us. Time will tell.
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-   We had better graduate smart students who can master technology and get us to another solar system in the next 10,000 years if humanity is going to have a chance.
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-  The Sun is 4.6 billion years old.  It will live another 5 billion years then its hydrogen will have mostly burned off and the core of the Sun will be solid helium.  It will continue burning but it will be twice as hot.
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-  The core shrinks but the outer layers of the Sun expand.  For the next billion years luminosity and heat continue to increase.  The Sun continues to grow into a Red Giant.  It will be 100 times larger and 1,000 times brighter.  Earth will be cooked.  All the water will have long evaporated and it will be a charred, burnt out rock.
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-  The outer layers are expanding because there is only helium at the core and the only hydrogen remaining is in a shell near the surface.  The shell expands.  Heat builds up in the core until it reaches 100,000,000 Kelvin and at that temperature helium begins fusing into carbon.  The 3 helium-4 atoms fuse into one carbon-12 atom and energy is released according to the mass loss and E = mc^2.
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-  After 100,000,000 years of helium burning the Sun’s core will be pure carbon.  The core temperature will continue to rise but the Sun is not big enough to create the gravity pressure and the temperature to get to the next stage.  It takes a core temperature of 600,000,000 Kelvin to fuse carbon.  Bigger stars can get there and can continue to fuse the heavier elements.  Our Sun will stop at carbon.
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-  Picture what our Sun will look like.  It would be a planetary nebulae.  The nebulae stage will last 1,000,000 years then the nebulae will fade away leaving that white dot in the center, a White Dwarf.  White Dwarfs are the exposed cores of dead stars.
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-  While the Sun is going through this process, what is happening to the Earth?  The Earth will be a desert 500,000 years from now  And, its population of humanity, if still here will be living at the poles.
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-  The Antarctica will be a nice continent but those at the north pole in the Artic will need to be living on ships.  The ice has all melted and in the next 500,000 years the water will have evaporated all together.
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-   In 5,000,000,000 years the Sun will have expanded into a Red Giant nearly engulfing the Earth.  The Earth’s surface will be 1,000 Kelvin.  The moon orbiting Saturn, Titan, will be 300 Kelvin and it still has water.  We humans had better be living there long before then.  Mars is a good stepping stone but it can not be a final destination because it has no atmosphere and no magnetosphere to retain liquid water and to protect us from the blazing Sun.
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-  When our oceans increase 50 C all our liquid water will have evaporated on Earth.  Just like on Venus today.  Mars is too small with too thin an atmosphere and has already lost its liquid water on the surface.  When liquid water goes all large life goes with it.
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-    Microbes may still be living under ground.  There are more microbes on your body than there are human cells in your body.  Microbes have been on Earth for 3,500,000 years and they will be the last to leave. 
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-  Earth will continue to orbit the White Dwarf as a burnt rock.  From that point on the Solar System simply cools down, getting colder and colder until it reaches the cosmic background temperature, 2 Kelvin.  There is no energy left to sustain any warmth..
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-  We need technology to get us to an asteroid, to strap a propulsion system on it so we can move it to just the right distance from a heat source,  to hollow out the inside of the asteroid so we can create an environment in which to plant a garden.  It will be a Garden of Eden, like we have on Mother Earth today.   You should think of it that way,
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-  It is ours only to wonder.  Someone else will be making this journey.
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-   January 24, 2020                                     918                                  2599                                              -                                                                           
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Thursday, January 30, 2020    --------------------
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SUN - from our latest satellites?

-   2598  -  SUN  -  from our latest satellites?  A new spacecraft is journeying to the Sun to snap the first pictures of the Sun's north and south poles.  Now, we'll be able to look down on the Sun from above.  The Sun plays a central role in shaping space around us. Its massive magnetic field stretches far beyond Pluto, paving a superhighway for charged solar particles known as the solar wind.
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-------------------- 2598  -  SUN  -  from our latest satellites? 
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-  We will soon havethe first pictures of the Sun's north and south poles.  Solar Orbiter, a collaboration between the European Space Agency, or ESA, and NASA, will have its first opportunity to launch from Cape Canaveral on February 7, 2020.
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-  Launching on a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket, the spacecraft will use Venus's and Earth's gravity to swing itself out of the ecliptic plane, the swath of space, roughly aligned with the Sun's equator, where all planets orbit. From there, Solar Orbiter's view will give it the first-ever look at the Sun's poles.
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-  Now, we'll be able to look down on the Sun from above.  The Sun plays a central role in shaping space around us. Its massive magnetic field stretches far beyond Pluto, paving a superhighway for charged solar particles known as the solar wind. When bursts of solar wind hit Earth, they can spark space weather storms that interfere with our GPS and communications satellites  and they can even threaten astronauts.
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-  To prepare for arriving solar storms, scientists monitor the Sun's magnetic field. But their techniques work best with a straight-on view; the steeper the viewing angle, the noisier the data. The sidelong glimpse we get of the Sun's poles from within the ecliptic plane leaves major gaps in the data.
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-  The poles are particularly important for us to be able to model more accurately.  For forecasting space weather events, we need an accurate model of the global magnetic field of the Sun.
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-  The Sun's poles may also explain centuries-old observations. In 1843, German astronomer Samuel Heinrich Schwabe discovered that the number of sunspots. Dark blotches on the Sun's surface marking strong magnetic fields, waxes and wanes in a repeating pattern. Today, we know it as the approximately-11-year solar cycle in which the Sun transitions between solar maximum, when sunspots proliferate and the Sun is active and turbulent, and solar minimum, when they're fewer and it's calmer.
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-  But we don't understand why it's 11 years, or why some solar maximums are stronger than others. Observing the changing magnetic fields of the poles could offer an answer.
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-  The only prior spacecraft to fly over the Sun's poles was also a joint ESA/NASA venture. Launched in 1990, the Ulysses spacecraft made three passes around our star before it was decommissioned in 2009. But Ulysses never got closer than Earth-distance to the Sun, and only carried instruments, like the sense of touch, that measure the space environment immediately around the spacecraft.
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-  Solar Orbiter, on the other hand, will pass inside the orbit of Mercury carrying six remote-sensing imagers, which see the Sun from afar. We are going to be able to map what we 'touch' with the on boaerd instruments and what we 'see' with remote sensing.
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-  After years of technology development, it will be the closest any Sun-facing cameras have ever gotten to the Sun.  Over the mission's seven year lifetime, Solar Orbiter will reach an inclination of 24 degrees above the Sun's equator, increasing to 33 degrees with an additional three years of extended mission operations.
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- At closest approach the spacecraft will pass within 26 million miles of the Sun.  Earth is 93 million miles from the Sun.
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-  To beat the heat, Solar Orbiter has a custom-designed titanium heat shield with a calcium phosphate coating that withstands temperatures over 900 degrees Fahrenheit,  thirteen times the solar heating faced by spacecraft in Earth orbit. Five of the remote-sensing instruments look at the Sun through peepholes in that heat shield; one observes the solar wind out to the side.
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-  Solar Orbiter will be NASA's second major mission to the inner solar system in recent years, following on August 2018's launch of Parker Solar Probe. Parker has completed four close solar passes and will fly within 4 million miles of the Sun at closest approach.
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-  The two spacecraft will work together: As Parker samples solar particles up close, Solar Orbiter will capture imagery from farther away, contextualizing the observations. The two spacecraft will also occasionally align to measure the same magnetic field lines or streams of solar wind at different times.
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--------------- -  Other reviews available upon request:
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-  2592  -  Does the Sun contain the Periodic Table
-  2544  -  Stars at our galactic center?
-  2542  -  Our closet star?
-  2489  -  Sun facts you will not believe?
-  2488  -  How hot is the Sun?
-  2346  -  What you will not believe about our Sun?
-  2169  -  Universe , the one we live in?
-  2168  -  Parker Solar Probe.  What did we learn?
-  2165  -  Why is the Sun so hot?
-  1834  -  That Lucky ol’ Sun got nothing to do?   This review tells how the Sun gets its energy and how it compares with other stars in the Universe.   And, how long will the Sun live?
-  1720  -  How do we know the age of the Sun? Some math and lists 10 other reviews on the subject.
-  1674  -  What causes a star to evolve into a Red Giant star , like our Sun will do in another 5 billion years.
-  1455  -  Our Sun was born with a family of stars?
-  1168  -  How many pounds of hydrogen are used in fusion energy to heat up my backyard?
-   918  -  What happens to the Sun when it runs out of hydrogen for fusion energy?
-   533  -  Why our Sun will become a variable star?
-   383  -  Could our Sun be a variable star?

-  January 29, 2020                                                                         2598                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Wednesday, January 29, 2020    --------------------
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BIG BANG - how it all started?

-   2597  - BIG  BANG  - how it all started ?   Way before the Garden of Eden.  When the whole Universe was compressed into the size of an atom.  Where it all started at the beginning of the first universe expansion.  Believe it or not there are scientists trying to define how it all happened.
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-------------------- 2597  -  BIG  BANG  - how it all started? 
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-  This Review is about what some of these scientists are thinking about how the Universe got started.  They come up with fancy names for their theories but don’t let that dissuade you.  When it comes to these subjects you are just as smart as they are.   We all are trying to learn how we got here.
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-  Trying to understand the earliest eras in the history of the universe uses techniques from an area of modern physics called “loop quantum cosmology“.  This is extending analyses to include quantum physics farther back in time than ever before, all the way to the beginning.
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-  Before the Earth first formed, before the solar system began orbiting the center of our galaxy, before all the galaxy formed and started to separate into the void of space, before all the atoms and elements came out of the quark and electron soup, when everything was compressed into a single ball the size of an atom:  Now is when the universe must be described with math and with physics that we do not yet quite understand.
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-   The new attempt to understanding is called of “loop quantum origins”.  This model shows that the large-scale structures we now see in the universe evolved from fundamental fluctuations in the essential quantum nature of "space-time," which existed even at the very beginning of the universe that occurred 14 billion years ago.
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-  We humans always have yearned to understand more about the origin and evolution of our universe.  This new theory provides a conceptual and mathematical framework for describing the exotic "quantum-mechanical geometry of space-time" in the very early universe.
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-  The model shows that, during this early era, the universe was compressed to such unimaginable densities that its behavior was ruled not by the classical physics of Einstein's general theory of relativity, but by an even more fundamental theory that also incorporates the strange dynamics of “quantum mechanics“.
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-    At that time the density of matter was huge then 1094 grams per cubic centimeter, as compared with the density of an atomic nucleus today, which is only 1014 grams.
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-  In this bizarre quantum-mechanical environment, where one can speak only of probabilities of events rather than certainties, physical properties naturally would be vastly different from the way we experience them today. Among these differences,  are the concept of "time," as well as the changing dynamics of various systems over time as they experience the fabric of quantum geometry itself.
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-  No space observatories have been able to detect anything as long ago and far away as the very early eras of the universe described by the new paradigm. But a few observatories have come close. Cosmic background radiation has been detected in an era when the universe was only 380,000 years old.
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-  By that time, after a period of rapid expansion called "inflation," the universe had burst out into a much diluted version of its earlier super compressed shell. At the beginning of inflation, the density of the universe was a trillion times less than during its infancy, so quantum factors now are much less important in ruling the large scale dynamics of matter and geometry.
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-  Observations of the cosmic background radiation show that the universe had a predominantly uniform consistency after inflation, except for a light sprinkling of some regions that were more dense and others that were less dense.
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-   The standard inflationary model for describing the early universe, which uses the classical physics equations of Einstein, and treats space-time as a smooth continuum. The inflationary paradigm enjoys remarkable success in explaining the observed features of the cosmic background radiation.
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-  however, this model is incomplete. It retains the idea that the universe burst forth from nothing in a Big Bang, which naturally results from the inability of the paradigm's general-relativity physics to describe extreme quantum-mechanical situations.
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- Physics needs a quantum theory of gravity, like “loop quantum cosmology“, to go beyond Einstein in order to capture the true physics near the origin of the universe.
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-   Loop quantum cosmology expands the concept of the Big Bang with the intriguing concept of a Big Bounce, which allows the possibility that our universe emerged not from nothing but from a super compressed mass of matter that previously may have had a history of its own.
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-  When scientists use the inflation model together with Einstein's equations to model the evolution of the seed like areas sprinkled throughout the cosmic background radiation, they find that the irregularities serve as seeds that evolve over time into the galaxy clusters and other large-scale structures that we see in the universe today.
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-  With these quantum cosmology equations, scientists found that fundamental fluctuations in the very nature of space at the moment of the Big Bounce evolve to become the seed like structures seen in the cosmic microwave background.
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-  This study shows that the initial conditions at the very beginning of the universe naturally lead to the large scale structure of the universe that we observe today.  In human terms, it is like taking a snapshot of a baby right at birth and then being able to project from it an accurate profile of how that person will be at age 100.
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-  The genesis of the cosmic structure of our universe from the inflationary epoch all the way to the Big Bounce, covering some 11 orders of magnitude in the density of matter and the curvature of space-time.  We now have narrowed down the initial conditions that could exist at the Big Bounce, plus we find that the evolution of those initial conditions agrees with observations of the cosmic background radiation.
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-  This widely-accepted theory of cosmic inflation states that our universe expanded rapidly in the moments after its birth, resulting in the immense expanse we see today.
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-  Cosmic inflation explains why the universe is billions of years old, as well as why the universe is nearly flat.  The research found that while inflation isn't the only viable model of the early universe, other possibilities would require strange physics, such as a speed of sound faster than the speed of light.
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-  There are only three kinds of early universe theories that can explain the distribution of matter in today's universe, assuming that the standard theory of gravity is correct and that the universe was expanding in early times.
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-  According to the physicists' calculations, viable early universe theories must incorporate either an accelerated cosmic expansion (inflation); a speed of sound faster than the speed of light; or energies so high that scientists would need to invoke a theory of quantum gravity such as string theory, which predicts the existence of extra dimensions of space-time.
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-  The takeaway result here is that this idea of inflation turns out to be the only way to do it within the context of standard physics.   It may well be that you can come up with a speed of sound faster than the speed of light. 
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-  Cosmic inflation accounts for the distribution of the matter in the universe by incorporating quantum field theory, which states that under "normal" circumstances, particles of matter and something called antimatter can pop into existence suddenly , before meeting and annihilating each other almost instantly.
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-  According to cosmic inflation, materializing pairs of matter and antimatter particles flew apart so quickly in the rapidly expanding early universe that they did not have time to recombine. The same principle applied to gravitons and antigravitons, which form gravity waves.
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-  These particles became the basis of all structure in the universe today, with tiny fluctuations in the matter in the universe collapsing to form stars, planets and galaxies. The concept relies on widely studied ideas to explain how the universe began and evolved.
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-  The very early universe may have had just one spatial dimension before expanding to include two, and then three and possibly four .  A new model would fall under the category of theories invoking quantum gravity
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-  See for many more Reviews available upon request:
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-  2547  -  Big Bang recreated I the laboratory.
-  2546  -  Total  history Big Bang to today
-  2499  -  First creations.
-  2484  -  How do we know what happened?
-  2454  -  What do we think happened?
-  2440  -  Big Bang to today?
-  2392  -  The origins of existence?
-  2360  -  The primeval atom?
-  2352  -  The birth of the Universe?
-  2248  -  From the Big Bang and back again?
-  2242  -  How can we understand the Big Bang?  This Review lists 11 more reviews about the Big Bang.
-  2196  -  The age of the Universe.
-  2146  -  Astronomy is seeing history.
-  2118  -  History of energy in the Universe?
-  2074  -  Much to do about nothing.
-  2065  -  The big Bang antimatter mystery?
-  1983  -  Problems with the Big Bang theory?
-  1682  -  Birth of the observable universe?
-  1242  -  How does spacetime change at the micro level?  The uncertainty fluctuations remain wavy at the micro level and inversely proportional to the time resolutions of our measurements.  The more we learn we find the less we know. 
-  1241  -  How can space and time be related?
-  1258  -  How much space is in our Solar System?
-  1128  -  Evidence that supports the theory?
-  1127  -  Questions about the theory?
-  1006  -  Is time slowing down?
-  854  -  Time, GPS, and entropy?
-  842  -  Pressed for time?
-  814  -  Fast speed and short time?  What are the limits?
-  784 -  Time is what God created to keep everything from happening all at once. 
-  712  -  Meet the primeval atom?
-  402  -  How the Universe began?
-  392  -  Time dilation using the Pythagorean Theorem.
-
-  All available upon request.
-
-  January 28, 2020                                                                         2597                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Tuesday, January 28, 2020    --------------------
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EINSTEIN - has theories of the Universe?

-  2596  - EINSTEIN  -  has theories of the Universe?  The basic principles of general relativity can be stated quite simply: The presence of matter distorts the fabric of space and time, and objects travel on the shortest path in that distorted space-time universe.  Getting to this conclusion is another story.
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-
-------------------- 2596  - EINSTEIN  -  has theories of the Universe? 
-
-  Einstein's theory of general relativity changed how physicists understood the universe in an instant. One hundred years later, they are still proving him correct.
-
-  Albert Einstein was already a recognized physicist when he published his theory of general relativity, or gravitation, in 1916. Three years later, he catapulted into an international celebrity when relativity’s first experimental proof came from a solar eclipse.
-
-  One hundred years ago this young physicist presented a paper to the Prussian Academy of Science.   A paper that we now recognize as symbolizing the birth of general relativity. By this time, Albert Einstein was a recognized figure in the physics community, with a prestigious academic appointment in Berlin and the enthusiastic support of luminaries like Max Planck and Marie Curie.
-
-  What a difference from that day 10 years earlier, when an obscure examiner third class in the Swiss patent office published new ideas that shook 20th-century science. In 1905, young Einstein wrote four papers in what physicists now refer to as the “Annus Mirabilis,” or Year of Miracles, each of which could have garnered a Nobel Prize.
-
-  Two of his papers, special relativity and the mass-energy equivalence, proved key to his theory of gravity. The others explained the physical reality of atoms and the photoelectric effect, which set the foundation for quantum mechanics. This last paper was the basis for Einstein’s Nobel Prize in 1921.
-
-  But relativity continues to test the limits of physics more than any other discovery Einstein made.  Relativity is based on one powerful idea: Every observer in the universe sees the same laws of nature in operation.
-
- For example, a friend drives by and throws a ball in the air and then catches it when it falls. Your friend sees the ball go up and down while you see it travel in an arc, but you both agree that Newton’s laws of motion govern the ball’s path. It’s a different description of events but with the same laws operating.
-
-  Special relativity says the laws of nature are the same in all frames of reference moving at a constant velocity. General relativity says the laws are the same in all frames regardless of velocity.
-
-  Mercury’s orbit diverges by just one-millionth from predictions made with Newton’s laws, prompting some astronomers to once suggest an unseen planet, “Vulcan,” lurked near the Sun. Einstein’s relativity showed that warped space-time surrounding our star accounts for this problem.
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-  If your friend’s car is moving at a steady speed, the laws of special relativity apply, but if the car is accelerating, we have to apply ‘general relativity“. Most of the weird results we know about relativity, the fact that moving clocks slow down, moving objects shrink in the direction of motion and get more massive, and even the best known scientific equation, E=mc2 , follow from the principle of “special relativity‘.
-
-  General relativity’s fundamental tenets have been proven right again and again. NASA used its Gravity Probes A and B to confirm how a clock ticks slower in orbit than on Earth and that our planet’s gravitation drags space-time with it.
-
-  Light takes longer to pass between two points when one is near a massive object. Astronomers confirmed this by bouncing light off Mercury when it was near the Sun and away from it.
-
-  Even after 100 years, physicists are still trying to understand the far-reaching implications. Scientists are in the middle of a sweeping search for the gravitational waves Einstein predicted in 1916 as a result of his general theory of relativity.
-
-  One of relativity’s biggest tests still lies ahead. Theorists haven’t yet tied Einstein’s successful predictions about the large-scale universe to quantum mechanics, the best theory of physics at subatomic scales.
-
-  To a physicist at the opening of the 20th century, the phrase “laws of nature” had a specific meaning. It meant:
-
-   (1) Newton’s laws of motion, which describe the motion of any object in the universe;
-
-  (2) Maxwell’s equations, which describe electricity and magnetism; and
-
-   (3) the laws of thermodynamics, which deal with energy and the order in physical systems.
-
-  It’s actually the second of these that matters as far as relativity is concerned. The reason is simple. James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), after whom the equations are named, was a master at the forefront of mathematics of his day.
-
-  Why do moving clocks slow down?  We can understand a lot about relativity by using a device called a light clock to define our basic unit of time. This device holds a flashbulb, mirror, and photocell. The “tick-tock” consists of the flashbulb going off, the light moving up and bouncing off the mirror, and then the light traveling down to the photocell. When it arrives, the photocell triggers the flashbulb, and the whole process is repeated.
-
-  Now imagine an experiment. We have two identical light clocks,  one on the ground and the other on a moving railroad car. Imagine that we set things up so that both flashbulbs go off as the moving clock passes the one on the ground. What will an observer see?
-
-  As far as the ground observer is concerned, the clock on the ground is behaving normally, the light travels up to the mirror and back and the clock ticks along. When the ground observer looks at the moving clock, however, she sees something very different. In the time it takes the light to move up to the mirror, the train has moved a certain distance.
-
-  Consequently, the ground observer sees the light in the moving clock traveling on a slanting path. The same thing happens as the light comes back to the photocell, so the net result is that the ground observer sees the light in the moving clock traveling in a sawtooth pattern.
-
-  In other words, as far as the observer on the ground is concerned, the light in the moving clock travels a longer distance than the light in the clock on the ground. If light travels at the same speed in both frames of reference, then it will take the light in the moving clock longer to finish its path than it takes the light in the clock on the ground to do the same thing. As far as the observer on the ground is concerned, the moving clock ticks more slowly.
-
-  Einstein realized that four of the basic laws of electricity and magnetism constituted a complete mathematical description of these phenomena. After adding a missing piece, he showed that the equations predicted a strange type of wave.  A wave that could travel through a vacuum by tossing energy back and forth between electric and magnetic fields. The equations also predicted the speed of these waves to be approximately 186,000 miles per second, a number we recognize as the speed of light.
-
-  Light was, in fact, one of those strange waves Maxwell found in his equations. In the end, he showed that all waves in what we now call the electromagnetic spectrum, waves that range in size from radio waves, with wavelengths larger than the diameter of Earth, to gamma rays, with wavelengths smaller than the nucleus of an atom , were the same thing as visible light itself.
-
-  Stretch a light wave out, and you have a microwave. Scrunch it up, and you have an X-ray. All of these waves move at the same speed, what we call the “speed of light” and denote by the letter “c“. More importantly, this speed is actually built into Maxwell’s equations.  E = mc^2.
-
-  If the principle of relativity is really true, and if all the laws of nature (including Maxwell’s equations) are really the same in all frames of reference, then the speed of light has to be the same for all observers.
-
-  This is really a weird statement. It says, for example, if a friend is driving by you in a car at 60 mph  and shines a flashlight, both of you will see that light traveling at 186,000 miles per second. To emphasize the strangeness, this means that standing on the ground, you will not see that light moving at 186,000 miles per second plus 60 mph, as you might expect, but at 186,000 miles per second.  Both see the same.
-
-  Einstein was the first to realize that the only way to resolve this dilemma was to change the way we think about space (i.e., distance) and time. After all, we arrived at the dilemma by thinking about velocities, and velocity is just distance divided by time. Change our ideas about space and time, and these sorts of problems could go away.
-
-  Relativity tells us that the same laws of nature hold true everywhere in the universe. This “equivalence principle” also confirms that two bodies fall through a gravitational field at the same rate regardless of their mass.  Dropping a bowling ball and a feather in space move together.
-
-  All of which brings us to Einstein’s talk at the Prussian Academy. The mathematics involved is more difficult than that in special relativity. The fact that it took a man of Einstein’s ability almost 10 years to work through it should testify to that fact. And general relativity is still our best theory of gravitation.
-
-  To see why this should be so, imagine a ship traveling in deep space. If the ship is moving at a constant velocity and a passenger holds a ball out and lets it go, the ball will simply stay where it was released.
-
-  If, however, the ship is accelerating, the situation will be different. The ball will continue to move with the velocity it had when it was released, but the ship will be speeding up. From outside the spaceship, we would say that the floor came up and hit the ball. To the passenger, however, it would appear that the ball fell.
-
-  In fact, if the ship were accelerating at 32 feet per second per second, the ball would appear to fall in the same way it would on Earth’s surface. Thus, once acceleration enters the picture and general relativity takes over, we can describe the effects of gravity in a new way.
-
-  Because of this fact, general relativity has become a tool of choice for describing massive objects. Without it, it would be impossible to talk about the universe in the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang, back when matter was packed together in unimaginable densities. And black holes couldn’t be described at all.
-
-  The basic principles of general relativity can be stated quite simply: The presence of matter distorts the fabric of space and time, and objects travel on the shortest path in this distorted space-time.
-
--------------------------------  Other reviews available about Einstein’s theories:
-
-  2556  -  Einstein’s legacy 100 years later.
-
-  2483  -   Testing Einstein’ theories.
-
-  2284  -  Einstein’s theory of gravity.
-
-  2234  -  What did Einstein say about the Universe?
-
-  2216  -  Einstein’s math and the theory of he gravity lens.
-
-  1582 -  Using the Pythagorean theory to derive the theory of relativity.
-
-  1142  -  Can Einstein’s equations pass the tests?  His equations are alone in unifying space, time, mass, energy, motion and light.
-
-  929  -  Einstein’s Legacy.   If you can link the equations of General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics it would be a supertechifragilisticexpialedocious breakthrough in physics.
-
-    395  deriving E=mc^2  using a teeter totter
-
-  49  -  409    -  Einstein is right again.  Measurements with the Gravity Probe satellite. 
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-  January 25, 2020                                                                         2596                                                                               
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Saturday, January 25, 2020    --------------------
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ASTEROID - Teacher’s Lesson Plan?

-   2595  -   ASTEROID  -   Teacher’s Lesson Plan.  The fastest spinning asteroid was discovered by an amateur astronomer, but using a professional telescope by remote control.  This just became available to all teachers who want to teach some astronomy using the internet.
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---------------------  2595  -  ASTEROID  -   Teacher’s Lesson Plan?
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-    Go to http://faulkestelescope.com/education   for more the information.
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-  The amateur astronomer took CCD images of the asteroid with several exposures.  He studied the brightness of the pixels as they rotated across the image.  His calculations were that the asteroid was spinning one revolution per 42.7 seconds.
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-   This is the fastest spinning asteroid measured to date.  The amazing part was that he was in the United Kingdom and was using a telescope in Australia.  Getting his images by remote control over the internet.  Amazing!
-
-  The Faulkes Telescope project is opening this capability to everyone.  Telescopes all over the world are signing up to let amateurs log in.  The 2 meter telescope in Hawaii has come on line.  The capability will be 24-7 because there will always be a telescope somewhere that is in the dark.  You can be a student working with a  $10 million telescope and camera.  How better to learn astronomy.
-
-  The Faulkes Telescope project offers many other lesson plans for students.  For example it tells students how to Google Earth and find dozens of meteor craters around the planet.  Measure the diameter of the impact and calculate the amount of kinetic energy that crashed into the planet.
-
-   The Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatan, Mexico, is 100 kilometers in diameter.  The density of rock was 2700 kilograms per cubic meter.  The diameter of the asteroid that made this crater was 17.5 kilometers.  That would put the volume at 2.81*10^12 cubic meters. 
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-  Mass  =  density * volume, therefore the mass was 7.6*10^15 kilograms.
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-  Volume  =  4/3 pi * r^3,  radius  =  17.5*10^3 meters / 2

-  Mass  =  (2.7*10^3  kg/m^3)  *  (2.8*10^12 m^3) =  7.58*10^15  kilograms
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-   Kinetic Energy = ½ mass* velocity^2.  The velocity was 20,000 meters per second.  The Kinetic Energy of the impact was 1.52*10^24 kilogram*meter^2 / second^2, or, 1.52*10^24 joules.
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-   One ton, 2,000 pounds, of TNT releases 4.2*10^9 joules of energy.  The impact was equivalent to 360 trillion tons of TNT. 
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-  A magnitude 7 earthquake is 10^15 joules.  Therefore, this impact was equivalent to 5 magnitude 7 earthquakes going off all at once.  An atomic bomb is 8*10^17 joules, therefore, the impact was equivalent to 2 million atomic bombs going off all at once.  No wonder it killed off all the dinosaurs.
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-  University of Maryland discovered the oldest asteroids to date.  Visible and infrared data collected found 3 times as much calcium and aluminum as the oldest known meteorites.  Scientists believe that calcium and aluminum were among the first elements to condense for the young Solar System’s swirling gas disk.
-
-   The older the asteroid the more calcium and aluminum it should contain.  Their calculations put the age at 4,550,000,000 years.  The names of the asteroids are 387 Aquitania, 980 Anacostia, and 234 Barbara.
-
-   If we could learn more from these asteroids we could better understand how the planets formed in our early Solar System.
- 
-  An asteroid is going to hit our planet, Earth.  It is not an if, it is a when.  Astronomers are tracking Near Earth Asteroids, NEAs.  There are many, and each one needs to be identified with an orbit trajectory to learn if it will be a threat.
-
-  So, what can we do about it?  The first idea was to send a rocket to intercept it carrying a nuclear warhead.  Blow the asteroid to smithereens.  So, instead of a big rock heading towards us we have a million small one.  Like buckshot from a shotgun there is still a lot of damage heading our way.  What then?
-
-  Then, don’t us a big bomb use a small one.  One just the right size to vaporize some of the surface on one side of the asteroid and deflect it off course.  The trick is to get just the right size.  The bomb could still launch some small rocks that are still heading our way even though the big rock is deflected off its trajectory.
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-  Ok, then use a bunch of small bombs.  Like shooting the asteroid with a pellet gun.  Not enough to damage anything but repeated boosts that eventually redirect to asteroid’s trajectory.  Calculations are that a one mile per hour impact could direct an asteroid 170,000 miles off course if we started hitting it 20 years before it got here.
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-  Maybe we do not need bombs?   Maybe the solar wind could do the job?   Sunlight hitting a shiny white surface over a long period of time would redirect the asteroid.  We could just paint one side of the asteroid a shiny white.  Or, a matt black if we wanted sunlight absorption to be the redirecting force.  White paint or black paint, whatever, sunlight could push the asteroid out of our path.
-
- Painting may be messy.  Why not just install a giant mirror on the asteroid.   The Solar Wind pushing on the mirror would do the job of redirecting the rogue asteroid..  However, attaching anything to the surface of an asteroid might have the unintended consequence of dislodging boulders or smaller rocks that would still remain as buckshot heading our way.
-
-  What about replacing the solar sail with a solar net?  A 550 pound carbon fiber mesh could wrap around the asteroid.  The net material could absorb the amount of Sun radiation needed to redirect the asteroid off course.  The net would keep any buckshot from escaping from the asteroid.  The net would have to be installed at least 18 years in advance.
-
-  Or, instead of one giant mirror why not a number of mirrors in orbit about the asteroid.  The could be focused to beam sunlight on to the asteroid like a magnifying glass.  Vaporization on the surface would act as a thruster to send the asteroid off its course.
-
-  Some astronomers like the direct approach.  Just attach a rocket to the surface and light it off.  The giant rocket thrust will do the job.  Again, landing, attaching, and restraining a giant rocket is risky business.

-  Well the final suggestion is to just let it happen and use the time here on Earth to prepare for the impact.  Just like preparing for a nuclear holocaust.  Maybe a late redirect could cause the impact to be mid ocean instead of hitting a population center. 
-
-  It is not if, it is when will we face these decisions and what will we do?  Like dinosaurs we may give up the Earth and turn it over to the cockroaches, or, whatever survives the next mass extinction. 
-
-  In 1908 an asteroid 60 meters in diameter exploded above the ground over the Tunguska River in Central Siberia, Russia.
-
-  An asteroid named “ Eros” , 33,000 meters in diameter came within 20,000,000 miles as it zipped by Earth.
-
-  An asteroid 1,000 meters across has the explosive power of 20,000 megatons of TNT.  An asteroid that size is projected to hit Earth every few million years, on average.
-
-  Smaller asteroids are more numerous.  A 100 meter rock ( 20 megatons TNT) is projected to hit us every 100 years, on average.
-
-  The Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatan, Mexico, is 100 kilometers across.  It was caused by an asteroid impact 17,500 miles across.
-
------------------  The Density of this rock was 2,700 kilograms / cubic meter.
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------------------  The Volume was 2.81 * 10^12 cubic meters
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------------------  Mass  =  Density * Volume
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------------------  The mass was 7.6*10^15 kilograms
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------------------  Kinetic Energy  =  ½ mass * (velocity)^2
-
------------------ The Velocity was 20,000 meters / second ( 45,000 miles per hour)
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------------------  The Kinetic Energy was 1.52*10^24 joules
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------------------  One ton of TNT releases 4,200,000,000 joules of energy
-
------------------  The Chicxulub impact was equivalent to 300 trillion tons of TNT
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------------------  A magnitude 7 Earthquake is 10^15 joules. 
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------------------  Therefore, the Chicxulub impact was equivalent to five magnitude 7 earthquakes going off all at once.
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------------------  It was equivalent to 2,000,000 atomic bombs exploding at the same time.
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------------------  No wonder it killed off all the dinosaurs.
-
-  Other Reviews you might be interested in.  Request number:
- 
-  2296  -  Asteroids are rocky world orbiting our Sun.  Asteroids can reach as large as Ceres that is 583 miles across.  More than 150 asteroids are known t have companion moons.  Ironically, the collisions that could mean death to humans may be the same reason we are alive today.
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-  2250  -  Asteroid visits and impacts.  We had a spacecraft visit the asteroid Itokawa in 2005 and the asteroids Ryugu and Bennu in 2019.
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-  2226  Asteroid Ryugu.  Spacecraft landed on the surface on September 2018.  What have we learned?
-
-  2209  Asteroid Oumuamua is from another sola system outside our own. 
-  2203  Asteroid Bennu.  Arrived December 2019 and will inspect every square inch of the asteroid before returning home in 2023. 
-  2044  -  Oumuamua is a needle shaped asteroid that will exit solar system. This Review lists 15 other reviews about asteroids.
-  1923  -  When will the big one hit?  In 2017 50 asteroids passed us at a distance closer than our Moon. 
-  1825  -  Asteroids responsible for evolution on Earth?
-  1554  -  Asteroids are fossils with stories.
-  1375  -  There is an asteroid following us in orbit.
-  1309  -  Vesta and Ceres get a visit from the Dawn spacecraft.
-  1296  -  When an asteroid hit Manson , Iowa?
-  1265  -  Ths asteroid missed us, in 2011.
-   913  -  Apophis and other killer asteroids.
-   635  -  Asteroid Apophis  arrived in 2006
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-   January 24, 2020                                    1193           938             2595                                                                                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Saturday, January 25, 2020  -------------------------
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ATOM - what happens inside atoms?

-   2594 -  ATOM  -  what happens inside atoms?  No one really knows what happens inside an atom.  Electrons orbit around in "orbitals" around  an atom's outer shell. There's a whole lot of empty space between the electrons and the nucleus.  Right in the center of that empty space there is a tiny nucleus.  The nucleus is a dense knot of protons and neutrons that give the atom most of its mass.
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-

-
-------------------- 2594 -  ATOM  -  what happens inside atoms? 
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-  Those protons and neutrons cluster together, bound by what's called the strong force. And the numbers of  protons and neutrons determine whether the atom is iron or oxygen or xenon, and whether it's radioactive or stable.
-
-  No one knows how those protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) behave inside an atom. Outside an atom, protons and neutrons have definite sizes and shapes. Each of them is made up of three smaller particles called quarks, and the interactions between those quarks are so intense that no external force should be able to deform them, not even the powerful forces between particles in a nucleus.
-
-  But for decades, researchers have known that the theory is in some way wrong. Experiments have shown that, inside a nucleus, protons and neutrons appear much larger than they should be. Physicists have developed two competing theories that try to explain that weird mismatch.
-
-  Since at least the 1940s, physicists have known that nucleons move in tight little orbitals within the nucleus. The nucleons, confined in their movements, have very little energy. They are restrained by the “strong force“.
-
-  In 1983, physicists at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) noticed something strange: Beams of electrons bounced off iron in a way that was very different from how they bounced off free protons. That was unexpected; if the protons inside hydrogen were the same size as the protons inside iron, the electrons should have bounced off in much the same way.
-
-  Over time, scientists came to believe it was a size issue. For some reason, protons and neutrons inside heavy nuclei act as if they are much larger than when they are outside the nuclei. Researchers call this phenomenon the EMC effect, after the European Muon Collaboration, the group that accidentally discovered it. It violates existing theories of nuclear physics.
-
-  While quarks, the subatomic particles that make up nucleons, strongly interact within a given proton or neutron, quarks in different protons and neutrons can't interact much with each other. The strong force inside a nucleon is so strong it eclipses the strong force holding nucleons to other nucleons.

And as long as nucleons stay in their orbitals, that's the case. However, recent experiments have shown that at any given time, about 20% of the nucleons in a nucleus are in fact outside their orbitals. Instead, they're paired off with other nucleons, interacting in "short range correlations.
-
-  Under those circumstances, the interactions between the nucleons are much higher-energy than usual. That's because the quarks poke through the walls of their individual nucleons and start to directly interact, and those quark-quark interactions are much more powerful than nucleon-nucleon interactions.
-
-  These interactions break down the walls separating quarks inside individual protons or neutrons. The quarks making up one proton and the quarks making up another proton start to occupy the same space. This causes the protons (or neutrons, as the case may be) to stretch and blur. They grow a lot, albeit for very short periods of time. That skews the average size of the entire cohort in the nucleus  producing the EMC effect.
-
-   QCD stands for quantum chromodynamics, the system of rules that govern the behavior of quarks.  The problem is that the complete QCD equations describing all the quarks in a nucleus are too difficult to solve. Modern supercomputers are about 100 years away from being fast enough for the task.  And even if supercomputers were fast enough today, the equations haven't advanced to the point where you could plug them into a computer.
-
-  The fields operate at such tiny distances that they're of negligible magnitude outside the nucleus, but they're powerful inside of it.  These force fields, which he calls "mean fields"  actually deform the internal structure of protons, neutrons and pions (a type of strong force-carrying particle).   Just like if you take an atom and you put it inside a strong magnetic field, you will change the internal structure of that atom.
-
-  Mean-field theorists think that possible short-range correlations likely explain some portion of the EMC effect.  The results of experiments in the next few years could resolve the question. An experiment underway at Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in Virginia that will move nucleons closer together, bit by bit, and allow researchers to watch them change. 
-
-  This "polarized EMC experiment"  would break up the effect based on the spin (a quantum trait) of the protons involved. It might reveal unseen details of the effect that could aid calculations.
-
-  Other Reviews to help you learn about atoms:
-
-   2377 - ATOM  -  defining the atom  All the other elements in the periodic table above hydrogen and helium were created in the nuclear fusion of the stars  The first stars formed with only hydrogen and helium.  When they burned all their fuel and exploded as supernova they splattered the surrounding space with all the atoms in the higher level elements. 
-
-  2452  -  ATOMS  -Michael Discovers Atoms.  -  My grandson, Michael, was looking at pond water under his microscope.  He could see small plants and animals moving around in the water.  But, he also saw all the little pieces of dust jiggling, almost vibrating, in a zigzag manner.  He asked me what causes everything to move like that?
-
-  2333  -  Rainbows can tell us what the Universe is made of.  Introduction to the science of spectroscopy.
-  2318  -  Brownian motion from atoms you can not see.
-  2315  -  About how atoms were first discovered.
-  2307 -  How small is the atom?
-  2255  -  History of the atom. 
-  2256  - Atom’s stability and uncertainty?
-   983  -  How an atom works?  All the math formulas.
-   985  -  Measuring how an atom works?
-   924  -  Rutherford’s atom.   How the atom was discovered in 1911. 
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-  January 23, 2020                                                                         2594                                                                                 
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 ---------------------          Friday, January 24, 2020    --------------------
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BLACKHOLE - new techniques to study?

-   2593  -   BLACKHOLE  -  new techniques to study?   In 2019 astronomers unveiled the first direct picture of a black hole. Now, astronomers have used a different technique involving x-ray “echoes” to peer even closer the edge of a black hole
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-------------------- 2593 -  BLACKHOLE  -  new techniques to study? 
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-  When I first became interested in astronomy black holes existed only in theory.  None had been identified in astronomy observations.  Not even the massive black hole at the center of our Milky Way Galaxy was known..  Today hundreds of black holes have been found and are being studied.
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-  A black hole sits in the middle of a galaxy about a billion light-years away. The supermassive object is surrounded by a swirling disk of million-degree matter with an x-ray corona having a temperature exceeding a billion degrees.
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-  By charting how those x-rays are created gives us an extremely detailed map of the region around the black hole’s event horizon, the zone beyond which not even light can escape.
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-  Black holes don’t give off any light themselves, so the only way we can study this is by watching what matter does as it falls onto it.  The new measurements of the black hole helped scientists pin down its mass and spin, properties that can reveal vital clues about the black hole’s evolution. Understanding the spin distribution of black holes in many galaxies tells us about how we go from the early universe to the population we see today.
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-  This is an active galaxy, meaning that its innermost region shines more brightly than can be explained by stars alone, and its x-ray brightness fluctuates by a factor of 50, sometimes over just a few hours.
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- An Earth-orbiting telescope that studies the cosmos in x-rays, XMM-Newton stared at the distant galaxy over the course of 16 orbits,  totaling more than 550 hours, between 2011 and 2016.   From those many hours’ worth of data scientists assembled a map of the supermassive black hole’s x-ray corona and its accretion disk, a ring of swirling matter that’s just outside the event horizon.
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-  Some of the emitted x-rays head directly into the cosmos, but others slam into the accretion disk and take a little longer to exit the immediate environment.  This extra path length causes a time delay between the x-rays that were produced originally in the corona.  this echo time delay is called a “reverberation.”
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-  Reverberation mapping, helped the scientists probe the gassy material around the black hole. The technique can be compared to the process to echolocation, in which animals such as bats bounce sound off objects to help them navigate in flight.
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-  Reverberation mapping doesn't rely on spatial resolution , instead, it uses light echoes within the object to tell us about structures, even very small and very far away ones.  The light echoes determine the precise geometry of the material surrounding the black hole, including the dimensions of its dynamic x-ray corona, which powers those echoes. This information is used to calculate the black hole’s mass and spin, two properties that do not fluctuate on human timescales.
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-  Based on the new mapping, the team concluded that this supermassive black hole contains as much mass as two million suns, and that it is spinning nearly as fast as it possibly can without breaking the laws of physics.
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-  Every large galaxy in the universe is likely anchored to a central supermassive black hole. Deciphering the ways in which those black holes form could offer clues to how they, and their host galaxies, originally formed and evolved over the age of the universe.
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-  One way in which galaxies could form involves multiple small galaxies colliding and merging. As these galaxies merge, so do their central black holes. If those collisions are chaotic, they could not only contribute to the resulting bigger black hole’s mass, but also to the way it spins.
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-  Another way in which black holes might bulk up is through a continual stream of inflowing gas.
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-  Astronomers would like to use reverberation mapping to pin down the spins of hundreds of nearby supermassive black holes, in effect taking a census of these objects. Then, based on how far away those black holes are, scientists can look at how galaxies grew across the age of the universe.
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- The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration released the first image of a black hole with observations of the massive, dark object at the center of Messier 87 in April, 2019. This black hole has a mass of about 6.5 billion times that of the Sun and is located about 55 million light years from Earth. The black hole has been called M87* by astronomers and has recently been given the Hawaiian name of "Powehi."
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-  For years, astronomers have observed radiation from a jet of high energy particles powered by the black hole blasting out of the center of M87. They have studied the jet in radio, optical, and X-ray light, including with Chandra. By using Chandra observations, researchers have seen that sections of the jet are moving at nearly the speed of light.
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-  When matter gets close enough to a black hole, it enters into a swirling pattern called an accretion disk. Some material from the inner part of the accretion disk falls onto the black hole and some of it is redirected away from the black hole in the form of narrow beams, or jets, of material along magnetic field lines. Because this infall process is irregular, the jets are made of clumps or knots that can sometimes be identified with Chandra and other telescopes.
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-  The researchers used Chandra observations from 2012 and 2017 to track the motion of two X-ray knots located within the jet about 900 and 2,500 light years away from the black hole. The X-ray data show motion with apparent speeds of 6.3 times the speed of light for the X-ray knot closer to the black hole and 2.4 times the speed of light for the other.
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- Superluminal motion occurs when objects are traveling close to the speed of light along a direction that is close to our line of sight. The jet travels almost as quickly towards us as the light it generates, giving the illusion that the jet's motion is much more rapid than the speed of light. In the case of M87*, the jet is pointing close to our direction, resulting in these exotic apparent speeds.
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-   The astronomers observed that the feature moving with an apparent speed of 6.3 times the speed of light also faded by over 70% between 2012 and 2017. This fading was likely caused by particles' loss of energy due to the radiation produced as they spiral around a magnetic field. For this to occur the team must be seeing X-rays from the same particles at both times, and not a moving wave.
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-   The size of the ring around the black hole seen with the Event Horizon Telescope is about a hundred million times smaller than the size of the jet seen with Chandra.  The EHT observed M87 over six days in April 2017, giving a recent snapshot of the black hole. The Chandra observations investigate ejected material within the jet that was launched from the black hole hundreds and thousands of years earlier.
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-  Astronomers recently found another black hole so big that theory strains to explain it.  A stellar-mass black hole was discovered that appears to be 68 times more massive than Earth's sun,  nearly three times bigger than the heaviest such objects should exist, according to theory.
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-  Calculations suggest that the Milky Way galaxy's stellar-mass black holes, which form after the violent deaths of giant stars, should top out at only 25 times the mass of the Sun.  Although supermassive black holes, not stellar-mass blackholes,  that lurk at the hearts of galaxies are much bigger, containing millions or billions of solar masses.
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-  This huge black hole is also relatively close to Earth in cosmic terms. It sits at 13,800 light-years from our planet, a small fraction of the Milky Way's estimated diameter of 200,000 light-years.  Black holes of such mass should not even exist in our galaxy.
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-  Very massive stars with the chemical composition typical of our galaxy must shed most of their gas in powerful stellar winds, as they approach the end of their life. Therefore, they should not leave behind such a massive remnant.
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-  Most black holes are found via their dramatic activity in X-rays or gamma rays, which are emitted as the black hole swallows up nearby gas and dust.   Stars that are orbiting inactive black holes indicate their presence apparent only by their gravitational pull.  A star called LB-1 is eight times the mass of the Sun and appears to orbit a black hole every 79 days, even though the black hole isn't visible.
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-  The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) and Virgo gravitational-wave detectors have begun to catch ripples in space-time caused by collisions of black holes in distant galaxies. The black holes involved in such collisions are also much bigger than what was previously considered typical.
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-  Astronomy has come a long way studying something we can not see.   The trick is to use these new type of telescopes sensitive to much more of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Also, get these instruments in orbit above our atmosphere that acts as a filter for much of the radiation.  Lucky for us.
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-  January 23, 2020                                                                         2593                                                                                 
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------          Thursday, January 23, 2020    --------------------
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SUN - the Sun Contains the Periodic Table?

-   2592  -  SUN  -  This review discusses how the stars and the Sun formed the elements in the Periodic Table.  You will learn how elements are identified in the stars.  Discoveries are made in the stars that are later reproduced in the laboratories on Earth.  Discoveries of the abundance of elements in the Sun tell astronomers about the evolution of the Universe.
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-------------------- 2592  -  SUN   -  the Sun Contains the Periodic Table?
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-    Does the Sun contain all the elements in the Periodic Table, or, is it just made of  hydrogen and helium?  Well, for sure the Sun is mostly hydrogen because that is the fuel for the fusion into helium that creates all the energy we live by.  The Sun should have enough hydrogen to burn for another 5,000,000,000 years.
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-   All the stars in the night sky are doing the same thing, fusing hydrogen into helium.  In fact, that is what the Big Bang did as well.  It started out with Quarks and Leptons, fused to Protons and Neutrons, and then to hydrogen, helium and lithium.  But, that is it.  The Big Bang expansion was so fast that when it got to lithium more fusion stopped.
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-  Lithium has three protons in the nucleus and is considered one of the light elements.  Each of the elements in the Periodic Table contain more protons in their nucleus.  How did the heavier elements get created?  And, does our Sun create these heavier elements?
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-  Yes, our Sun does,  but, only up to Carbon and Oxygen once all the hydrogen fuel runs out these are the last fusion elements.  Do the bigger stars create these heavier elements?  Yes, but even the biggest stars only fuse elements up to Iron then fusion stops because Iron will not participate in “fusion” reactions.
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-  Then, how did the heaviest elements get created?  The heaviest elements were created when the stars exploded into supernovae!  Does our Sun contain these heavier elements?  Yes,  if it acquired them from other Supernovae.  It will not become a supernova itself because it is not big enough.  Let’s start with what is going on in the Sun.  The simple version first before it gets more complicated:
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-  The Sun is a giant ball of Hydrogen gas that creates radiation energy by fusing Hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei. A Helium nucleus is 2 protons and 2 neutrons but it is slighter lighter than two Hydrogen isotope nuclei, called Deuterium, with 1 proton and 1 neutron.
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-  Two Deuterium are 0.7% lighter than one Helium nucleus.  That 0.7% of mass got converted into energy when the fusion into Helium occurred.  E = mc^2.  Mass was converted into energy according to this equation that everybody knows.  The fusion occurs at the center of the Sun where the temperature is in the millions of degrees.
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-  The energy in the form of Gamma Rays released by the fusion reaction has to fight its way to the surface against the enormous gravity and through all the collisions with other hydrogen atoms.  It looses so much energy in this journey to the surface the radiation energy leaving the surface is much lower in energy and longer in wavelength , closer to greenish blue light.
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-  That greenish blue light travels to Earth in about 8 minutes covering the 93,000,000 miles.  When it strikes Earth’s atmosphere the blue light gets filtered out creating our blue skies.  The sunlight that reaches the surface is more yellow in wavelength.  We always color the Sun yellow when we are in kindergarten.
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-  But, things are more complicated than this.  There is much more happening in the Sun and much more than greenish blue light hit’s the Earth.  The full range of the electromagnetic spectrum is present to various degrees.  And, there are fundamental particles striking Earth as well as radiation.  Electrons, positrons,  protons in the form of low energy Cosmic Rays.  Neutrinos in the trillions.
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-   See Review 1219 to learn more about neutrinos that are striking the Earth.
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- And, the Sun is more complicated than just Hydrogen gas being converted into Helium.  The Sun was born 4,600,000,000 years ago.  It contains all the elements that were in the Interstellar Medium at the time it was formed.  It would be interesting to know in what proportions all the elements in the Periodic Table were in existence at that time.  We could tell a lot about the evolution of the Universe and all the other stars if we had this data on the Sun.
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-  Our Sun was an intergalactic gas cloud back then.  It started out as gas and dust called the Interstellar Medium.  The makeup of the medium is what should be the makeup of the Sun we see today.  Assuming no particular elements were created or destroyed by the Sun in the meantime.
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-  The Big Bang started out with immense temperatures and cooled as it expanded.  It expanded and cooled so fast that protons and neutrons only had time to form the three lightest elements, hydrogen(1), helium(2), and lithium(3).  The numbers in the parentheses are the number of protons in each nucleus.
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-   All the elements that are heavier, that contain more protons in their nucleus, were formed in the stars that gravity created some 100,000,000 years after the Big Bang.  If our Sun was born among these first stars it would contain only these three elements.  Heavier elements were created in the nuclear fusion in these first stars and in the supernovae explosions that occurred when they died.
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-  There are two types of supernovae explosions.  Stars are born due to a slight over density in the giant molecular clouds of the Interstellar Medium.  The densities are created by shockwaves, sound waves, magnetic field intensities, gravity from other masses, or some other medium turbulences.
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-   Once a denser region is formed gravity takes over to make it even denser.  Within only 1,000,000 years the dust and gas cloud can condense into a spinning protostar with a circumstellar disk.
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-   Gravity continues to compress the core into it reaches temperatures of 1,000,000 degrees.  At these temperatures the isotope of hydrogen, deuterium, begins to fuse into helium and the protostar begins to shine.  Deuterium is one proton and one neutron.
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-  Gravity continues to compress the core of the star until it reaches 10,000,000 degrees and then hydrogen nuclei (protons) can fuse directly into helium.  At this point the radiation energy comes into perfect balance with gravity and a stable star is formed.  As long as the hydrogen fusion continues the star lives a long life.
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-  The first stars formed  were massive and did not live a very long life, maybe only 10,000,000 years before a supernovae death.  All their hydrogen burned so quickly because they were so bright.  All the hydrogen fused into helium, the helium into carbon and Oxygen, into Neon and right up the Periodic Table until the fusion process reached the heaviest element Iron.
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-   Iron fusion absorbs energy rather that emitting energy.  Fusion stops.  There is no radiation left to balance the compressing force of gravity.  The star collapses.  The collapsing energy rebounds at the core into a giant explosion called a Supernova Type I.
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-  The explosion spreads its gas and dust into the interstellar medium to form new stars.  This time the medium contains the heavier elements.  If our Sun was formed at this time it would contain whatever abundance of elements that existed after the first big stars exploded.
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-  The Universe was still expanding and cooling.  The next generation of stars were more diverse in mass.  Not all were giants but there were many smaller stars like our Sun that live longer lives, say 15,000,000,000 years.  For smaller stars that do not burn so hot or so fast their hydrogen fuels lasts a long time.  When their hydrogen runs out their fusion stops with Carbon and Oxygen because they do not have enough gravity to fuse heavier elements.
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-    Stars the size of our Sun will die as Planetary Nebulae with a core called a White Dwarf made of Carbon and Oxygen.  It is not the radiation pressure that is keeping White Dwarfs from further collapse but the pressure of the electrons in the atoms themselves.  If they collapse further the electrons collapse as well into the protons to form neutrons and a Neutron Star.
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-  This can happen if a White Dwarf acquires more mass.  Often in the early denser Universe stars there were companion stars orbiting each other around a center of gravity.  When binary stars were close enough the larger star would draw gas and mass from the smaller star.  When the larger star reached 1.4 Solar Mass the electrons collapsed creating the second type of Supernovae Type Ia.
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-  The more of these Supernovae that occurred the more of the heavier elements that were spread though out the Interstellar Medium.  Elements heavier that iron were fused inside the immense shockwaves of these explosions.  If our Sun were born at this time It would contain all the elements of the Periodic Table.  So, does it?  How do we find out?
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-  We find out what elements are in the Sun and the stars by using spectrum analysis.  We shine sunlight through a prism and spread the spectrum of light out to where we can identify the individual wavelengths of light.  The spectrum runs from radio waves to Gamma Rays, from the biggest wavelengths to the smallest wavelengths.
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-  When we do this we see that the spectrum is not continuous as it should be.  There are dark lines of missing wavelengths.  This means that that particular wavelength has been absorbed in its journey from the core of the Sun to the surface of the Earth.  Each absorption line is unique to the particular element or atom that absorbed it.
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-  An atom is a proton with an orbiting electron.  Each element has a different number of protons and that number of electrons.  Heavier elements have more protons in the nucleus and more electrons in the orbiting shells around the nucleus.  Each shell is at a unique energy level for each electron.
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-  If a light photon strikes an atom and an electron absorbs the energy of that particular photon the electron jumps to that particular shell with that particular energy.  Each is unique so each of the dark absorption lines in the spectrum is unique for each element.  The electrons will drop back to lower energy shells and emit the same amount of energy, or possibly a lower amount of energy if the drop is first to intermediate shells.  The absorption and emission lines become fingerprints to identify  each particular element.
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-   Think of all the colors you see around you.  Each color is light of a different wavelength.  The colors that you see have been reflected or absorbed by different elements that make up different objects around you.  You do not see the absorbed wavelengths you do see the reflected wavelengths.
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-   So something that looks red really absorbed blue and you see it as red.  Sometimes the object absorbs light and the electron jumps to intermediate shells emitting lower energy light in the form of infrared.  You can not see infrared but you can feel it.  Put your hand on the object and it fells warm.  What you are seeing and feeling is your bodies form of spectrum analysis.
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-  Amazing as our bodies are we operate on a very limited part of the electromagnetic spectrum. ( Light is 390, extreme violet, to 780 nanometers, extreme red, infrared wavelengths cover the range from 780 to 100,000,000 nanometers.  The electromagnetic spectrum is charted from 100,000,000,000,000,000 nanometers, radio waves, to 0.0000001 nanometers, Gamma Rays. )
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-  So, what is the conclusion?  Does the Sun have all the elements of the Periodic Table or not?
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-  Well, yes it does.  But, the Sun is mostly hydrogen and it will be burning up that hydrogen at the rate of 4,000,000 tons per second for the next 5,000,000,000 years.
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---------------------  Helium is 8.5% the abundance of hydrogen.
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----------------------   Oxygen is next at 0.05% the abundance of hydrogen.
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----------------------    Next comes Carbon and Neon.
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----------------------   Next Nitrogen.
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---------------------  Lithium, Beryllium and Boron have very low concentrations because they are too light to participate in the fusion process.
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-  The even numbered atoms are more abundant that the odd numbered atoms because nature has a preference for protons in pairs in atomic nuclei.
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-  Of the 90 natural elements in the Periodic Table spectrum analysis has identified 64 to be in the Sun.
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-  Hydrogen(1) and Helium(2), and Lithium(30 came from the Big Bang.
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-  Stellar fusion has produced Carbon(6), Oxygen(8), and Iron (26).
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-  Giant stars and Supernovae nucleosynthesis have produced Copper(29), Silver(47), Platinum(78), Gold(79) , Mercury(80), Tin(50), Tantalum(73), Uranium(92).
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-  The numbers in prentices are the number of protons and electrons in each element .  Heavier elements add neutrons to the nucleus to make them heavier.  These very heavy elements decay back to less heavy elements through radioactive decay. Neutrons decay into protons in Beta Decay radiation.
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-  For example Uranium (92) will eventually decay back to Lead (82).  Many other heavier elements in the periodic are man-made and do not occur in nature as stable atoms.
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-  Science actually discovered helium(2) on the Sun before it was discovered in the laboratories on Earth.  New unknown spectral absorption lines were discovered in 1868 while astronomers were looking at a solar eclipse.  The Greek word for “helium” is the “Sun“.  It was not until 1898 that the helium gas was actually discovered to exist on Earth.
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-  Spectral lines also identify the velocity of stars, the temperature of stars,  the existence of binary stars, and so much more.  It is all in the details.  Our Universe is more complex that we can ever give it credit for.
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-  If you want to discover more learn more math and science. There lies the secret to discovering the Universe’s what, when, and how.  The why may be left to other studies outside of math and science.  Stay tuned.  Announcements will be made shortly.
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-  January 21, 2020                                              1220                     2592                                                                               
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------          Wednesday, January 22, 2020    --------------------
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