JimsAstronomy: October 2020

Saturday, October 31, 2020

SPACE - space station tragedies.

- 2884 - SPACE - space station tragedies. Most Western space enthusiasts remember the American Skylab space station, only some recall the long series of Soviet orbiting labs called the Salyut space stations. The last of these, Salyut 7, famously went silent in 1985, when a loss of power shut down all of its systems.

--------------------------- 2884 - SPACE - space station tragedies.

- But later that year in 1985, two cosmonauts risked their lives to revive the radio silent space station. Salyut, variously translated as “salute” or “firework,” was a Soviet program that ran from 1971 to 1986 and included the world’s first space station, Salyut 1.

- The Salyut space stations had both military and civilian applications, but they were largely designed to pioneer the technology required to build modular space habitats.

- In February, 1985, after hosting three cosmonaut crews, including one that stayed for 237 days, a record at the time, the vacant Salyut 7 space station started to experience trouble.

- Workers in the TsUP, the Soviet version of NASA’s Mission Control, noted that an over current had tripped a circuit breaker, which shut down the station's primary long-range radio transmitter.

- Ground controllers switched Salyut 7 to its backup transmitter, which seemed to solve the problem. However, a subsequent attempt to restart the primary transmitter created another over current that started a cascading series of electrical failures. Both radio transmitters, primary and backup, as well as the station’s radio receivers, ceased to work.

- Attempts to revive the station from the ground failed. Salyut 7 went silent. It began to slowly tumble. Making matters worse, the interior of the station rapidly lost heat, eventually reaching a frigid, yet stable, temperature of about –4 degrees Fahrenheit.

- Soviet engineers realized they had only two options: abandon Salyut 7 or mount a rescue mission.

- The Soviet's larger, more advanced “Mir space station” was still a work in progress. Waiting for Mir to launch would have meant putting all space work on hold for at least a full year. So, although a crewed rescue mission to Salyut 7 was a dangerous proposition, if successful, the Soviet's would save both time and money, as well as save face.

- The Soviets understood that docking a crewed Soyuz spacecraft with Salyut 7 was a supremely dangerous maneuver. A failed docking could cripple the Soyuz, stranding the crew in orbit, if not killing them outright.

- Soviet spacecraft usually depended on an automated docking system, but that relied on computers aboard both vessels being in constant communication with each other.

- Fortunately, cosmonaut Vladimir Dzhanibekov had previously performed a manual docking with the then functioning Salyut 7, which was partly why he was chosen to head the rescue mission. Cosmonaut Viktor Savinykh would accompany him.

- Dzhanibekov and Savinykh trained extensively on new protocols developed for the planned docking with the lifeless Salyut 7. And on June 6, 1985, the pair launched aboard Soyuz T-13.

- During a long, slow approach to the station, Dzhanibekov and Savinykh noticed that Salyut's solar arrays were no longer aligned with each other or the Sun, further confirming the severity of the damage.

- Fortunately the station’s rotation rate was manageable. And by using an optical rangefinder, Dzhanibekov manually nestled the Soyuz near Salyut 7, linking the two craft at the forward docking port.

- Firmly attached to Salyut 7, the cosmonauts' next task was to see if the station could be revived. If they couldn't resurrect Salyut 7 and its systems, they would have no choice but to return to Earth.

- By moving through a series of hatches, paying careful attention to equalize the pressures at each step, Dzhanibekov and Savinykh finally reached the work area of

Salyut 7.

- Due to the sub-zero temperature, the two cosmonauts donned wool hats and heavy winter coats. Dzhanibekov described the environment as “kolotoon," which is a slang term in Russian meaning extreme cold with harsh undertones.

- The station was dark. All of its water supplies had frozen. The instruments and walls were covered with a fine layer of frozen moisture, a picturesque scene that foretold the severe risk of an electrical short.

- The cosmonauts performed an analysis of the air quality aboard the station, confirming it was breathable, and opened the porthole shades to allow sunlight to help warm the station.

- Although Salyut 7 had no power, Dzhanibekov and Savinykh did find some operable batteries onboard. They connected them to the solar panels, and by using the Soyuz’s thrusters, they moved the entire station to properly align it with the Sun.

- Once the batteries charged up, Dzhanibekov and Savinykh began to bring Salyut 7’s vital systems back online. One at a time, they revived the lights, communications, water storage and delivery apparatus, and so on. Working tirelessly, and under the harshest of harsh conditions, Dzhanibekov and Savinykh astonishingly resuscitated all of Salyut 7 in just 10 days.

- With the station back up and running, the crew of Soyuz T-13 was no longer on a rescue mission. It was time for them to settle in. Dzhanibekov remained in orbit for 110 days, while Savinykh spent 168 days on the station. They returned home aboard different, subsequently launched, Soyuz flights.

- The rescue of Salyut 7 would serve as Dzhanibekov’s final space mission, though Savinykh would fly in space several more times.

- Salyut 7 was the last of the Salyut stations, remaining in space for six years after initially going dark. But as its orbit decayed, accelerated by solar activity, Salyut 7 eventually burned up over South America on February 7, 1991.

- The rescue of Salyut 7 has sometimes been compared to the ill-fated flight of Apollo 13. Both missions involved dead and freezing spacecraft that put human lives at risk, and both missions succeeded thanks to extensive coordination between astronauts / cosmonauts and ground controllers.

- Dzhanibekov and Savinykh had the advantage of a fully functioning Soyuz spacecraft, which could ferry them back them Earth at any time. Plus, the cosmonauts were working in Earth orbit, while Apollo 13 astronauts Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise were fighting to get home from the depths of lunar space.

- Both missions showcase the incredible fortitude humans are capable of, even while under extreme duress, when they have the proper support, guidance, and determination to succeed.

- And can you believe men and women still volunteer for these space missions? Loneliest place on Earth, oh, it is not on earth.

- Several space missions for both NASA and the USSR were not so fortunate and experienced deadly results. The Apollo 1 fire in January 1967, killed astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee.

- During a launch simulation, a stray spark within the cabin of the grounded spacecraft, which was filled with pure oxygen, ignited. This led to an uncontrollable fire that quickly overwhelmed the doomed crew, leading to their tragic deaths as they struggled in vain to open the pressurized hatch door.

- They had done exactly the same test the night before but without the hatch closed, so we weren’t on 100 percent oxygen. A little less than two years later, in October 1968, Cunningham, Wally Schirra, and Donn Eisele became the first Apollo crew to successfully venture into space.

- Over the next three years, Apollo astronauts completed seven more missions, including the first Moon landing during Apollo 11 and the ill-fated Apollo 13 mission.

- Then, on June 30, 1971, humankind witnessed the first deaths to occur in space, the Soyuz 11 disaster. The first space station to park itself above Earth's atmosphere was the USSR's Salyut 1, which launched (unmanned) on April 19, 1971.

- Just a few days later, a crew of three Soviets blasted off aboard Soyuz 10 with the goal of entering the space station and staying in orbit for a full month. Though the Soyuz 10 crew docked safely with the Salyut 1, issues with the entry hatch prevented them from entering the space station.

- During their premature return trip back to Earth, toxic chemicals leaked into the air supply of Soyuz 10, causing one cosmonaut to pass out. However, all three members of the crew ultimately made it home safe with no long-lasting effects.

- Just a few months later, on June 6, 1971, the Soyuz 11 mission was accessing the space station. Unlike the previous crew, the three Soyuz 11 cosmonauts, Georgi Dobrovolski, Vladislav Volkov, and Viktor Patsayev, successfully entered Salyut 1.

- They spent the next three weeks not only setting a new record for the longest time spent in space, but also carrying out loads of experiments focused on how the human body deals with extended periods of weightlessness.

- On June 29, 1971, the cosmonauts loaded back into the Soyuz 11 spacecraft and began their descent to Earth. And that's when tragedy struck. To those on the ground, everything about Soyuz 11's reentry seemed to go off without a hitch.

- The spacecraft appeared to make it through the atmosphere just fine, ultimately landing in Kazakhstan as planned. It wasn't until recovery crews opened the hatch that they discovered all three crew members inside were dead.

- Outwardly, there was no damage whatsoever. The recovery crew] knocked on the side, but there was no response from within. On opening the hatch, they found all three men in their couches, motionless, with dark-blue patches on their faces and trails of blood from their noses and ears. The cause of death was suffocation.

- The fatal accident was determined to be the result of a faulty valve seal on the spacecraft's descent vehicle that burst open during its separation from the service module.

- At an altitude of 104 miles, the deadly combination of a leaking valve and the vacuum of space rapidly sucked all the air out of the crew cabin, depressurizing it. And because the valve was hidden below the cosmonauts' seats, it would have been nearly impossible for them to fix the problem in time.

---------------------------------------- More about space, request number:

- 2802 - SPACE - hazards to avoid? Astronomers have been studying over 2,000 Pulsars and Magnetars and they have interesting stories. The names are not important but I will identify them just for your own research. There are so many hazards in outer space beginning with the vacuum of space.

- 2614 - SPACE - can space be warped? The predictions of Einstein’s general theory of relativity is that any spinning body drags the very fabric of space-time in its vicinity around with it. This is known as “frame-dragging”. Or, how space can be warped. Traveling is a straight line is not straight.

- 2404 - the vacuum of space.

- 2279 - inventions for earthlings.

- 2252 - what did we learn in space?

- 2243 - what is space really?

- 2224 - The year 2018 in space exploration.

- 2049 - the expanding space.

- 2029 - dust is outer space.

- 1986 - space is what separates things. Time is what keeps everything from happening all at once.

- 1831 - from Blackholes to empty space. From Blackholes to Empty Space? The center of a Blackhole is expected to be infinite density. The space between Blackholes is supposed to be an empty vacuum. Both offer mysteries yet to be discovered.

- 1790 - Space ant time must change as we approach the speed of light. Explains why space and time must change in order to adhere to the Theory of Relativity.

- 1773 - The size of space depends on you fast you are moving.

- 1407 - Space is in constant motion. Space is anything but empty

- 1241 - at the smallest levels things remain connected even though they are separated in space. How can space and time be related? They are connected by distance / time which is velocity. And velocity is limited to the speed of light, therefore space / time must vary.

- 1679 - Space dust

- 1242 How does Space-Time change at the micro-level. At the smallest scales things become bull’s eyes of wave patterns that spread effects over a range of probabilities.

- 1258 How much space is in our Solar System

- 781 Much todo about Nothing. The Universe is expanding and more “ nothing” is being created all the time.

- 588 - Gravity probe B

- October 30, 2020 2884

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Saturday, October 31, 2020 ---------------------------

Friday, October 30, 2020

GRAVITY - prove it travels at light speed?

- 2881 - GRAVITY - prove it travels at light speed? We can prove that light travels at 670,633,500 miles per hour. See my other reviews that cover LIGHT. This review, on GRAVITY, is about the speed of gravity. How do we prove that it to travels at the same light speed?

--------------------------- 2881 GRAVITY - prove it travels at light speed?

- Europe's “Galileo satellite navigation system” has now provided the physics community worldwide, the most accurate measurement ever made of how shifts in gravity alter the passing of time which is a key element of Einstein's Theory of General Relativity.

- The challenge here in physics is measuring with accuracy of the gravity-driven time dilation effect known as 'gravitational redshift.'

- The Galileo satellites carry the very high stabilities of onboard atomic clocks, the accuracies attainable in their orbit determination and the presence of laser-retro reflectors, which allow for the performance of independent and very precise orbit measurements from the ground are key to disentangle clock and orbit measurement errors.

- Galileo satellites 5 and 6 were delivered into faulty elongated orbits by a faulty Soyuz upper stage during their launch in 2014. This left them unable to view the entire Earth disc during the low point or perigee of their orbits, rendering their navigation payloads unusable, because they use an Earth sensor to center their signal beams.

- Subsequent orbital maneuvers succeeded in making their orbits more circular and their navigation payloads useable because they retained views of the entire Earth disc through each orbit. However their orbits remain elliptical compared to the rest of the Galileo constellation.

- These findings are the happy outcome of an unhappy accident: back in 2014 Galileo satellites 5 and 6 were stranded in incorrect orbits by a malfunctioning Soyuz upper stage, blocking their use for navigation. ESA flight controllers performed a daring salvage in space to raise the low points of the satellites' orbits and make them more circular.

- Once the satellites achieved views of the whole Earth disc their antennas could be locked on their earth antennas and their navigation payloads could be switched on. The satellites are today in use as part of Galileo search and rescue services while their integration as part of nominal Galileo operations is currently under final assessment by ESA and the European Commission.

- However, their orbits remain elliptical, with each satellite climbing and falling some 8,500 kilometers twice per day. It was these regular shifts in height, and therefore gravity levels, which made the satellites so valuable to gravity measurements.

- Albert Einstein predicted a century ago that time would pass more slowly close to a massive object, a finding that has since been verified experimentally several times, most significantly in 1976 when a hydrogen maser atomic clock on the Gravity Probe-A suborbital rocket was launched 10,000 kilometers into space, confirming Einstein's prediction to within 140 parts per million.

- Atomic clocks aboard navigation satellites must take into account the fact that they run faster up in orbit than down on the ground, amounting to a few tenths of a microsecond per day, which would result in navigation errors of around 10 kilometers daily, if uncorrected. Your location maps in navigation would be nearly worthless without these corrections.

- Periodic modulation of the gravitational redshift is created for one day's orbit of these eccentrically-orbiting Galileo satellites. Timekeeping of the passive hydrogen maser ,PHM, clocks aboard each Galileo are stable to one second in three million years and are kept from drifting by the worldwide Galileo ground constellation of atomic clocks.

- Observations focus then on the periods of time when the satellites were transmitting with PHM clocks and assess the quality of these precious data very carefully. Ongoing improvements in the processing and in particular in the modeling of the clocks might lead to even tightened results in the future.

- A key challenge over three years of work was to refine the gravitational redshift measurements by eliminating systematic effects such as clock error and orbital drift due to factors such as Earth's equatorial bulge, the influence of Earth's magnetic field, temperature variations, and, even the subtle but persistent push of sunlight itself, known as 'solar radiation pressure.'

- Careful and conservative modeling and control of these systematic errors has been essential, with stabilities down to four picoseconds over the 13 hours orbital period of the satellites; this is four millionth of one millionth of a second.

- It is not just the speed of gravity. We also had to learn how gravity affects the speed of light. Observations in astronomy are based on light emitted from stars and galaxies and, according to the general theory of relativity, the light will be affected by gravity.

- All interpretations in astronomy are based on the correctness of the theory of relatively, but it has never before been possible to test Einstein's theory of gravity on scales larger than the solar system.

- Now astrophysicists have managed to measure how the light is affected by gravity on its way out of galaxy clusters. The observations confirm these theoretical predictions. Observations of large distances in the universe are based on measurements of the redshift, which is a phenomenon where the wavelength of the light from distant galaxies is shifted more and more towards the red with greater distance.

- The redshift indicates how much the universe has expanded from when the light left until it was measured on Earth. Furthermore, according to Einstein's general theory of relativity, the light and thus the redshift is also affected by the gravity from large masses like galaxy clusters and causes a gravitational redshift of the light. But the gravitational influence of light has never before been measured on a cosmological scale.

- Measurements have been completed of light from galaxies in approximately 8,000 galaxy clusters. Galaxy clusters are accumulations of thousands of galaxies, held together by their own gravity. This gravity affects the light being sent out into space from the galaxies.

- The researchers have studied the galaxies lying in the middle of the galaxy clusters and those lying on the periphery and measured the wavelengths of the light. They measured small differences in the redshift of the galaxies and see that the light from galaxies in the middle of a cluster had to 'crawl' out through the gravitational field, while it was easier for the light from the outlying galaxies to emerge".

- Until now, the gravitational redshift has only been tested with experiments and observations in relation to distances her on Earth and in relation to the solar system. With this research the theory has been tested on a cosmological scale for the first time by analyzing galaxies in galaxy clusters in the distant universe.

- It is a large scale which is a factor 10^22 times greater (ten thousand billion billion times larger than the laboratory test). The observed data confirms Einstein’s general theory of relativity.

- The entire galaxy cluster's total mass gave the gravitational potential. By using the general theory of relativity calculations were made for the gravitational redshift for the different locations of the galaxies.

- The theoretical calculations of the gravitational redshift based on the general theory of relativity was in complete agreement with the astronomical observations. The analysis of observations of galaxy clusters show that the redshift of the light is proportionally offset in relation to the gravitational influence from the galaxy cluster's gravity, confirming the theory of relativity.

- In addition to the visible celestial bodies like stars, planets and galaxies, the universe consists of a large amount of matter, which researchers can work out that it must be there, but which cannot be observed as it neither emits nor reflects light.

- It is invisible and is therefore called ‘dark matter“. No one knows what dark matter is, but they know what the mass and thus the gravity must be. The new results for gravitational redshift do not change the researchers' modeling for the presence of dark matter.

- Another of the main components of the universe is ‘dark energy‘, which according to the theoretical models acts like a kind of vacuum that causes the expansion of the universe to accelerate.

- According to the calculations, which are based on Einstein's theory of relativity, dark energy constitutes 72 percent of the structure of the universe.

- Now the general theory of relativity has been tested on a cosmological scale and this confirms that the general theory of relativity works and that means that there is a strong indication for the presence of dark energy.

- The new gravitation results thus contribute a new piece of insight to the understanding of the hidden, dark universe and provide a greater understanding of the nature of the visible universe as well as our car navigation systems here on Earth.

- October 28, 2020 2881

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Friday, October 30, 2020 ---------------------------

Index of recent Reviews .

- Index of recent Reviews . Just request ye number or go on blog.

-- 2860 - DINOSAURS - more about Triceratops. This dinosaur's had those iconic horns and a spiky head plate. “Triceratops horridus” must have been an intimidating presence as it trampled across western North America in the late Cretaceous period, some 69,000,000 years ago.

- 2861 - DARK MATTER - how we know it is there? - The big idea of dark matter is that there’s something other than these known particles contributing in a significant way to the total amounts of matter in the Universe. We look at the motions of these objects, we look at the gravitational rules that govern orbiting bodies, whether something is bound or not, how it rotates, how structure forms, and we get a number for how much matter there has to be in there.

- 2862 - POCAHONTAS - don’t change history, learn from it. Pocahontas might be a household name, but that wasn’t her actual name. She was born in 1596, her real name was Amonute, and she also had the name Matoaka. Pocahontas was her nickname, which depending on who you ask means “playful one" or “ill-behaved child.”

- 2863 - MARS EXPLORATION - visits made to the red planet. NASA sent the Mars InSight to the Red Planet in 2018, and the spacecraft safely landed that November. As of early 2019, the lander was setting up its instruments to examine the interior of Mars. The next tranche of ExoMars is the Rosalind Franklin rover and its companion lander, which are scheduled to leave Earth in 2020.

- 2864 - ENCELADUS - Saturn’s moon? - Enceladus, named after one of the Giants in Greek mythology, has an icy surface that reflects 81 percent of the light falling on it. Saturn’s sixth-largest moon, Enceladus has a diameter of only 310 miles, and a mass less than 1/50,000 that of Earth.

- 2865 - BIG BANG - what really happened? For more than 50 years, we have had definitive scientific evidence that our Universe, as we know it, began with the hot Big Bang. The Universe is expanding, cooling, and full of clumps (like planets, stars, and galaxies) today because it was smaller, hotter, denser, and more uniform in the past.

- 2866 - BIG BANG - creations. - When I was first in school science believed that the universe has always existed and always will. Few people challenged this or even suspected it might not be true. That started to change in 1910 with the publication of Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity. This review discusses the discoveries this all started.

- 2867 - ATOM - and the electron cloud? The picture of the atom you were taught in high school is wrong, mainly because electrons aren’t point-like particles. Electrons are a‘fuzzy’ . They are tough to pin down due to their ‘Quantum Wave Function’, which is a complicated way of saying they exist as a field of “probability“, not as an individual particle.

- 2868 - PREHISTORIC ANIMALS - warm blooded success? - Mammals and birds today are warm-blooded, and this is often taken as the reason for their great success. The ancestors of both mammals and birds became warm-blooded at the same time, 250,000,000 years ago, in the time when life was recovering from the greatest mass extinction of all time.

- 2869 - EARTH - waster, water everywhere? There remains a number of mysteries on our planet including the elusive origin of the blue water on the Earth. Scientists have found the interstellar organic matter could produce an abundant supply of water by heating, suggesting that “organic matter” could be the source of terrestrial water.

- 2870 - WANKEL - new auto engine? Wankel rotary engine, invented in the 1950s and used today in sports cars, boats, and some aircraft. In the Wankel, a rounded triangle rotor spins in an eccentric orbit within an oval chamber, with each rotation producing three power strokes, where the engine generates force. New versions of this engine are on the horizon today

- 2871 - NOAH’S ARK - biblical story? Noah's Ark, set against God's decision to return Earth to its pre-creation state of watery chaos, has mystified generations. Some argue that a global flood had actually occurred at one point in ancient history

- 2872 - EXOPLANETS - discovering more planets. On October 20, 2020, scientists revealed a series of new discoveries made by NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS). The telescope that has spotted a number of strange new worlds circling star systems.

- 2873 - GAMMA RAYS - are photons Cosmic “Rays” are particles. Gamma ray mystery covering years of research? Gamma Rays are essentially high energy light. They started out with the Big Bang and have been loosing energy as they travel though an expanding Universe. But, they also include processes created by cosmic ray interactions with interstellar gas, supernova explosions and interactions of energetic electrons with magnetic fields.

- 2874 - ASTRONOMY - is universe expansion real? - When we study the Universe, there is a whole lot that doesn’t add up. All the matter we observe and infer, from planets, stars, dust, gas, plasma, and exotic states and objects, can’t account for the gravitational effects we see.

- 2875 - EARTH - climate change got us here? A coupled increase in atmospheric CO2 and decrease in surface ocean pH, global warming, changes in productivity and oxygen depletion have been reported worldwide, which suggests that the scenario outlined here may be relevant to understanding future environmental and climatic trends

.- 2876 - REDSHIFT - found in orbiting neutron stars? A theory in physics and astronomy predicted by Albert Einstein in 1906 has been verified using a double star system about 29,000 light years from Earth. This phenomenon in physics, called a 'gravitational redshift,' has been well documented in our Solar System, but it's been more elusive for the stars.

- 2877 - X-RAYS - from microscopes to telescopes. - Let’s look at a protein’s atom. A three-dimensional arrangement of atoms within a protein helps us to understand how it can perform its functions. The electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) has developed as a structural biology technique in X-ray crystallography and has been the only technique able to visualize individual atoms.

- 2878 - GRAVITY - mysteries in astronomy? - Gravity creates the supernovae. Supernova creates all the elements necessary for life. Explosions spread the life creating elements all over the cosmos. Gravity creates solar systems of stars and planets. Stars give us the energy for life. Life evolves on the rich elements in the planets. And the beat goes on!

- 2879 - REDSHIFTS - seeing back in time. The redshift tells us how old it is? The age of the Universe is 13,700,000,000 years. The oldest galaxy we can see formed 13,000,000,000 years ago. The Universe was only 5% of its current age when this galaxy formed. If a human was 80 years old it would be analogous to her viewing a picture of herself when she was only 4 years old. The most distant quasar galaxy had a redshift of 7. That means the signal left the galaxy 770,000,000 years after the Big Bang

- 2880 - ZEPTOSECONDS - how time flies? Since the spatial orientation of the hydrogen molecule was known the interference of the two electron waves was used to precisely calculate when the photon reached the first and when it reached the second hydrogen atom. That time? Two hundred and forty-seven zeptoseconds. The measurement is essentially capturing the speed of light within the molecule.

- 2882 - PHYSICS - the way I learned it? Physics is the science of nature. It is the study of the Universe’s matter, energy, motion and force. Matter and Energy are the same thing.

Energy = 90,000,000,000,000,000 * mass. ( E=mc^2).

- 2883 - BLACKHOLES - Black holes are scary? If you fell into a black hole left over when a star died, you would be shredded. The massive black holes seen at the center of all galaxies have insatiable appetites. Black holes are places where the laws of physics are obliterated.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

BLACKHOLES - Black holes are scary?

--------------------------- 2883 - BLACKHOLES - Black holes are scary?

- Halloween is a piece of cake. Nothing in the universe is scarier than a black hole.

- Black holes are regions in space where gravity is so strong that nothing can escape. The 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Roger Penrose for his mathematical work showing that black holes are an inescapable consequence of Einstein’s theory of gravity. A massive black hole sits at the center of our galaxy.

- Super massive black holes lurk at the center of galaxies. Most of the time they are inactive, but when they are active and eat stars and gas, the region close to the black hole can outshine the entire galaxy that hosts them.

- Galaxies where the black holes are active are called “quasars“. Black holes are expected to form when a massive star dies. After the star’s nuclear fuel is exhausted, its core collapses to the densest state of matter imaginable, a hundred times denser than an atomic nucleus.

- The center is so dense that protons, neutrons and electrons are no longer discrete particles. Since black holes are dark, they are found when they orbit a normal star. The properties of the normal star allow astronomers to infer the properties of its dark companion, a black hole.

- The first black hole to be confirmed was Cygnus X-1, the brightest X-ray source in the Cygnus constellation. Since then, about 50 black holes have been discovered in systems where a normal star orbits a black hole. They are the nearest examples of about 10 million Blackholes that are expected to be scattered through the Milky Way.

- Black holes are tombs of matter; nothing can escape them, not even light. The fate of anyone falling into a black hole would be a painful “spaghettification,” an idea popularized by Stephen Hawking in his book “A Brief History of Time.” In spaghettification, the intense gravity of the black hole would pull you apart, separating your bones, muscles, sinews and even molecules.

- The black hole at the center of galaxy M87 is outlined by emission from hot gas swirling around it under the influence of strong gravity near its event horizon.

- Over the past 30 years, observations with the Hubble Space Telescope have shown that all galaxies have black holes at their centers. Bigger galaxies have bigger black holes.

- Nature knows how to make black holes over a staggering range of masses, from star corpses a few times the mass of the Sun to monsters tens of billions of times more massive.

- In 2019 astronomers published the first-ever picture of a black hole and its event horizon, a 7-billion-solar-mass beast at the center of the M87 elliptical galaxy.

It’s over a thousand times bigger than the black hole in our galaxy.

- These black holes are dark most of the time, but when their gravity pulls in nearby stars and gas, they flare into intense activity and pump out a huge amount of radiation.

- Massive black holes are dangerous in two ways. If you get too close, the enormous gravity will suck you in. And if they are in their active quasar phase, you’ll be blasted by high-energy radiation.

- Quasars are the brightest objects in the universe. These super massive black holes are strange. The biggest black hole discovered so far weighs in at 40 billion times the mass of the Sun, or 20 times the size of the solar system.

- Whereas the outer planets in our solar system orbit once in 250 years, this much more massive object spins once every three months. Its outer edge moves at half the speed of light.

- Like all black holes, the huge ones are shielded from view by an event horizon. At their centers is a “singularity“, a point in space where the density is infinite. We can’t understand the interior of a black hole because the laws of physics break down. Time freezes at the event horizon and gravity becomes infinite at the singularity.

- The good news about massive black holes is that you could survive falling into one. Although their gravity is stronger, the stretching force is weaker than it would be with a small black hole and it would not kill you.

- The bad news is that the event horizon marks the edge of the abyss. Nothing can escape from inside the event horizon, so you could not escape or report on your experience. So, who really knows, and I can get away with telling you this.

- According to Stephen Hawking, black holes are slowly evaporating. In the far future of the universe, long after all stars have died and galaxies have been wrenched from view by the accelerating cosmic expansion, black holes will be the last surviving objects.

- The most massive black holes will take an unimaginable number of years to evaporate, estimated at 10 to the 100th power, or 10 with 100 zeroes after it. The scariest objects in the universe are almost eternal.

----------------- Other reviews about mysterious Blackholes, request number to get a copy:

- 2593 - BLACK HOLE - new techniques to study? In 2019 astronomers unveiled the first direct picture of a black hole. Now, astronomers have used a different technique involving x-ray “echoes” to peer even closer the edge of a black hole

- 2573 - BLACKHOLES - everything we know? Blackholes are some of the strangest phenomena in our universe. One natural question to ask is how does Albert Einstein’s theory describe space and time around a massive spherical object like a star? The solution to this was found by Karl Schwarzschild. It is valid all around any static round object and, remarkably, only depends on its mass. That alone can define a black hole.

- 2461 -- BLACKHOLES - first discoveries? Astronomers have discovered a strange black hole-star pair, a finding that could open our eyes to millions of new black holes that have been hidden in the cosmos. Astronomers have assumed that there are millions of these black holes in our Milky Way galaxy alone.

- 2433 - Dark matter and blackholes.

- 2338 - It is easy to claim you took a picture of a black hole because there is nothing to see. Its not just black it is blank. But, astronomers claim they have taken that first picture. What they took was a picture of the hot visible accretion surrounding the Black hole. But, it is a first! Here is how it was done:

- 2331 - How the picture was taken? Actually, we can not see a black hole because no light escapes to see it with. You can not see a shadow either but you see the boundary of light round it. This is how we “see” a black hole . We see the accretion disk of hot material emitting light surrounding the black hole. We see the boundary not the black hole itself. It was not easy but here is how astronomers saw their first black hole

- 2090 - Blackholes and white holes?

- 2022 - Blackholes how to measure their mass? The more distant galaxies are more challenging. New techniques must be used to measure radius and rotation because they are so far away. A breakthrough was the finding of two blackholes orbiting each other

- 2020 - Blackholes, when did they first appear? How did the first stars form and how did they create the first blackholes, called quasars? How old was the Universe when these first stars happened? How are colliding blackholes and detecting gravitational waves helping in our understanding the birth of the universe?

- 1936 - Are there rogue Blackholes? Could primordial Blackholes be roaming our galaxy and could they explain the 26% of Dark Matter in the Universe? Massive Blackholes are at the center of most galaxies. Could smaller Blackholes be at the center of dwarf galaxies? Gravitational waves may be the new way to find some answers.

- 1918 - Blackholes and Galaxies? How do galaxies evolve? Which came first the central Black hole or the galaxy? Is there a direct correlation between the size of the central Black hole and the size of the galaxy ?

- 1908. - How the mass of a black hole is calculated?

- 1926. - Are there rogue blackholes wandering through our galaxy? Are there blackholes that we calling Dark Matter?

- 1891 - The Black hole is inescapable for stars greater than 20 Solar Mass. Blackholes are the evolution of natural stages in physics and astronomy. They are inevitable outcomes of interactions of mass and energy in the Universe. The mystery remains, what happens after the Black hole?

- 1882 - Could Blackholes explain Dark Matter? More evidence that an expanding Universe is accelerating, but, also that super massive Blackholes are suppressing new star formation. A new theory has galaxies embedded in a halo of Blackholes that could account for Dark Matter.

- 1869 - Black hole mysteries, how big can they get? How do you calculate their mass? Is the firewall of destruction actually visible? Can entangled particles actually escape the Black hole?

- 1843 - Great Walls in space with Blackholes. Are there really holes in the Universe? Are there complete voids of only empty space? How to calculate and measure the rotation rate of Blackholes.

- 1819 - The history of discovery of Blackholes. This review also lists 21 other Reviews on the subject of Blackholes.

- 1753 - At the Event Horizon the spin would drag along space-time. Space-time would be distorted like a spoon spinning in honey.

- 1646 - Schwarzschild Radius of a Black hole defines the Event Horizon is equal.

R = 2* G * M / c^2. Our Milky Way Galaxy Black hole has a 7,000,000 mile radius, and weighs 4 million Solar Mass.

- 1628 - The math says that a 1 Solar Mass Black hole, our Sun, ( not rotating and not electrically charged) has a radius of 1.86 miles.

- 1657 - Gravity slows down clocks, it is stronger than Time. The Black hole at the center of our Galaxy has orbiting stars that measure unseen mass to be 4,300,000 Solar Mass.

- 1587 - Blackholes are real.

- 1551 - M87 the galactic black hole.

- 1508 - Are there more blackholes in our own galaxy?

- 1441 - Evidence to believe in blackholes?

- 1350 - Blackholes can get big and bright?

- 1244 - Blackholes explained?

- 1105 - How Small Can Blackholes Get?

- 1177 - Blackholes in Astronomy

- 1096 - Are Blackholes Monsters or Creators?

- 903 - Spinning Blackholes.

- 848 - Blackholes are Everywhere.

- 846 - Too Weird to Ponder

- 819 - Black hole of All Sizes.

- 774 - Seeing Blackholes.

- 578 - Blackholes

- 453 - Blackholes are Neither

- October 30, 2020 2883

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Friday, October 30, 2020 ---------------------------

Thursday, October 29, 2020

PHYSICS - the way I learned it?

- 2882 - PHYSICS - the way I learned it? Physics is the science of nature. It is the study of the Universe’s matter, energy, motion and force. Matter and Energy are the same thing. Energy = 90,000,000,000,000,000 * mass. ( E=mc^2).

-------------------------- 2882 - PHYSICS - the way I learned it?

- Motion and Force are related as:

------------------- Force = mass * acceleration. (F=m*a).

------------------- Acceleration is a change in a change in distance with time. ( In calculus it is called the 2nd derivative) . Distance can be called space, it can also be called length.

- Physics boils down to:

-------------- velocity = length / time

-------------- acceleration = length / time^2

-------------- momentum = mass * length / time, Momentum = mass* velocity

-------------- Energy = mass * length^2 / time^2, Energy = Force * length

------------- Force = mass * length / time^2 , Force = Momentum / time

------------- Power = mass * length^2 / time^3, Power = Energy / time

------------ Action = mass * length^2 / time, Action = Energy * time

------------- Frequency = 1 / time Frequency = (time)^-1

------------- Pressure = mass / length * time^2, Mass = Pressure * acceleration

------------- Work = Torque = Energy = Heat Flow = mass * length^2 / time^2

- If we replace these fundamental physic’s concepts with units of measurement it all boils down to kilograms, meters and seconds..

------------- Velocity = meters / second

------------- Acceleration = meters / second / second

-------------- Momentum = kilograms * meters / second

------------- Energy = kilograms * meters^2 / second ^2, called joules

------------- Force = kilograms * meters / second^2, called Newton’s

------------- Power = kilograms * meters^2 / time^3 , called watts = joules / second

------------ Action = kilograms * meters^2 / second

------------ Frequency = 1 / seconds, called hertz

------------ Pressure = kilograms / meters * seconds^2

------------ Work = Torque = Energy = Heat Flow = kilograms * meters^2 / second ^2 = joules = electron volts = kilowatt hours

- So, you can see that physics is simply kilograms, meters and seconds. Mass, space and time. Or, Energy, and Space-time. That is pretty simple. You only have 2 things to remember. It gets even simpler.

- There are only 20 or so particles that make up all mass and all the forces that affect mass. In our everyday lives this boils down to 3 particles: Quarks , electrons, and photons ( called Fermions, Leptons, and Boson , if you are a physicists).

- Up and Down Quarks and electrons make up ordinary matter, or mass. Photons are the carriers of the forces that carry light and all electric and magnetic energy.

- Chemistry and Biological are really only electric forces, so physics has life covered as well as the stars and planets.

- If we list all the particles that make up the Universe we can see only 4.5% of the total Universe. Hydrogen gas throughout space and the intergalactic medium is 4% so that leaves only 0.5% that is the Ordinary Matter for all the stars, planets, and life that we know of. We see and know only 1 part in 200 of what is out there.

---------------------- 0.5 % stars, planets, and all the elements in the Periodic Table

--------------------- 4 % hydrogen gas

--------------------- 22% Dark Matter

--------------------- 71.5 % Dark Energy.

- 95% of the Universe is outside the physics that we understand. We are dealing with only 5 % .

- Are there many more particles that are unknown? Or, are there more fundamental particles that these particles are made? Maybe all the fundamental particles are made up of vibrating strings. Then there would be only one fundamental particle.

- When we study Particle Physics we use two branches of mathematics, Quantum Mechanics and Relativity. These two maths do not get the same answers, the math is not consistent.

- There must be another theory out there that needs to bring these two together because Quantum Mechanics works perfectly on small things and Relatively works perfectly on big things, but not vice versa.

- There are four particles that exchange or carry all four forces (called Bosons). Photons carry the electromagnetic forces. Gluons carry the Strong Nuclear forces that hold protons and neutrons inside the nucleus of atoms. Bosons carry the Weak Force that causes radioactivity and atomic decay. Gravitons carry the force of gravity, although no one has discovered this particle to date.

- Quantum Mechanics says Gravitons exist, yet Relativity says that gravity is not a force at all but a bending of space-time. The pull of gravity is the path of least resistance through space-time.

- Like centripetal force is not a force at all it is just an object resisting its normal motion to go in a straight line at a constant speed.

- Some physicists believe these three forces can be combined into one fundamental force. Gravity, Electro weak, and Strong Nuclear force would combine at 10^25 electron volts.

- In the 1860s the electric force and the magnetic force were thought to be two separate forces. Now, we know it is carried by photons and only one electromagnetic force. This force carried by photons and the Weak Nuclear force carried by Bosons may also be a single force. The “Electro weak” force.

- Because space has 3 dimensions forces radiate as a sphere with a surface are of 4*pi*r^2. Therefore the forces decay is proportional to 1/ (radius)^2 , or, (radius)^-2.

- Gravitons and photons act over infinite distances. Gluons and Weak Bosons only act over less than the diameter of the atom, 10^-10 meters. The range of the Boson’s Weak Nuclear Force is only 10^-18 meters.

- Getting used to big and small numbers.

--------- 2.2 pounds, or one mole of material has 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules.

--- The mass of an electron = 0.000000000000000000000000000000911 kilograms

- There numbers are more easily expressed as 6.02*10^23 molecules and 9.11*10^-31 kilograms.

- Gravity is extremely weak compared to the other forces. 2 electrons repel each other with like negative polarities with a force 10^42 times greater than the force of gravity pulling them together.

- Gravity is always an attractive force. There is no negative gravity as far as we know. However, electric and magnetic forces come in opposite polarities to cancel each other out.

- Quarks carry positive charges and electrons carry negative charges. Add all the charges up in the Universe and it sums to zero. Magnetic forces come with north and south polarities. The same is true, these magnetic forces sum to zero.

- The energy of any particle is a function of its mass and its motion.

------------------------- E=mc^2 and K.E. = 1/2*m*v^2.

- Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion. It is equal to 1/2 times mass * (velocity)^2. Energy can be expresses in joules or electron volts, or kilowatt-hours. One electron volt is the energy change of one electron moving across the electric potential of 1 volt.

------------------------ 1 eV = 1.602*10^-19 joules.

- Since mass and energy are the same thing, mass too can be expressed as electron volts. m = E/c^2 . However, the c^2 , speed of light squared is always assumed for mass, expressed in electron volts. It is never shown, but it is there.

------------ The mass of an electron is 511,000 eV / c^2, but the c^2 is always assumed.

------------ The mass of a proton is 938,000,000 eV.

- Particles are often described as waves. The wave is nothing more than description of the way in which particles convey energy. Remember, mass and energy are the same thing. Waves are not characterized by positions. Waves are characterized as having wavelength, frequency, amplitude and phase.

- The frequency of visible light is a range from 400,000,000,000,000 wavelengths/ second to 800,000,000,000,000 wavelengths / second. Frequency is sometimes referred to as cycles / second.

- The wavelengths of visible light ranges from 750 nanometers for red light to 375 nanometers for blue light.

- The velocity of light is always constant, the same, 299,792,458 meters / second (3*10^8 m/sec).

- Sometimes light appears slower in another medium but the speed is actually slower because light is being absorbed and remitted by atoms of the medium. Between atoms it is still light speed.

------------------------ The product of frequency and wavelength is 3*10^8 (f*w = c)

- The energy of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the frequency of the wave and inversely proportional to the wavelength of the wave. The higher the frequency the higher the energy. The smaller the wavelength the higher the energy. X-Rays have higher energy than radio waves. Gamma Rays have smaller wavelengths than visible light waves.

-------------------- E --- proportional --- f

- Any time one variable is proportional to another variable the expression can be turned into an equality if the appropriate Constant of Proportionality is a multiplier.

-------------------- “h” is Planck’s Constant of Action which is equal to 10^-34

-------------------- E = h * f

--------------------- E = 10^-34 * f

- Whenever things are proportional the expression can be turned into an equality by multiplying by a Constant of Proportional. E = h * f.

--------------10^-34 is Planck’s Constant of Action actually equal to 6.6260755*10^-34 joule * seconds, or, 4.1356692*10^-15 electron volt * seconds, or, h/2*pi, the wavelength of one 2*pi cycle, 1.0545727*10^-34 joule* seconds.

- We will just use 10^-34 for our constant of proportionality and keep the units in kilogram*meters^2/ second

- Momentum is inversely proportional to wavelength.

------------------ Frequency* Wavelength = Speed of light,

------------------ f * w = c,

------------------ f * w = 3*10^8

------------------ Momentum = 10^-34 / w

------------------ Energy = 10^-34 * c / w = 10^-26 / w

- These energy and momentum numbers seem awfully small. But, it is not small to an electron. If the wavelength of an electron is accelerated through an electric potential of 50 volts, that is 50 eV, its wavelength is 2 * 10^-10 meters, which is roughly the spacing between atoms in a crystal. (20 nanometers).

- A wave is simply the way a particle distributes its energy. Normally a particle has a mass, but, a photon is massless, yet, it still has wavelength, energy, and momentum. An electron has a little mass and a wave of energy the length of which is the diameter of an atom, 10^-10 meters. A proton has a mass 1,800 times that of an electron and a much smaller wavelength for distribution of its energy.

- To observe a sub-atomic particle it must interact with something from the system of the observer. Some physical quantities are waves with positions expressed as uncertainties (or, probabilities, or statistics).

- Some quantity uncertainties are linked together as “conjugates“. The product of their uncertainties is always less than 10^-34. If one uncertainty is very high than the other uncertainty is very low.

- Energy and time are conjugate quantities. The certainty you can determine the energy the less certainty you can measure the time it takes to measure the energy.

- Position and momentum are two other conjugate quantities. Momentum is mass * velocity.

---------- probability of position * probability of velocity < 10^-34

---------------- dx * dv < 10^-34

- If you measure the position of an electron with greater certainty,( a larger probability for delta x) than you can not know its velocity with certainty ( a smaller probability for delta v) because the product of the two probabilities must be less than 10^-34.

- If you measure the velocity with greater certainty you can know its position with less certainty. The same trade off happens with Energy and time.

---------------- dE * dt < 10^-34

- Mass is a gravitational charge. It generates a gravitational field. Much the same as an electrical charge generates an electric field, or a magnetic charge generates a magnetic field.

------------- Force of Gravity = G *M * m / r^2

------------- Force of Gravity = 10^-11 *M * m / r^2

------------- where: “M” and “m” are the masses, “r” is the distance between them and “G” is the Constant of Proportionality. ( See note 3)

------------- Force of Electric Charge = K * Q * q / r^2

---------------Force of Electric Charge = 10^9 * Q * q / r^2

------------ where: “Q” and “q” is the two electric charges, “r” is the distance between them and “K” is the Constant of Proportionality. Note that the electric force is much larger than the force of gravity.

- “G” is the Gravitational Constant = 6.67259 * 10^-11 meters^3 / (kilogram * second^2)

- “K” is the Coulomb Constant = 8.987552*10^9 kilogram* Meters^3 / (seconds^2 * coulombs^2)

- Symmetry requires there be laws of Conservation for Energy and Charges. The conservations laws came from the fact that there is Symmetry in the Universe where things remain unchanged regardless of the frame of reference.

- If something stays constant with changes in space and time it is “invariant“. Emmy Noether (1882-1935) developed the theory that for every global invariant there is a physical quantity that is conserved. Energy is conserved, Charge is conserved. Momentum is conserved.

- Neither can be created or destroyed, they can only change from one form to another. From space-time Symmetry we can conclude the Conservation of Energy. Energy can have many forms, however, all can be boiled down to Kinetic Energy, the energy of motion, or Potential Energy, the potential energy of mass and fields.

- Energy is the product of Force and distance. A theory is that all 3 forces can be combined into one unified force. Gravity, electro weak, and the Strong Nuclear forces unify at 10^16 billion electron volts.

- The 4 forces come from Gauge Symmetry. Relativity comes from the Symmetry of space and time. Rotational Symmetry is the Conservation of Angular Momentum. Parity is mirror Symmetry.

- Angular Momentum, or spin, is always an integer or half integer of “h”, Planck’s Constant, 10^-34.

-------------------------- 0, h/2, h, 3h/2, 2h, 5h/2, 3h............ etc.

-------------------------- Fermions are the 1/2 integer spins and Bosons are the integer spins.

- Matter is made from Fermions, Light is made from Bosons. Quarks and electrons are Fermions and photons are Bosons. Fermions can not occupy the same space. Bosons can.

- Two flashlight beams can face each other and overlap easily. Two electrons can not occupy the same space inside an atom. However, if the light beams were made more powerful sending Gamma Rays at each other the photons energy can change into matter.(E=mc^2). Photons can collide and electron and anti-electrons are produced. Anti-electrons and all anti-matter are negative energy particles traveling backwards in time.

- As you add more energy to matter new generations of particles are created. Most decay rapidly as all particles seek the lowest energy level. Ordinary matter is at the lower energy level. That is what makes it stable:

---------------------- Quark Up --------- 3,000,000 eV

--------------------- Quark Down --------- 7,000,000 eV

---------------------- Electrons --------- 511,000 eV

--------------------- Neutrino --------- 0.13 eV

- Now add more energy and the next generation of 4 particles are formed:

---------------------- Quark Charm --------- 1,200,000,000 eV

--------------------- Quark Strange ----------- 120,000,000 eV

---------------------- Muon ---------------------- 200,000 eV

--------------------- Muon Neutrino ------------------ 0.13 eV

- Add even more energy and the 3rd generation of 4 particles are created:

---------------------- Quark Top --------- 175,000,000,000 eV

--------------------- Quark Bottom --------- 4,200,000,000 eV

---------------------- Tau ------------------ 1,800,000,000 eV

--------------------- Tau Neutrino -------------------- 0.14 eV

- For the force carriers the mass-energy of photons, gluons and gravitons is zero. However, the mass of bosons that carry the Weak Nuclear force range from 80,420,000,000 eV to 91,190,000,000 eV.

- You can see why particle physicists need to use high energy cyclotrons and beam colliders to study these particles.

- But, the amazing thing is that there are only 12 particles of matter and 4 force carriers. That is the whole Universe that we know of. The other 95% we are still working on. Physics just got started.

- Relativity comes from symmetry in space-time. Physics is the laws of nature and the laws remain the same regardless of where you are, which direction you are going, or how fast you are moving. That is space-time symmetry.

- Light is the communicator of motion. Communication can only move at 3*10^8 meters / second. Holding this speed constant in all frames of reference requires that as a object approaches the speed of light, v = d /t , time must slow down, distance must shorten, mass must increase.

- The equation for Relativity where “o” stands for the observer, where T, Time, L, length, and c+ 3*10^8.

-------------------- ( 1 / ( 1-v^2 / c^2) is called “ Gamma” or the Lorentz Factor.)

------------------- To^2 - Lo / c = T^2 - (L / c)^2

------------------- To^2 = T^2 / ( 1 - v^2 / c^2)

------------------- Lo = [ 1 / (1 - v^2 /c^2)] ( L - v * T)

- If an observer is traveling at 87% the speed of light than in 1 second we would observe 2 seconds, because time has slowed down. It the spaceship was 100 feet long we would observe it at 50 long and flattened like a pancake. Mass approaches infinity and it would take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate it further.

- Relativity’s equation for Energy. Energy is proportional to Time.

- Momentum is proportional to Space, where E, energy, p, momentum,

--------------------- p = m*v = mass * velocity.

------------------- E o^2 - p * c^2 = E - p * c^2

- If a particle is at rest than momentum, p, = zero. And the equations are reduced to:

------------------- E^2 = m^2 c^4

- To get the famous equation E = mc^2 we have to take the square root of E^2 = m^2 * c^4. When you take a square root you always get two answers because a square of a negative is a positive. Therefore, mathematically a negative energy does exist.( E=mc^2)

- Maybe Dark Energy has something to do with negative energy. The vacuum of space may be filled with particles in the Negative Energy state. Anti-matter may be negative energy going backwards in time.

- E = mc^2 is for particles at rest. If a particle is moving we have to add Kinetic Energy in order to get Total Energy.

--------------------- E = mc^2 + p^2 / 2m

-------------------- p = m * v

--------------------- E = mc^2 + m*v^2 / 2

- That is physics the way I learned it. I hope you learned some physics too.

- October 29, 2020 1074-7 2002 2642 2882

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Thursday, October 29, 2020 ---------------------------

Wednesday, October 28, 2020

ZEPTOSECONDS - how time flies?

--------------------------- 2880 - ZEPTOSECONDS - how time flies?

- The smallest conceivable length of time might be no larger than a millionth of a billionth of a billionth of a billionth of a second. That's according to a new theory describing the implications of the universe having a fundamental clock-like property whose ticks would interact with our best atomic timepieces.

- Such an idea could help scientists get closer to doing experiments that would illuminate a theory of everything, an overarching framework that would reconcile quantum mechanics, which looks at the smallest objects in existence, and Albert Einstein's relativity, which describes the most massive ones.

- Most of us have some sense of time's passage. But what exactly is time?

- We don't know. We know that things change, and we describe that change in terms of time.

- Physics presents two conflicting views of time. One, which stems from quantum mechanics, speaks of time as a parameter that never stops flowing at a steady pace. The other, derived from relativity, tells scientists that time can contract and expand for two observers moving at different speeds, who will disagree about the span between events.

- In most cases, this discrepancy isn't terribly important. The separate realms described by quantum mechanics and relativity hardly overlap. But certain objects, like black holes, which condense enormous mass into an inconceivably tiny space, can't be fully described without a theory of everything known as “quantum gravity“.

- In some versions of quantum gravity, time itself would be quantized, meaning it would be made from discrete units, which would be the fundamental period of time. It would be as if the universe contained an underlying field that sets the minimum tick rate for everything inside of it, sort of like the famous Higgs field that gives rise to the Higgs boson particle which lends other particles mass. But for this universal clock, instead of providing mass, it provides time.

- By modeling a universal clock would have implications for human-built atomic clocks, which use the pendulum-like oscillation of certain atoms to provide our best measurements of time. According to this model, atomic clocks' ticks would sometimes be out of sync with the universal clock's ticks.

- This would limit the precision of an individual atomic clock's time measurements, meaning two different atomic clocks might eventually disagree about how long a span of time has passed.

- Given that our best atomic clocks agree with one another and can measure ticks as small as 10^-19 seconds, or a tenth of a billionth of a billionth of a second, the fundamental unit of time can be no larger than 10^- 33 seconds.

- Research of this type tends to be extremely abstract, he added, so it was nice to see a concrete result with observational consequences for quantum gravity, meaning the theory could one day be tested.

- While verifying that such a fundamental unit of time exists is beyond our current technological capabilities, it is more accessible than previous proposals, such as the Planck time.

- Derived from fundamental constants, the Planck time would set the tiniest measurable ticks at 10^- 44 seconds, or a ten-thousandth of a billionth of a billionth of a billionth of a billionth of a billionth of a second.

- Because the universe itself began as a massive object in a tiny space that then rapidly expanded, cosmological observations, such as careful measurements of the cosmic microwave background, a relic from the Big Bang, might help constrain the fundamental period of time to an even smaller level.

- When we try to observe a quantum event at a point in time, we encounter the uncertainty principal in that at a precise point in time, the exact state is uncertain and vice-versa.

The problem with discrete time is that it doesn't work relativistic ally, we can't have "preferred" reference frames, and it is generally accepted that relativity says space and time is continuous on all scales. Rather, the scale problem comes when you use the reconciliation of general relativity and quantum field theory that we have a linear zed gravity quantum field theory

- In general quantum superposition, which is what Schrodinger's cat illustrates, as well as quantum entanglement, depends on non-locality and no hidden variables of quantum correlations.

- Relativity enforces light cone locality in order to have causality but quantum physics opens up as much non-locality of correlations it can have. It is an exact balance and is made explicit in quantum field theory which obeys relativity.

Scientists have measured the shortest unit of time ever: the time it takes a light particle to cross a hydrogen molecule. That time, for the record, is 247 zeptoseconds.

- A zeptosecond is a trillionth of a billionth of a second, or a decimal point followed by 20 zeroes and a 1.

- In 2016, researchers reporting in the journal Nature Physics used lasers to measure time in increments down to 850 zeptoseconds.

- This accuracy is a huge leap from the 1999 Nobel Prize-winning work that first measured time in femtoseconds, which are millionths of a billionths of seconds.

- It takes femtoseconds for chemical bonds to break and form, but it takes zeptoseconds for light to travel across a single hydrogen molecule (H2).

- To measure this very short trip X-rays were shot from the PETRA III at Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), a particle accelerator in Hamburg.

- The researchers set the energy of the X-rays so that a single photon, or particle of light, knocked the two electrons out of the hydrogen molecule. A hydrogen molecule consists of two protons and two electrons.

- The photon bounced one electron out of the molecule, and then the other, a bit like a pebble skipping over the top of a pond.

- These interactions created a wave pattern called an interference pattern that was measured with a tool called a Cold Target Recoil Ion Momentum Spectroscopy (COLTRIMS) reaction microscope. This tool is essentially a very sensitive particle detector that can record extremely fast atomic and molecular reactions.

- The COLTRIMS microscope recorded both the interference pattern and the position of the hydrogen molecule throughout the interaction.

- Since the spatial orientation of the hydrogen molecule was known the interference of the two electron waves was used to precisely calculate when the photon reached the first and when it reached the second hydrogen atom.

- That time? Two hundred and forty-seven zeptoseconds. The measurement is essentially capturing the speed of light within the molecule.

- The electron shell in a molecule does not react to light everywhere at the same time. The time delay occurs because information within the molecule only spreads at the speed of light.

- How did we get from heartbeats to zeptosecond, one second sat a time.

- The human heart beats once per second, lightning strikes in 1/100th of a second, 10^-2 seconds. In everyday photography a camera can stop time at about 1/1000th of a second, 10^-3 seconds. Computers work at clock speed of 10^-9 seconds, a billionth of a second.

- Circuits have electrical switches that can operate at 10^-12 seconds, a trillionth of a second. Scientists today are working with laser pulses that can stop time at 650 *10^-18 seconds, 650 attoseconds.

- About 30 years ago lasers could create a pulse of 6 femtoseconds, 6*10^-15 seconds. If one femtosecond is to 90 seconds, then 90 seconds is to the age of the Universe, 13,700,000,000 years. Chemical bonds break and reform in molecules in about 100 to 200 femtoseconds, 200*10^-18 seconds.

- Two years ago lasers could create a pulse that was 650 attoseconds long, 650 *10^-18 seconds. The is fast enough to stop the motion of an electron in an atom. In nuclear physics the natural timescales inside an atom are in the order of zeptoseconds, 10^-21 seconds.

- We have just to invented the laser that can stop the motions inside the nucleus of an atom.

------------------------- deci ------------ 10^-1

------------------------- centi ------------ 10^-2

------------------------- milli ------------ 10^-3

------------------------- micro ----------- 10^-6

------------------------- nano ------------ 10^-9

------------------------- pico ------------ 10^-12

------------------------- femto ---------- 10^-15

------------------------- atto ------------ 10^-18

------------------------- zepto ---------- 10^-21

------------------------- yocto ---------- 10^-24

- Attoseconds and zeptoseconds seem incomprehensible, how can one even imagine these timescales?

- Ok, let’s say you have a really, really fast motorcycle that would travel from Los Angeles to New York in one nanosecond, 10^-9 seconds to travel 2,787 miles. In one picosecond, 10^-12 seconds, the fast motorcycle would have only traveled 2.8 miles, barely getting to East L.A. In one femtosecond, 10^-15 seconds, it would have traveled about 1/5th of an inch.

- If you held on and your motorcycle really went that fast, in one second it would have passed New York , went into orbit and circled the Earth 112,000,000 times, in one second. “How time flies.”

- If you were in a race with your motorcycle and you won by a single attosecond (10^-18 seconds) you would have won the race by less than the width of an atom, in fact, in less that the width of a proton. If you were second place your time would have been the same as the first place motorcycle plus 0.000,000,000,000,000,001 seconds. That was close.

- The smallest fraction of time is thought to be 10^-43 seconds. It is called a Planck second. That happens to be the time it takes light the fastest thing possible to travel the smallest distance of space 10^-35 meters, called the Planck Length.

- The reason this is the smallest unit of length is that if it got any smaller it would become a Black Hole. See Review 2526 for the details. The last thing we want to be is near a Black Hole. Or, maybe we are inside one now and the edge of the Black Hole is the edge of the Observable Universe. Nothing even light can escape from the Observable Universe, or, if it can we can’t see it.

- So, maybe from the outside looking in the Universe is a Black Hole. The Observable Universe is 1.3*10^26 meters. When you go backwards in time and reduce that to 10^-35 meters you enter another Black Hole.

- What do you suppose happens to space and time inside a Black Hole? We have more to learn.

------------------------------- For more info see Reviews:

- 1242 - How does spacetime change at the micro level?

- 2271 - Hw can space and time be related? Also lists 13 more reviews about spacetime.

- 2213 - Spacetime from atoms to blackholes.

- 2180 - Velocity is space divide by time.

- 1790 - Space bends and time slows.

- 2522 - Space - curved or flat? Also, lists 14 more reviews about space.

- 2523 - Fast speed and short time

- October 27, 2020 2880

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Wednesday, October 28, 2020 ---------------------------

Tuesday, October 27, 2020

REDSHIFTS - seeing back in time.

--------------------------- 2879 - REDSHIFTS - seeing back in time.

- Since 1676 astronomers have known that light travels at a finite speed. Using the moons of Jupiter as a pendulum clock, astronomers measured the difference in time for the moons to pass Jupiter’s horizon at six month intervals of the year.

- In six months the Earth orbits at a point closest to Jupiter to a point furthest from Jupiter. That distance being the diameter of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. The time difference measured divided by that distance calculated the speed of light.

- 336 years later our measurements put the speed of light at 186,282 miles per second.

----------------------- 670,633,500 miles per hour

---------------------- 5,880,000,000,000 miles per year

- 5.88 trillion miles is the distance light travels in one year.

- If astronomers observe a galaxy 1 million lightyears away, they are looking at that galaxy as it was 1 million years ago. That is how long it took for the galaxy’s light to reach us.

- Through these observations astronomers have learned that the Universe in the past appeared much different than the Universe we see today.

- In the beginning the Universe was only primordial gas, hydrogen and helium. It was only after the first stars formed out of this gas that nuclear fusion created the heavier elements.

- The first stars were giants, 300 to 400 Solar Mass. Our Sun is 1 Solar Mass. These giant stars had short lives due to their immense gravity and rapid fusion of their hydrogen and helium fuel.

- When they ran out of fuel they collapsed and exploded into a supernova with immense heat and pressure that fused the lighter elements into heavier elements. Stars that formed later out of the interstellar medium created from the first stars contained these heavier elements.

- Each element is different. The light spectrum from stars contains absorption lines that are fingerprints for each element. Each absorption line pattern represents specific wavelengths of energy absorbed by an electron as it jumps to higher excited orbits.

- Every element has its own unique set of electrons in orbit. Elements can be identified in the light spectrum using these “fingerprints” of absorption lines.

- In 1950 Quasars were first discovered. “Quasi-Stellar Objects” had spectral absorption and emission lines that were unlike any known elements found on Earth. At first they were thought to be newly discovered elements.

- It was not until 1960 that Caltech in Pasadena discovered that these fingerprints were really known elements that had their wavelengths “redshifted” to longer wavelengths due to the expanding space.

- By 1980 Quasars were understood to be the central regions of galaxies that contained massive Blackholes. Billion Solar Mass Blackholes consume vast quantities of gas. The gas forms in an accretion disk orbiting just outside the Event Horizon. The rotating gas heats up and emits intense energy that astronomers see as a point source of light from a Quasar.

- The earliest Quasar discovered so far has a redshift of 7.085 times, which means it exists just 770,000,000 years after the Big Bang. This tells us that galaxies first formed before this time.

- Astronomers started using the fingerprints of neutral hydrogen to look even further back in time. Neutral hydrogen emits photons at a wavelength of 21 centimeters. The redshifts for these longer wavelengths require telescopes using low-frequency radio waves. Using this technique the most distant galaxy was found at 480,000,000 years after the Big Bang.

- The table that follows lists some of these most distant discoveries:

-------------------------------------------------------- Redshift ----- Years after BB

--------- 1960 ------------- Galaxy --------------- 0.461 --------- 8.9 billion

--------- 1965 ------------- Quasar --------------- 2.018 --------- 3.3 billion

--------- 1974 ------------- Quasar --------------- 3.53------------ 1.8 billion

--------- 1987 ------------- Quasar --------------- 4.01 ---------- 1.6 billion

--------- 1997 ------------- Galaxy --------------- 4.92 ----------- 1.2 billion

--------- 1998 ------------- Supernova ----------- 0.83 ----------- 6.7billion

--------- 2001 ------------- Quasar --------------- 6.28 ----------- 0.9 billion

--------- 2009 ------------- Supernova ---------- 2.357 ---------- 2.8 billion

--------- 2010 ------------- Galaxy --------------- 8.56 ----------- 0.6 billion

--------- 2011 ------------- Quasar --------------- 7.085 ---------- 0.77 billion

--------- 2011 ------------- Galaxy Cluster ------ 2.07 ---------- 3.2 billion

--------- 2011 ------------- Gamma Ray Burst -- 9.4 ----------- 0.52 billion

--------- 2011 ------------- Galaxy ---------------- 10 ------------ 0.48 billion

--------- 2012 ------------- Supernova Type 1a -- 1.55 ---------- 4.2 billion

- From the table above Gamma Ray Bursts have been discovered occurring 520,000,000 years after the Big Bang.

- A Galaxy Cluster existed 3,200,000,000 years after.

- The most distant Quasar at a redshift of 7 at 770,000,000 years after.

- The most distant galaxy at a redshift of 10 at 480,000,000 years after.

- Of course the greatest redshift object is the CMB at 1,100 redshift and 380,000 after the Big Bang. This object is the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation that was emitted in the infrared wavelengths when hydrogen atoms first lost ionization and became neutral allowing the photons to escape. Today we detect their redshifted light in the microwave end of the electromagnetic spectrum.

- To see backwards in time even further astronomers need to detect even longer wavelengths. This requires even bigger telescopes. A telescope planned for Chile is 24.5 meters in diameter. One planned for Mauna Kea, Hawaii is 30 meters. A European telescope also planned for Chile is 39.3 meters.

- It is race to ever higher redshifts to see farther back in time. Only in astronomy do you get to do this sort of thing.

- The age of the Universe is 13,700,000,000 years.

- The oldest galaxy we can see formed 13,000,000,000 years ago. (see Review 1603)

- The Universe was only 5% of its current age when this galaxy formed. If a human was 80 years old it would be analogous to her viewing a picture of herself when she was only 4 years old.

-------------- 4 / 80 = 0.05 -------------- .7 / 13.7 = 0.051 = 5.1%

- The time that light has been traveling towards is 13 billion years. Space has been expanding during that time. Expanding space stretches out the wavelength of the light. Longer wavelength are towards the red end of the light spectrum, thus the “ redshift” of light.

- Light could leave the galaxy in the ultraviolet wavelengths and arrive at our telescopes in the far infrared. The time that has elapsed is a function of the amount of redshift.

- Here is a formula that is given for calculating the elapsed time given the redshift. It is polynomial of the 5th order where “z” is the redshift.

- time ( z ) = 0.0002 z^5 - 0.0072 z^4 + 0.1301 z^3 - 1.143z^2 + 5.014 z + 3.7677

- A graph can be constructed with billions of years on the y-axis and redshift on the x-axis. The graph becomes a linear function at higher redshifts. The graph is from 1 to 15 redshift. The astronomers are working between 9 and 12 redshift.

- Astronomers would like to be using a simpler equation for their calculations.

------------------- Time (z = 9 ) = 13.11 billion years.

------------------- Time ( z = 12 ) = 13.29 billion years.

- Construct a straight line between these 2 points and construct a linear equation for that line that will give time as a function of redshift.

--------------------------- y = mx + b, is the general equation for all straight lines.

--------------------------- Time (z) = mz + b

---------------------------- Where “ m” is the slope of the line and “b” is where the line crosses the y-axis, where x = 0. First let’s calculate the slope of the line connecting the 2 points:

---------------------- slope = m = 13.29 - 13.11 / 12 - 9 = 0.18 / 3 = 0.06

- Next we find the intersection of the line with the y-axis:

----------------------- 13.29 - b / 12 = m = 0.06

----------------------- 13.29 - b = .72

----------------------- b = 12.57

------------------ Time (z) = 0.06(z) + 12.57

------------------ Time (8.6) = 0.516 + 12.57 = 13.086 billion lightyears

------------------ Time (9) = 0.54 + 12.57 = 13.11 billion lightyears

------------------ Time (11.9) = 0.714 + 12.57 = 13.1284 billion lightyears

------------------ Time ( 12 ) = 0.72 + 12.77 = 13.29 billion lightyears

- Note in a picture of deep field galaxies and the redshifts are ranging from 8.6 to 11.9. Their distances in billions of lightyears can be easily calculated with this equation.

- I am puzzled by the 5th order polynomial when I us it to calculate the time.

------------------- Time ( 9 ) = 15.7 billion years

------------------- Time ( 12 ) = 24.7 billion years

------------------- Time ( 15 ) = 48.3 billion years.

- Apparently many more terms are needed in this equation to get better answers. Over the range of 9 to 12 our linear redshift equation works very well. An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned, until I find the answer.

- Redshifts less that 1.4 can use a much more intuitive formula that calculates the receding velocity of the galaxy. The further away a galaxy is the faster its receding velocity because there is more space between us that is expanding.

------------------ The ratio of receding velocity, “ v” to the speed of light , “c” is:

------------------ v / c = z^2 +2z // z^2 + 2z + 2

- where z = 1.4 ------ v / c = 1.4^2 +21.4 // 1.4^2 + 21.4 + 2 = 4.76 / 6.76 = 70%

- The ratio of the expanding velocity to the speed of light = 70%

- The galaxy is receding at a velocity of 70% *c = 210,000 meters per second.

- The lookback time = 9,000,000,000 years

- The co-moving distance = 13,000,000,000 lightyears

- The Universe’s age = 42% of its current age

- The Universe age when the light left the galaxy = 5,750,000,000 years.

- The Cosmic Microwave Background light has a redshift of 1,100. It has a lookback time of 13,700,000,000 years. A co-moving distance of 46,000,000,000 lightyears.

- I hope all this does not make you feel old. You are made of very old stardust when you get right down to it

------------------------------ Other reviews about redshifted light:

- 2876 - REDSHIFT - found in orbiting neutron stars? A theory in physics and astronomy predicted by Albert Einstein in 1906 has been verified using a double star system about 29,000 light years from Earth. This phenomenon in physics, called a 'gravitational redshift,' has been well documented in our Solar System, but it's been more elusive for the stars.

- 2698 - REDSHIFT - explains the Universe expansion? The Universe is expanding. How do we know that. We measure the wavelength of light and it is getting stretched out as it travels through space to reach us. As wavelength stretches the photons loose energy. If Gamma Wave wavelengths are emitted after the Big Bang by the time they reach us they have been redshifted, wavelength stretched out, into the microwave wavelengths.

- 1713 - Colors change for far away galaxies. We can calculate their radial velocity by the amount of shift that happens to colors of light as it travels through expanding space. Using Hubble’s constant rate of space expansion we can calculate the distance to the galaxy.

- 1695 - Measuring astronomical distances

- 1603 - Finding the farthest galaxy. How spectroscopy is used to measure the distance to the farthest galaxies?

- October 27, 2020 1500 1501 2879

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----- Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----

--- Some reviews are at: -------------- http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----

-- email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews

--- to: ------ jamesdetrick@comcast.net ------ “Jim Detrick” -----------

--------------------- --- Tuesday, October 27, 2020 ---------------------------

JimsAstronomy

Saturday, October 31, 2020

SPACE - space station tragedies.

Friday, October 30, 2020

GRAVITY - prove it travels at light speed?

Index of recent Reviews .

BLACKHOLES - Black holes are scary?

Thursday, October 29, 2020

PHYSICS - the way I learned it?

Wednesday, October 28, 2020

ZEPTOSECONDS - how time flies?

Tuesday, October 27, 2020

REDSHIFTS - seeing back in time.

About Me

Blog Archive