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---------------------------- - 2259 - The Periodic Table of Elements
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- Astronomy teaches that the higher level elements were manufactured in the stars. The Big Bang, as big as it was, was limited to creating the lower level elements mostly hydrogen and helium, some lithium and very little beryllium. The rest of the elements were created in the hearts of stars and in their violent deaths as supernovae. The extreme heats and pressures created by a giant stars massive explosion created and scattered the higher level elements all over the Universe.
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What are these higher level elements and exactly how are they created?
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- To learn this chemistry scientists have been trying to identify and categorize the elements since antiquity. A tool that was developed in 1869 was the periodic table. It started out as a deck of cards, each card with the element and its atomic weight. The cards were arranged so similar elements were grouped together. The result was the Mendeleev periodic table.
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- The elements are arranged in ascending atomic weight and later atomic number and arranged in columns for those having similar properties. A recent format for this same matrix depicts the periodic table in a polar format rather than the conventional rectangular table we are used to seeing. The circle gets divided into 18 sectors that group the elements into families.
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- The elements start with hydrogen, the simplest, with one proton in its nucleus and one electron in the orbit shells. As the elements get heavier more protons are in the nucleus and more electrons orbiting in the outer shells. Most of the atom is a vacuum.
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- The nucleus that holds most of the weight is only 1/100,000 the diameter of the atom. The tiny nucleus is surrounded by a froth of electrons taking up nearly all the volume and containing practically none of the mass. However, it is the electrons , in fact the electrons in the outer shells, that determine the chemical behavior of every element.
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- The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus. If the atom is neutral in charge it will have the same number of electrons, negative charge, as the number of protons, positive charge.
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- The chemical properties of each of the elements depends on the number of electrons in its outer shell, because that is what reacts with other atoms to form molecules. So family groupings are those elements that have the same number of electrons in their outer shells.
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- The first family is the alkali metals family, starting with hydrogen. All of these elements have only one electron in their outer shell.
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- Group 1 - hydrogen - although one electron in the outer shell, the inner most shell wants two electrons to form resonance and stability. So most hydrogen is found as H2, with two hydrogen atoms combined to form the hydrogen molecule, hydrogen gas. If you separate the atoms and blow the gas through an electric arc the atoms will recombine producing a temperature of 3,400 Centigrade.
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- The second shell wants 8 electrons to form a resonance and stability.
The table below shows Group 1 elements with the sequence of electrons in the outer shells. The total number of electrons is the atomic number.
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- Hydrogen - ( 1 = the atomic number ) -was discovered as a lightweight gas in 1766. Its name means, water forming, “hydro” “gen”. Hydrogen burns in air to form water. This is the basic fuel of fuel cells that will someday power our automobiles, laptops and cell phones. 90% of all atoms in the Universe are hydrogen.
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- Lithium - ( 2+1 = 3 ) - discovered in 1817, it is the lightest metal, half the density of water. It’s salts are used to treat mental illness bipolar disorder ( manic depression) and it is used in rechargeable electric batteries.
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- Sodium - ( 2+8+1 = 11 ) - discovered in 1807, named after caustic soda, or lye. Sodium is lighter than water and ignites in the presence of water. Sodium /chloride is common table salt. It is also in baking soda, borax, and used in developing photographs.
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- Potassium - ( 2+8+8+1 = 19 ) - ( 2 electrons in the inner shell + 8 electrons in the second shell + 8 electrons in the third shell + 1 electron in the outer shell = the atomic number 19 ) - discovered in 1807 through electrolysis. It is a fertilizer, necessary for plant growth. The isotope potassium 40 is used in fossil dating.
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- Rubidium - ( 2+8+18+8+1 = 37 ) - is slightly radioactive, discovered in 1861, named for its red-line in a spectrogram ( rubidus = red ). Used to create the first Bose-Einstein Condensation (See Review #46 - “ Zero is Nothing, but Absolute Zero is Something Else”)
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- Cesium - ( 2+8+18+18+8+1 = 55 ) - discovered in 1860, means “ sky blue”. Used in photoelectric cells and atomic clocks.
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- Radon - ( 2+8+18+32+18+2+6 = 86 ) - discovered in 1900, it is a radioactive noble gas. It is a health hazard because decay products are long-lived decay products of radioactive metals. It is released by common rocks, such as granite that contains uranium, an accumulate inside buildings.
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----------- Group 2 - Alkaline earth metals , elements that have 2 electrons in their outer shells:
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- Atomic Number Atomic Weight
- Beryllium 4 9.0122
- Magnesium 12 24.312
- Calcium 20 40.08
- Strontium 38 87.62
- Barium 56 137.34
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- Beryllium - ( 2+2 = 4 ) discovered in 1798 is a light, stiff, and stable metal. Despite its sweet taste most of its compounds are extremely poisonous.
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- Magnesium - ( 2+8+2 = 12 ) discovered in 1808 combined with water to form milk of magnesia. Its low atomic number, 12, make its light weight alloys useful in building airplanes. It burns very brightly and is used in fireworks. It is an essential element for most plants.
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- Calcium - ( 2+8+8+2 = 20 )discovered in 1808 named after limestone. Heating limestone, CaCo3 produces carbon dioxide leaving calcium oxide which combines with water to form lime, which is used in plaster. It is the basis for cement. It is the most abundant metal in the human body and biochemically is the messenger between the cells.
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- Strontium - ( 2+8+8+8+2 = 38 ) - discovered in 1808, named for a town in Scotland, Strontian. Strontium-90 is produced in nuclear explosions. It is extremely dangerous because it easily replaces calcium since it has the same number of electrons in its outer shell. It is an important additive to glass used in cathode ray tubes (TV tubes) because it blocks radiation and improves clarity and brightness.
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- Barium - ( 2+8+18+18+8+2 = 56 ) - is a soft, silvery, white metal discovered in 1808. Alkaline earth metals are mostly insoluble compounds found in the Earth’s crust. Barium is a key ingredient in a chalky liquid used to make the digestive system visible on X rays.
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------------------ Group 3 - elements that have 2 and 3 electrons in their outer shells
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- Scandium - ( 2+8+8+1+2 = 21 ) - a soft silvery metal discovered in 1876, named after Scandinavia. A pure compound was not found until 1960. It is used in high intensity lamps because its spectrum is like that of sunlight.
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-Yttrium - ( 2+8+18+8+1+2 = 39 ) - discovered in 1843, named for a village in Sweden, Ytterby. Yttrium provides the red color in your television. It is used to filter microwaves, catalyze plastics, and high temperature superconductor ceramics. When I was working at Hewlett-Packard I had responsibility for introducting YIG . Yttrium iron garnet oscillstors, to replace backward wave oscillators in their sweep oscillators.
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- Lanthanium - ( 2+8+18+18+8+1+2 = 57 ) - discovered in 1839, named from lanthanein which means concealed in Greek. So named because lanthanum was hidden in cerium ore. It oxidizes rapidly in air. It is used in bright carbon-arc lights in the motion picture industry.
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-----------------Group 4 - metals, elements that have 2 and 4 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Titanium - ( 2+8+8+2+2 = 22 )a dense gray hard metal discovered in 1802. Named for the ore, tantalite. It can be immersed in most acids and remain unaffected. Its low reactivity make it useful in surgical instruments and implants.
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- Zirconium - ( 2+8+18+8+2+2 = 40 ) - discovered in 1789, named after the gem zircon. 90% of the metal zircon is used in the nuclear power industry because it is corrosion resistant and does not absorb neutrons easily. Cubic zirconium is zirconium oxide treated to resemble diamonds.
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- Hafnium - ( 2+8+18+32+8+2+2 = 72 ) - discovered in 1923, named after Hafnia, which the ancient name for Copenhagen. Similar to zirconium it resists corrosion and withstands high temperatures. Used in control rods in nuclear reactors.
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----------------- Group 5 - metals, elements that have 1 to 5 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Vanadium - ( 2+8+8+3+2 = 23 ) - discovered in 1801, its primary use is in making specialty steels.
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- Niobium - ( 2+8+18+8+4+1 = 41 ) - discovered in 1801 but not produced in pure form till 1864, named columbium after the United States, but later renamed after Niobe, daughter of Tantalus. It is superconductive in magnetic fields and used on powerful electromagnets. Also, used in alloys of specialty steels.
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- Tantalum - ( 2+8+18+32+8+3+2 = 73 ) - discovered in 1802, named for the ore, tantalite, in turn after that same mythical king, Tantalus. Its low reactivity make it useful in surgical instruments and implants.
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---------------- Group 6 - metals, elements that have 1 to 6 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Chromium - ( 2+8+8+5+1 = 24 ) - Highly reflective metal when polished, discovered in 1797. Named for the Greek word for color. Lead chromate is chrome yellow, Chrome glass is emerald green.
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- Molybdenum - ( 2+8+18+8+5+1 = 42 ) - discovered in 1778, named for the Greek word for lead, the ore in which it is found. Used in metal alloys for toughness. An important element for plant growth.
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- Tungsten - ( 2+8+18+32+8+4+2 = 74 ) - discovered in 1783 named from Swedish “ tung sten”, heavy stone. Best known as a lamp filament, it has the highest melting point of the metals, 3,422 degrees C.
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--------------- Group 7 - metals, elements that have 2 to 7 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Manganese - ( 2+8+8+5+2 = 25 ) - discovered in 1775, named for the Latin for magnet, mistakenly thought to be magnetic because its presence produces alloys with strong magnetic properties. Essential for bone and nerve formation in the body.
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- Tellurium - ( 2+8+18+18+2+4 = 52 ) - discovered in 1782, it lies at the boundary between a metel and a non-metal. Named after tellus, Latin for Earth. It is a semiconductor and has promising electronic applications.
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- Rhenium - ( 2+8+18+32+8+5+2 = 75 ) - discovered in 1925, named after Rhenus for Rhine. It is used in lamp filaments.
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------------------ Group 8 - triad metals, elements that have 1 to 8 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Iron - ( 2+8+8+8 = 26 ) - known since antiquity, named after ferrum in Latin. It was extracted from ore some 5,500 years ago. Earth’s most abundant metal. It is the heaviest element created by fusion in the stars. Above iron more energy is required for fusion than is released. Supernovas are needed to create higher level elements. Cast iron and steel are different alloys of iron. It is essential to vertebrate life and a main element of hemoglobin.
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- Ruthenium - ( 2+8+18+8+7+1 = 44 ) - discovered in 1844, named after Ruthenia in the Urals where the ore was first found. Used in alloys with platinum, palladium, and titanium to improve hardness and resist corrosion.
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- Osmium - ( 2+8+18+32+8+6+2 = 76 ) - discovered in 1803, named for Greek, osme, meaning smell. It combines with oxygen to produce a toxic odor. It is considered the hardest metal, along with iridium. It is the least compressible element, along with carbon. Its extreme hardness is used in pens, photograph needles, instrument pivots, and electrical contacts.
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------------------ Group 9 - platinum group triad metals, elements that have 1 to 9 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Cobalt - ( 2+8+16+7+2 = 27 ) - discovered in 1735, named after German cobalt meaning goblin, what miners called the deep blue cobalt ore. Basis for bright blue dyes. Used in iron based alloys. Essential for health as part of Vitamin B12. Cobalt 60 used as source of radiation in medicine.
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- Rhodium - ( 2+8+18+8+8+1 = 45 ) - discovered in 1803, named for Greek “rhodon” meaning rose. Produced for hardening platinum and palladium.
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- Iridium - ( 2+8+18+32+8+7+2 = 77 ) - discovered 1803, named after Greek iris, meaning rainbow. A thin layer of iridium found worldwide is the sign or an asteroid impact 65,000,000 years ago thought to have caused the extinction of the last dinosaurs.
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------------------- Group 10 - platinum group triad metals, elements that have 1 to 10 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Nickel - ( 2+8+8+8+2 = 28 ) - discovered in 1751 named for German kupfernickel, what miners called Old Nick’s copper. Nickel forms 5 to 20% or iron meteorites. Used in Iron and copper alloys.
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- Palladium - ( 2+8+18+8+10+2 = 46 ) - discovered in 1803,named for second known asteroid. Palladium alloyed with gold is the white gold of jewelry. Because in absorbs hydrogen easily it was thought it might be source for cold fusion in palladium electrodes, but has not been convincingly demonstrated.
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- Platinum - ( 2+8+18+32+8+9+1 = 78 ) - discovered in 1735 by pre-Columbian inhabitants of America. Named for Spanish, “platina“, meaning little silver. Popular for jewelry. A vital catalyst used in many industries, cracking petroleum and catalytic converters in cars.
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--------------------- Group 11 - platinum group metals, elements that have 1 to 11 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Copper - ( 2+8+8+10+1 = 29 ) - soft, malleable reddish metal known to ancients. Named for Cyprus. Conducts heat and electricity well. Resists corrosion. Strong alloys with tin (bronze) and zinc ( brass).
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- Silver - ( 2+8+18+8+10+1 = 47 ) - Soft metal also known to the ancients. Named from Latin argentums. Silver compounds react to visible light essential for photography. Best reflector of light, best conductor of heat and electricity.
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- Gold - ( 2+8+18+32+8+10+1 = 79 ) - Yellow metal known to the ancients. Named from Latin aurum. It is the most malleable and ductile element. It reflects infrared and is used to cover satellites. Melts at 1,064 Centigrade.
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--------------------------- Group 12 - platinum group metals, elements that have 2 to 12 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Zinc - ( 2+8+8+10+2 = 30 )Bluish white metal known to the ancients. The earliest use was in brass. Used in solder, melts at 420 Centigrade. Essential element for all animal health. Used to galvanize metal. Zinc oxide is white ointment used to block sunlight completely.
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- Cadmium - ( 2+8+18+8+10+2 = 48 ) - toxic metal discovered in 1817. Named after “cadmia“, a zinc ore. Used in solders, bearing alloys, electroplating, batteries and control rods for nuclear reactors. It is a major problem for industrial waste.
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- Mercury - ( 2+8+18+32+8+10+2 = 80 ) - heavy silver liquid known since ancient times. Named after Roman messenger god and the swiftest planet. Latin “hydrargyrum“, meaning liquid silver. The only liquid metal below 27 C, melts at -39 C. Density is great compared to surface tension so it does not wet objects, but rolls around in little spheres. Used in thermometers due to its constant coefficient of expansion with heat. Mercury vapor used in electric lamps. Mercury is used in paints, pesticides, switches, electric batteries, but is always poisonous. It is a major environmental problem, particularly its concentration in fish.
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----------------- Group 13 - boron group, elements that have 1 to 3 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Boron - ( 2+3=5 ) - non metal discovered in 1808, named after borax, an common compound in ancient lake beds. Used in soaps and cleaning powders. Makes boric acid. Some boron compounds are among the hardest substances known.
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- Aluminum ( 2+8+3=13 ) - discovered in 1825, is strong, lightweight and conducts electricity. Tarnishes to silver color instead of black as silver does, making it useful for reflecting material and for beer cans.
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- Gallium - ( 2+8+8+8+3 = 31 ) - liquid metal discovered in 1875, named for ancient France. Arsenide of gallium is used to change electric current directly into coherent light. Neutrino telescopes consist of tons of gallium in underground tanks. Melts at 30 C.
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- Indium - 2+8+18+18+2+1 = 49 ) - discovered in 1863 a soft highly lustrous, white metal. A good backing for mirrors. Also used in displays and semiconductors.
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-Thallium - ( 2+8+18+32+18+2+1 = 81 ) - toxic metal discovered in 1861, named after Greek “thallos” meaning green twig, after its bright green line in its spectrum. Thalluim sulfate is a common pesticide. Used in photoelectric cells.
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--------------- Group 14 - carbon group, elements that have 4 to 6 electrons in their outer shells.
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- Carbon - ( 2+4=6 ) - Nonmetal found as diamond, graphite, and nanotubes. Known since prehistoric times and is the basis for millions of compounds, such as carbon dioxide, limestone, organics. Most combustion relies on the reaction between carbon and oxygen producing heat and carbon dioxide. Carbon 14 is used in radiocarbon dating. It goes directly from a solid to a gas at 3,825 C.
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- Silicon - ( 2+8+4= 14 ) - Chemically resembles carbon discovered in 1824, named after Latin “silex” for flint, since silicon dioxide is found in quartz or flint and is the main compound of sand. After Oxygen it is the most abundant element on Earth. For 3000 years used from glass to computer chips.
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- Germanium - ( 2+8+8+8+6=32 ) - semiconductor discovered in 1886, named after Germany. Used in first transistors, now optical switches and making glass for wide-angle lenses.
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- Tin - 2+8+18+18+2+2 = 50 ) - Used in prehistoric times with copper to produce bronze. Widely used metal in alloys from solder, pewter, to bearings. It is plated over steel to produce tin cans.
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- Lead - ( 2+8+18+32+18+2+2 = 82 ) - known to the ancients, from Latin name “plumbum“. Hippocrates first recognized lead poisoning caused illness in miners. Lead is used in paint and gasoline but is generally toxic. Main use has been in storage batteries. Also used in high quality glass and as a shield against radiation.
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---------------- Group 15 - nitrogen group, elements that have 3 to 5 electrons in their outer shells:
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- Nitrogen - ( 2+2+3 = 7 ) - gas discovered in 1772 from Latin nitre, for salt-peter, a compound of nitrogen. 80% of air is nitrogen, making ith the most available element on Earth. Nitrogen compounds include all proteins which are essential for life. Animals obtain nitrogen from plants not from air. Ammonia is a nitrate fertilizer, nitric oxide is important as a messenger between the cells, but nitrogen-oxygen compounds are the main forms of air pollution.
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- Phosphorus - ( 2+8+2+3 = 15 ) - glowing white nonmetal discovered in 1669 named from Greek phosphorus meaning light bringer, an ancient name for Venus as the Morning Star. It glows because it oxidizes in air, in effect slowly burning. Red phosphorus is used to start matches burning. Phosphorus is essential for life and phosphate are used in most fertilizers.
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- Arsenic - ( 2+8+8+8+2+3 = 33 ) - non-metal first isolated in 1250. Best known as a poison. Used in advanced computer chips. Goes directly from solid to gas at 603C.
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- Antimony - ( 2+8+18+18+2+3 = 51 ) - brittle, hard, metal known since Middle Ages. Used with lead for bearing housings, in paints and ceramics.
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- Bismuth - ( 2+8+18+32+18+2+3 = 83 ) - White metal tinged with pink, discovered in 1753, named from German Weisse masse, white mass. Element most repelled by a magnetic field. Like water it expands upon solidification. Alloys melt at low temperature so it is used in devices to detect fires. It is the “bis” in Pepto Bismol
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---------------------------- Group 16 - oxygen group, elements that have 4 to 6 electrons in their
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- Oxygen - ( 2+2+4 = 8 ) - Gas discovered in 1771, named from Greek for “acid forming”, because Antoine Lavoisier incorrectly believed all acids contain oxygen. Oxygen is essential to all organisms and nearly have the Earth’s crust is oxygen. It is so reactive that no free oxygen existed before photosynthesis began 500,000,000 years ago. Oxygen is used in gas furnaces for steel making. It is used to enrich air for persons with impaired breathing. Liquid oxygen is rocket fuel.
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- Sulfur - ( 2+8+2+4 = 16 ) - a yellow nonmetal known to the ancients. Minerals containing sulfur, iron pyrites, gypsum. It is one of the original ingredients of gunpowder. Today it is used in vulcanized rubber. Sulfuric acid is used in many manufacturing processes. Sulfur dioxide is a common air pollutant and the main source of acid rain.
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- Selenium - ( 2+8+18+2+4 = 34 ) - a red, gray, or black nonmetal discovered in 1818 named from Greek “selene”, Moon. Selenium converts light into electric current and decreased in electrical resistance in response to light. It is the key to xerography. Some of its compounds are poisonous although small dietary amounts are used to reduce free radicals of oxygen in the body.
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- Tellurium - ( 2+8+18+18+2+4 = 52 ) - discovered in 1782 it is a silvery like metal, but brittle. Named for the Latin “tellus” , Earth. It is a semiconductor, mostly used in alloys of iron, copper and lead to improve specific properties.
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- Polonium - ( 2+8+18+32+18+2+4 = 84 ) - discovered in 1898, named for Poland. Metal properties similar to Tellurium. Polonium 210 is used as a source of alpha particles.
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---------------Group 17 - halogen group, elements that have 5 and 7 electrons in their outer shells
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- Flourine - ( 2+2+5 = 9 ) - Yellowish gas first isolated in 1886. It is the most reactive of all the elements and is used to produce Teflon and fluorides that aid in making teeth and bones strong. Flourine is so reactive it even combines with several noble gases.
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- Chlorine - ( 2+8+2+5 = 17 ) - discovered in 1810, named after Greek “ chloros”, yellow-green. Used as a poisonous gas in times of war. Lead chromate is chrome yellow, chrome glass is emerald green.
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- Bromine - ( 2+8+18+2+5 = 35 ) - brown liquid discovered in 1826. Named from Greek “bromos”, stench because it smells awful. Potassium bromide is a sedative.
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- Iodine - ( 2+8+18+18+2+5 = 53 ) - solid halogen discovered in 1811. Named from Greek “iodes” violet, the color of its vapor. It is essential to thyroid hormones. Iodized salt is our main source.
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- Astatine - ( 2+8+18+32+18+2+5 = 85 ) - discovered in 1940, it is a radioactive halogen with an 8 hour half life. About one ounce may exist naturally on Earth. None have been found in the stars to date.
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------------------------- Group 18 - inert gases, elements that have 2 and 6, or 8 electrons in their outer shells, making these inert gases.
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- Helium ( 2 ) - gas observed on Sun’s atmosphere in 1868, named for “helios“, Sun. Formed with the Big Bang and also produced through radioactive decay. Second most abundant element in the Universe. Remains liquid to absolute zero. Resists dissolving in blood therefore replaces nitrogen in high-pressure diving. Less dense than air, inert, and safe for lifting balloons.
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- Neon ( 2+2+6 = 10 ) - discovered in 1898, Greek “ neo” meaning “new” produces reddish orange glow in electric current in gas discharge signs. Used in lasers and as a coolant.
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- Argon ( 2+8+2+6 = 18 ) - discovered in 1894, Greek “ argus” meaning neutral. About 1% of dry air at sea level is argon.
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- Krypton ( 2+8+18+2+6 = 36 ) - discovered in 1898, named “kryptos” for “hidden“. Used in flash lamps in high speed photography.
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- Xenon ( 2+8+18+18+2+6 = 54 ) - discovered in 1898, Greek name for “stranger”. Used in vacuum tubes and lasers, melts at -112C boils at -108C.
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- Radon - ( 2+8+18+32+18+2+6 = 86 ) - radioactive gas discovered in 1900. Gas is a health hazard because decay products of long-lived radioactive metals lodge in the lungs. Radon is released from common rocks, such as granite that contains uranium, allowing it to accumulate in buildings.
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- Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev a Russian chemist, 1834 - 1907. Dmitri was born in Tobolsk, Siberia the youngest of 17 children. His mother was Mongol. His father was the high school principal who brought the first printing press to Siberia and published its first newspaper.
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- Dmitri got his first science lessons from a political prisoner who had been sent to Siberia. He finished college in 1855 at the top of his class. He published a chemistry textbook in Russian that had more footnotes than text, considered the best ever written in Russia. He published the periodic table March 6, 1869.
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- The table had holes and Dmitri boldly stated that these were missing elements that needed to be found. In his lifetime three were found and named after their founder’s countries, galliun (France ), scandium, germanium.
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- Dmitri was a liberal who spoke out against the government and resigned his academic post in protest over the oppression of students. Element number 101 was named mendelevium in belated recognition of his importance in the study of the elements.
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- February 6,, 2019. Review 47, March 31, 2004
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