- 2835 - NEUTRINOS - a thermal history. If you could see neutrinos you could see back in time to 1 second after the Big Bang. To see with visible light, we see with photons. And, because the Universe is expanding seeing with visible light, near the red end of the spectrum, we can see back to when the Universe was 2.3 billion years old, 17 % its current size.
--------------------------- 2835 - NEUTRINOS - a thermal history
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- By seeing with radio waves, in the microwave spectrum we can see back to when the Universe was 380,000 years old. So, inventing a neutrino telescope will be a great benefit to science, allowing astronomers to see back to when the Universe was 1 second old.
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- Photons were first releases from the Big Bang’s plasma of gas at the point when the Universe expanded and cooled to 3000 Kelvin. This occurred 380,000 years after the Big Bang.
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- Before that time it was so hot that photons bounced around the sphere of the expanding ionized gas and could not get out. At 3000 Kelvin the ionized nuclei slowed down enough to begin capturing electrons and becoming a neutral gas. Once the gas became neutral in charge the photons were released into space.
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- When the photons were first released they were high energy Gamma Rays. Since then the Universe has expanded in size by 1000 times and it has cooled down by 1000 times. The temperature cooled down from 3000 K to 3 K ( actually 2.73 K).
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- On there long journey to our eyes the Gamma Rays have cooled down to X-Rays, then cooling further to Ultraviolet rays, then to visible light waves, then to microwave radio wavelengths. That is what we “see” today as Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. The wavelengths of light have cooled and stretched in the expanding Universe:
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------------------------------------ Wavelength--- Frequency --------- Temperature
------------------------------------ nanometers--- 3*10^8/w --------- .0029/w Kelvin
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-------- Gamma Rays --------- .0001 --------- 3*10^21 ------------290,000,000,000
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-------- X- Rays --------- .01 --------- 3*10^19 ------------ 290,000,000
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-------- Ultraviolet Rays ------- 10 --------- 3*10^16 ------------ 290,000
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-------- Visible Light --------- 600 ---------- 500,000,000,000,000 ----- 4,833
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-------- Infrared --------- 1,000-----------300,000,000,000,000 ------ 2,900
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-------- Microwaves --------- 1,064,220 -------281,701,582,380 ----------- 2.725
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-------- Radio Waves ------599,600,000 ----------500,000,000 ------------------.005
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- As the Universe expands the wavelengths stretch out and become longer. The frequencies become lower, and the temperature becomes lower. So, to see these photons we have to look not with our eyes but with microwave receivers.
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- And, sure enough, they were there, discovered in 1965 as Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation permeating every direction we looked. Astronomers have learned much more about the Universe with their “microwave telescopes”.
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- They have determined the Universe to be 13,800,000,000 years old. They have determined that only 5% or the Universe is visible or ordinary matter. The rest is Dark Matter (25%) and Dark Energy (70%) .
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- To learn more astronomers want to be able to use “neutrino telescopes” and “gravity wave telescopes”. Neutrinos from the Big Bang are very hard to see because they only have energies of 1.75 Kelvin after their long journey to us.
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- The low energies make them very hard to see in all the background noise. However, neutrinos are a billion times more abundant than photons. They travel at the speed of light, or very nearly the speed of light.
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- Neutrinos are Leptons. All fundamental particles that make up ordinary matter are either Quarks or Leptons. There are 12 particles of matter, 6 are quarks and 6 are leptons. Of the 6 leptons 3 are electrons and 3 are neutrinos. ( See Review 2557 and 2113).
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- The 3 neutrinos are:
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---------------------- Electron neutrinos ------ less than 0.1 electron volts
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---------------------- Muon neutrinos ------- less than 170,000
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---------------------- Tau neutrinos ---------- less than 15,500,000
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- The 3 electrons are:
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---------------------- electron ----------- 511,000 electron volts
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---------------------- Muon ---------- 106,000,000
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---------------------- Tau Lepton ----- 1,777,100,000
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- The 3 neutrinos behave like neutrinos but they are different particles because of their different weights. Same with electrons. The weights of the neutrinos are all “less than” because we do not know for certain if neutrinos have mass. They could be massless like photons.
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- But, recent theories think neutrinos have some mass and that allows them to change “flavors”, ie: change between the 3 types of neutrinos. If massless then neutrinos travel at the speed of light, like photons. If the have a small amount of mass, then they travel at near the speed of light.
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- Note that the mass is expressed in electron volts, which are units of Energy. That is because physicists are lazy and they really mean electron volts / c^2. E=mc^2 and m = E/c^2. But, they just leave off the c^2, which is 9*10^18 meters per second.
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- Neutrinos are electrically neutral so they pass through matter undetected. They are passing through your body all the time because streams of neutrinos are created by the fusion process going on in the Sun.
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- Neutrinos are also created by nuclear reactors, by cosmic rays, and by particle accelerators. Antineutrinos, the equivalent particles in anti-matter, are created each time a neutron decays into a proton in what is called “ Beta Decay”. More than 50,000,000,000,000 neutrinos pass through your body every second.
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- The neutrinos existence was first predicted in 1930 by Wolfgang Pauli. He was studying Beta Decay and his equations were missing some energy that he could not explain. He believed in the Conservation of Energy so he theorized that the missing energy must be some kinetic energy streaming off with some invisible particle .
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- The invisible particle, the neutrino, was finally detected in 1956. It was called the neutrino to mean the little neutral one. In 1962 experiments showed that there was more than one type of neutrino and in 1975 the Stanford Linear Accelerator showed that three were 3 types of neutrinos.
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- The heaviest Tau neutrino was finally detected in the Fermi Lab in 2000. In 1998 experiments gave us evidence that neutrinos had minuscule mass and that they change “flavors” between the 3 types, (electron, muon, and Tau), on their way to us from the Sun.
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- Neutrinos have a half-integer spin, an angular momentum of ½ * h/2*pi. Like electrons they are Fermions. The neutrino is a Fermion because its spin is ½. It is also a Lepton because it is electrically neutral and does not interact with the Strong force or the electromagnetic force. That is why it is so hard to detect.
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- The neutrino does interact with the Weak force and with Gravity. All neutrinos observed to date have left-handed spin. And, all antineutrinos have right-handed spin.
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- If we could only “see” with neutrinos we could make exceptional probes into our environment. Optical and radio observations are very limited by comparison. if we could see using neutrinos we could see into the core of the Sun, not just to its surface. We could see backwards in time to within 1 second after the Big Bang. We could see to the core of the Milky Way which is completely obscured to us by dense gas and dust.
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- Supernova explosions release 99% of their energy in a 10 second burst of neutrinos. Neutrino Astronomy is just in its infancy. These three “telescopes” in the world are currently observing neutrinos:
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------------------ Super-Kamiokande in Japan is a neutrino telescope with 50,000 tons of water, 11,000 photo detectors, 1 kilometer under ground.
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------------------ AMANDA - Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector has 677 arrays in 1.5 to 2 kilometers deep, buried in glacial ice at the South Pole.
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----------------- DUMAND - Deep Underwater Muon and Neutrino Detector in the Pacific Ocean off Hawaii 1 kilometer below the ocean’s surface.
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- Expect some new discoveries from neutrino astronomy once these telescopes collect and analyze the data from their observations.
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---------------------- Here is the THERMAL HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE:
----------- 10^-45 seconds ---------- BIG BANG
----------- 10^-43 seconds ---------- Gravity splits off from the 4 combined forces
----------- 10^-36 seconds ---------- Strong splits off from the 3 combined forces
----------- 10^-35 seconds ---------- 10^18 Kelvin ------- neutrinos created
----------- 10^-32 seconds ---------- 10^-36 to 10^-32 Inflation occurs
----------- 10^-32 seconds ---------- Plasma sea of quarks, anti-quarks and gluons
----------- 10^-12 seconds ---------- 10^16 Kelvin ------- decoupling of the W-Z bosons. The weak force splits of leaving the electromagnetic force.
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----------- 10^-?? seconds ---------- 10^13 Kelvin ------- matter, anti-matter annihilation
----------- 1 second ---------------- 10^10 Kelvin ------- Cosmic Neutrino Background radiation forms
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----------- 100 seconds ----------- 10^9 Kelvin ------- Quarks form protons and neutrons. Ionized nuclei and energetic electrons prevent photons from escaping.
----------- 1,000,000 years ---------- 10,000 Kelvin ------- hydrogen gas becomes neutral atoms and photons can finally escape.
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----------- 380,000 years ---------- 3,000 Kelvin ------- Free photons released and seen as the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation today.
----------- 13,700,000,000 years ---- 2.728 Kelvin ------- today’s temperature of the Universe
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----------- -------------------- ---------- 0 Kelvin ------- ABSOLUTE ZERO
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-------------- Here is the energy density of radiation as a function of frequency:
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-------------- E = a black body curve = 8*pi*h*f^2/c^3*e^(hf/kT) - 1 * df
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-------------- E = kT
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-------------- kT = 13.6 eV at 150,000 K
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--------------- T = 2.728
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-------------- eV * 11,605 = K
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-------------- The average density of the Universe = one cubic meter contains 1 electron, 1 proton, 330,000,000 neutrinos, and 1,000,000,000 photons
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- The Universe beyond redshift of 1000 is unobservable. The speed of expansion is the same as the speed of light at that distance. There is a photon barrier at a “z” of 1000.
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----------------------------------------- Other Reviews available:
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- 2762 - NEUTRINOS - experiments to learn more? The difficult-to-detect neutrino seems to undergo a strange identity-flipping process, and if this reaction occurs differently between neutrinos and antineutrinos, then this process, called neutrino oscillation, could help physicists explain why matter dominates over antimatter.
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- 2657 - NEUTRINOS - could they explain the Universe? One of the universe's biggest mysteries: Why is there more matter than antimatter? That answer, in turn, could explain why everything from atoms to black holes exists. Billions of years ago, soon after the Big Bang, cosmic inflation stretched the tiny seed of our universe and transformed energy into matter.
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- 2619 - NEUTRINOS - and other mysterious particles? Our best model of particle physics is being challenged with the weirdness a series of strange events in Antarctica. Strange results from laboratory experiments suggest a ghostly new species of neutrinos beyond the three described in the Standard Model. And the universe seems full of dark matter that no particle in the Standard Model can explain.
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- 2223 - Astronomers have learned much more about the Universe with their “microwave telescopes”. They have determined the Universe to be 13,800,000,000 years old. They have determined that only 5% or the Universe is visible or ordinary matter. The rest is Dark Matter (25%) and Dark Energy (70%) . To learn more astronomers want to be able to use “neutrino telescopes” and “gravity wave telescopes”.
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- 2131 - Neutrinos - The Little Neutral Ones. The neutrino is a tiny elementary particle that is a billion times more abundant than protons and electrons that make up our normal atoms. Neutrinos are produced in the fusion reactions of our Sun and in the natural radioactive decay of elements in the Earth’s crust. Potassium 40 in your body is emitting 340,000,000 neutrinos every day. This review contains the history of discoveries of neutrinos.
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- 2093 - Neutrinos - What have we learned? - Neutrinos are the smallest atomic particles. If we could see neutrinos they would be exceptional probes into our environment. Neutrinos are produced in fusions reactions in the Sun and stars, and in radioactive decay in the earth's crust. The ICECUBE neutrino detector at the South Pole has over 5,000 light sensors to detect neutrinos interacting with atoms in the ice.
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- 2026 - Many more discoveries are needed to explain neutrinos. A detector in the ice at the South Pole may make these new neutrino discoveries. Another experiment is sending neutrinos from Illinois to South Dakota. Neutrinos are a billion times more abundant than electrons.
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- 1978 - Neutrinos are sub-atomic particles that reside with electrons and protons in the center of atoms. They release in mass from the fusion reactions that go on in the center of our Sun. They are nearly massless with no charge and trillions have passed through your body as you have read this sentence.
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- 1840. - Are there sterile neutrinos? They would be right handed. That would be a neutrino with right handed spin. It is predicted in the math in physics. But, it is yet to be discovered. It took 50 years later after its prediction for the Higgs Boson to be discovered.
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- 1814. - Defines what are neutrinos are.
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- 1631. - Because neutrinos are neutral particles they travel through space in a straight line unaffected by magnetic fields. They arrive hours ahead of the light coming from a supernovae explosions. Astronomers hope that neutrino detectors can be used to study supernovae. They can get their telescopes looking in the right places before the explosion happens.
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- 1608. - While you are reading this sentence 5,000,000 neutrinos passed through your thumbnail. They are generated in the Earths crust, the Sun, the Big Bang, supernovae, and even from inside your own body. Neutrinos come in 3 flavors. Only the left handed neutrinos interact with the weak nuclear force.
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- 1589.- Neutrinos are unaffected by the strong nuclear force. Neutrinos are created in radioactive decay. These small particles were proposed to exist in 1930. They were not discovered until 1942. Neutrinos may be their own anti-particle. Neutrinos are so small they comprise only 0.3% percent of the mass-energy of the universe.
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- 1511. - Particles that the Standard Model of Particle physics predicts, but, that we have yet to find. Sterile neutrinos may explain the structure of galaxies. It may explain the distance between galaxies.
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- 1219. - ICECUBE is a neutrino telescope located deep in the ice at the South Pole. It will not see photons. It will see neutrinos. New discoveries are bound to occur.
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- 1139 - Neutrino telescopes could look further back in time then light telescopes can detect. The universe will “light up” when we can see with neutrino eyes.
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- 732. - Neutrinos are leptons. An electron neutrino mass is less than 0.1 electron volts. A supernova releases 99% of its energy in the first 10 second burst of neutrinos. This review contains the thermal history of the universe. After 13.7 billion years we have cooled down to 2.728 Kelvin degrees
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-- September 20, 2020 732 2833
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--------------------- --- Sunday, September 20, 2020 --------------------------------------
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