UNIVERSE - explaining the delicate balance?

-  2725  -  UNIVERSE  - explaining the delicate balance?  How we think the Universe began?  What are the forces that made it happen?  How could such a delicate balance have occurred?  We need a much deeper knowledge of our Universe in order to explain our own existence.  The odds of all of these parameters being just right and not the least bit different is mind boggling.
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----------------------  2725 -  UNIVERSE  - explaining the delicate balance?
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-  Our Strange Universe:  A slight change to any one of the several laws of physics would cause some disaster that would disrupt the evolution of the Universe that got us here.  Our mere existence would be impossible.  It all starts with the slightest modification to the 4 forces of nature that came out of the Big Bang.
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-  The Strong Nuclear Force binds the atomic nucleus together.  If it were slightly stronger or slightly weaker the element carbon and several other elements would never have formed.
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-  If a proton was just 0.2% heavier all hydrogen would have decayed into neutrons. Hydrogen is 75% of all the matter in the Universe and the building blocks for all the elements and for the nuclear fusion in stars.
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-  Our Universe is very unique.  What are the odds of that happening if only one Universe has formed?  Maybe our Universe is just one among many.  If many, many universes formed then the odds of ours being just right might become plausible.  The existence of a superior God is the only other explanation I can think of.
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-  The Cosmological Constant is responsible for the rate of expansion of the Universe.  The “ Dark Energy” , as it is now called,  is just strong enough to resist the collapse of gravity and just weak enough not to expand so fast that the stars, planet, and galaxies have the time to form.
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-  The Big Bang nucleosynthesis took place because the Strong Nuclear Force pulled the Quarks together to make protons and neutrons.  The Electromagnetic Force allowed the positively charged protons to capture negatively charged electrons and neutrally charged hydrogen atoms formed.  With 2 protons neutral helium and with 3 protons neutral lithium were formed.  This happened within a few seconds after the Big Bang.
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-  The expansion was just fast enough to not allow nuclear fusion to occur.  Instead the hydrogen and helium got spread out in the Cosmos.  Pockets of gravity brought them back together to allow nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium and the stars were born. 
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-  Our Sun is a 3rd or 4th generation star and it is still burning hydrogen into helium after 13,725,000,000 years of generations of  recycled interstellar medium.
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-  Our Universe contains overwhelmingly more matter than anti-matter.  For the Universe to emerge from “nothing” there had to be equal amounts of both.  We still do not understand why , but, we think that some small asymmetry occurring in nucleosynthesis is responsible for matter being slightly dominant in our Universe.
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-  All of the heavier elements were created in the powerful explosions of supernovae, the death of stars. We think intelligent life requires some form of organic chemistry, which by our definition is carbon based.
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-   The nucleus of carbon has 6 protons and the neutral atom has 6 electrons.  The 6 electrons allow carbon to bind to an immense variety of complex molecules.   In addition to carbon we need hydrogen 1 and oxygen 8 to get organic chemistry.
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-  The neutron is 0.1% heavier that the proton  If it were 2% heavier carbon could not form.  If the protons were 1% heavier then hydrogen would not exist, it would all have collapsed into neutrons.
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-  Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity requires that all forms of energy exert gravity.  Spacetime is expanding against this attractive force of gravity.  There must exist a positive as well as a negative gravitational energy in space. 
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-  This is needed to explain how the space is expanding at an accelerating rate today.  The + and - balance is very delicate because a deviation of even the 100th decimal point would not allow the structure of the Universe to have expanded to what we have today.  You should read that last sentence again!
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-  We need a much deeper knowledge of our Universe in order to explain our own existence.  The odds of all of these parameters being just right and not the least bit different is mind boggling.
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-  It is thought that the Universe started out with one Big Force and the 4 forces we have today froze out of the expanding and cooling Bang.  Gravity froze out first and it becomes the dominate force in the Universe because it is only an attractive force.
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-   The Electromagnetic Force froze out as both a positive and a negative force which tend to cancel out to neutral.  The Strong and Weak Nuclear forces only operate inside the atomic nuclei.  Gravity extends to infinity even though it is the weakest of the 4 forces.
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-  Gravity is what makes the stars and planets into spheres and holds planets in orbit around stars and stars in orbit around the center of galaxies.
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--------------------  Force of Gravity  =  G  * m * M  / d^2
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-  The force of gravity is equal to the product of the masses and inversely to the square of the distance between them.  “G’  is the Gravitational Constant depending on the measurement units used.
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-  The force that governs  chemistry and biology is the Electromagnetic Force.  It is what hold electrons in orbit about nuclei creating neutral atoms.  It creates molecules by interconnecting electrons with other element atoms.  Molecules form proteins in the living cells and electrons send impulses to the brain.
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--------------------  Force of Electromagnetism  =  k * q * Q  / d^2
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-  The electromagnetic force is equal to the product to the electric charges and inversely to the square of the distance between them.  “k” is another Constant of Proportionality.
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-  Only the element hydrogen could exist if some other force could not overcome the positive to positive repelling electromagnetic force that exist in the nucleus of atoms.  Two or more protons in a single nucleus should be flying apart.
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-    The Strong Nuclear Force is 100 times stronger than the Electromagnetic Force.  It over powers and holds the nucleus together.  the Strong Nuclear Force also causes fusion which is how all the elements heavier than hydrogen are created.
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-  The Strong Nuclear Force is strongly attractive holding the protons together but it only operates over a very short distance.  Neutrons and protons in the nucleus of atoms are separated by only 10^-15 meters.  The atom itself with electron in orbit is only 10^-10 meters across.
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-  Lastly we have the Weak Nuclear Force.  It operates on even a smaller scale than the Strong Nuclear Force.  Its range is about 1% the size of the atomic nucleus.  It operates in the realm of quarks and makes up the protons and neutrons.
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-  The Weak Nuclear Force allows quarks to change flavor and transform protons into neutrons and neutrinos.  It can also convert a neutron into a proton plus an electron and an anti-neutrino.  This is what happens in radioactive decay and in fission reactors.
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-  Together these 4 forces control everything in the Cosmos,  well almost?
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-  We still have Dark Energy and Dark Matter that represents 95% of the Cosmos.  And, we do not know what forces are involved here.  Dark Matter operates with gravity but not with the Electromagnetic Force.  Dark Energy is the repulsive force that is a type of anti-gravity.  These phenomena remain “ Dark” because science does not know what they are. 
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-  Other interesting numbers you should know about your world.  Often our reality is expressed in numbers.  Zero is a strange number.  It means nothing, but, sometimes nothing is hard to obtain.  Take a vacuum for example. 
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-  A vacuum is just space.  A vacuum is defined as the physical state with the lowest possible energy.  However, in our real world the lowest possible energy is not zero energy.  Even in a vacuum, even in empty space, there are particles and fields that exist and they carry energy.
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-  The laws of Quantum Mechanics allow particles to pop in an out of existence as long as it happens in a small fraction of time.  The more massive the “ virtual particle” the shorter the amount of time it can exist.
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-  It is current belief in physics that a Higgs Field exists in a vacuum.  The Higgs Field is an omnipresent field that is responsible of the different masses of all the fundamental particles.
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-  The energy of a vacuum although tiny on worldly scales becomes considerable on astronomical scales.  It is the energy of the vacuum in space that is collectively known as “ Dark Energy “. 
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-  Dark Energy is the energy that is responsible for the Universes expansion at an even accelerating rate.  Space is expanding and all matter in the Universe is going away from us, if it is not overpowered by gravity in a localized area of space.
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-  A great mystery in physics today is that Dark Energy is very small, some 20 orders of magnitude smaller that the calculations made using Quantum Mechanic equations for particles and fields for energy in a vacuum.
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-   Multiplying anything by 10 adds a zero to it.  20 orders of magnitude adds 20 zeros.  The radius of the Earth is 6.4*10^9 meters.  The wavelength of ultraviolet light is 10^10-9 meters.  These 2 distances are 18 orders of magnitude differing in size.  That gives you some indication how much 20 orders of magnitude would be.
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-  The distance light travels in one year is 6 trillion miles 6*10^12 miles.  In 1983 International Standards define the length of one meter to be the distance light travels in      1 / 299,792,458 seconds.  Light only travels this fast in a vacuum.  In all other media it travels slower than the 186,282 miles per second.
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-  Baryons are “ ordinary matter” that we know and understand.  However, baryonic matter and energy only comprise 4.6% of the matter-energy in the Universe.  The other 95.4% is called Dark Matter and Dark Energy that we are trying to understand.
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-  Dark Matter is 22.8%.  It was first discovered when astronomers calculated the motion of galaxies.  The calculations did not make sense unless there was 5 times more mass out there around the galaxy that was not accounted for in what we could see. 
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-  It was not ordinary matter that makeup the stars and planets.  Dark Matter was invisible and undetectable except by gravity.  Dark matter is 83% of all matter and all matter is only 27.4 % of the total matter-energy in the Universe.  72.6% of the Universe is not matter it is energy, Dark Energy. 
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-   Because space is expanding, the proportion of Dark Energy in the Universe is growing.  When the Universe was ¼th  its present size Dark Energy in space was only 5% of the total mass-energy.  Mass and gravity were dominant in the beginning.
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----------------------  ¼ size  -----------------  5%  Dark Energy
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---------------------- ½ size  -----------------  20%  Dark Energy
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---------------------- 1 size  ------------------  73%  Dark Energy
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---------------------- 2 size  ------------------  90%  Dark Energy
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---------------------- 4 size  ------------------  98%  Dark Energy
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-  72.6%  makes Dark Energy the dominant mass-energy in today’s Universe.  The Universe keeps getting less dense and more diluted, and cooler.  Today it is only 3 degrees Kelvin.  3 degrees above absolute zero temperature.  -270 degrees Centigrade. 
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-  Today space is expanding at 73.8 kilometers per second per mega parsec.  Translated to units we know this expansion is 47,000 miles per hour per million lightyears of space.
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-  In some areas of this Universe gravity is still stronger than Dark Energy.  Gravity is directly proportional to the masses and inversely proportional t the square of the distance between the masses.  The gravitational constant that turns this proportionality into an equality is the Gravitational Constant ,G.
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----------------------  Force of Gravity  =  G  *  M  *  m  /  r^2
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---------------------  G  =  6.673*10^-11
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---------------------  G  =  0.000,000,000,066,73,   which is a  very small number.
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-  There are several other numbers that you should know about your world:
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---------------------The age of the Universe  =  13,725,000,000 years
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--------------------  The number of galaxies  =  125,000,000,000
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--------------------  The number of planets  =  125,000,000,000 of which about 1,000 have been discovered so far.
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---------------------  The diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy =  120,000 lightyears
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--------------------  The nearest other star from us  =  4.22 lightyears.
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-------------------------  The number of planets with life  =  1
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-  Maybe,  an announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
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-  April 29, 2020                                      1471    1474                        2725           
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 ---------------------   Wednesday, April 29, 2020  -------------------------
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Everything in the Universe is in motion.

-  1895  -  Everything in the Universe is in motion.  It gets  more complicated than you can imagine.  Let’s start with our Milky Way and work our way around the Universe.
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---------------------1895  -  Everything in the Universe is in motion.
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- The plasma gas halo that surrounds the Milky Way Galaxy is about twice the galaxy size and spinning in the same direction as the galaxy disk.  This is a recent discovery that the gas halo is rotating at 400,000 miles per hour while the disk itself is rotating at 540,000  miles per hour.
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-  This discovery was made using spectrometry to measure the wavelength spectral line of hot oxygen atoms.  The speed of the gas moving toward us or away from us shifts the spectral lines from  their inherent frequency.  The amount of shift is used to calculate the speed.   See footnote (1) to learn how this calculation is done.
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-  Other paths of research have determined that 80% of the total mass in the Universe is Dark Matter.  Dark Matter does interact with gravity but does not emit any electromagnetic spectrum.  Even the 20% of Normal Matter that does emit a spectrum has not all been found in the visible light of the galaxies.  This discover of a halo of hot gas may help account for some of the missing “ Normal Matter”.
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-  Of course, spinning at a constant velocity is a natural state for everything in the Universe.  Sitting here in Starbucks in California I am spinning East  at 700 miles per hour.  If we move to the equator our velocity would be spinning at 1,000 miles per hour.  That is why our rockets are fired from Florida over the Atlantic giving them a 1,000 mile per hour boast to get into orbit.
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-  At the equator on the Sun we would be spinning 4,350 miles per hour.  But, the Sun is so big it takes 24.47 days to complete one revolution.  At the poles, strangely enough, it takes longer, 26.24 days.  That is because the Sun is a sphere of hot gas and different regions rotate at different rates.  The rotation rate is slow enough that centripetal forces do not flatten out this almost perfect sphere.
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-  This is not the case for the star Archenar in the Constellation Eridanus 139 lightyears away.  It is spinning so fast the equator is flattened out 53% more than the polar circumference.  Archenar is 7 times the mass of the Sun and 11.6 times the diameter of the Sun at the equator.  While, only 7.6 times the diameter pole to pole.  The rotation rate causing this elongations is 560,000 miles per hour at the surface.
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-  There is a 25 Solar Mass star in the Large Magellanic Cloud Tarantula Nebula 160,000 lightyears away that is traveling 1,243,000 miles per hour at its surface.  If it were spinning any faster its centripetal force would start tearing it apart into a flattened disk.
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-  When a star goes supernova the gravity becomes so great at the core that the electrons collapse into the nucleus of the atoms.  The electrons collapse in to the protons creating neutrons and a Neutron Star is formed that is only 12 miles in diameter.  The conservation of rotational energy can spin up the Neutron Star to 700 rotations per second.  The spin rate is able to be measured because radiation blasting out the poles sweeps around like a lighthouse beacon.  These Neutron Stars are referred to as “ Pulsars”.
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-  If the Neutron Star acquires even more mass and gravity its neutrons will collapse further into quarks and then into a Blackhole.  A super massive Blackhole gobbling up stars can attain a spin rate that is 87% the speed of light.  That spin velocity would be 583,500,000 miles pre hour.
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-  (1)  An example of how Redshift is used to calculate the receding velocity of a distant galaxy.  Spectroscopy is used to detect the emission lines of the atomic hydrogen.  Hydrogen has two spectrum lines in the visible region located at these wavelengths:
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------------------------------------  656.3 nanometers
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-----------------------------------  486.1 nanometers.
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-  These spectral lines are detected with a shift in frequency.  Here are the measured wavelengths:
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-------------------------------------  662.9 nanometers
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-------------------------------------  491.0 nanometers.
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-   The wavelengths have been stretched by the expanding space over the distance traveled.  The galaxy appears to us as receding away as the space between us gets larger and larger.  The resulting percentage shift in wavelength is referred to as the Redshift, (z).
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----------  Redshift  =  (wavelength observed  -  wavelength at rest)  /  wavelength at rest 
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--------------------------   Redshift  =  662.9 nm  -  656.3 nm  /  656.3 nm
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--------------------------   Redshift  =  6.6 nm  /  656.3 nm
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--------------------------  Redshift  =  0.01  , or,  1%
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-  The receding velocity of the distant galaxy would be 1% of the speed of light
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----------------------------  v  =  c * z
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---------------------------  Receding velocity  =  300,000 km / sec  *  1%
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-----------------------  Receding Velocity  =  3,000 km/ sec
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----------------------  Receding Velocity  =  6,710,800  miles per hour.
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-  The distant galaxy is moving away from us at 6.7 million miles per  hour.
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-  (2)  The expanding space is due to the opposing forces of gravity due to mass and Dark Energy in the vacuum of space.  Dark Energy is winning.  Not only is everything else not bound by gravity spinning it is accelerating away from us.
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-  (3)  Review 1851  -  discusses the fastest and slowest velocities from expanding space to continental drift.  It lists 4 other reviews on the subject and 6 footnotes about the calculations used.
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-  The first homo sapiens on Earth appeared over 2,000,000 years ago.  But, one orbit around the Galaxy takes 220,000,000 years.  So, we have completed only 0.9% of the orbit.    One second on your watch takes 1/60 of its orbit around the dial and that is 1.7%.  You  people have not been around very long.
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
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-----------------------------------   Tuesday, April 28, 2020  ---------------------
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Math - Pascal’s Wager on Climate Change.

-  1844  -  Math  -  Pascal’s Wager on Climate Change.  This is a decision theory using mathematical and statistical inferences that works in day to day decision making. 
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-------------------  1844  -  Math  -  Pascal’s Wager on Climate Change. 
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-  In 1661  a Mathematician Blaise Pascal articulated “ Pascal’s Wager”  designed to determine whether or not to believe in God.  If you must choose it is best to use science and “ decision theory”.  It is an effective way to reason whether it is to believe in God or believe in Climate Change. 
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-  We never need to be 100% sure in order to act , or to make a decision.  Simply weigh the odds and the consequences of being wrong.  What is the worst that can happen?
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-  We make major investment s in renewable energy knowing estimates that peak oil availability will happen by 2020.
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-  We have invested in new jobs and new technologies.
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-  We have improved national security with less oil dependence from unstable regions of the world.
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-  We have lessened pollution.
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-  We have lessened subsidizing fossil fuels.  We put environmental costs on the economic and business profit and loss statements.  We begin measuring the true long term costs of stuff.
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-  We separate the costs of protecting old industries and the costs in investing in new technologies and new industries.
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-  For example:
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-  If climate change skeptics are wrong, we face displacement of millions of people, droughts , floods and economic harm.
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-  On the reverse side we have built a more robust economy.  So, we are better to believe in climate change and still be better off if we are wrong.
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-  That is “Pascal’s Wager”  It is a useful tool in thinking through to a decision.  What is the best and worst that can happen with any two alternatives.
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-  How does you brain work in making decisions?
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-  Our brain’s decision process is relatively slow especially compared to a computer’s calculations.  Our decisions take nearly half a second, then, our response time is from 300 to 800 milliseconds after that  And, even then we make errors.
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-  Our brain makes decisions by “accumulating the available statistical evidence and committing to a decision whenever the total exceeds a threshold.”
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-  The brain faces the problem of sifting the signal from the noise.  Photons hit our retinas at random times.  Neurons transmit signals with partial reliability.  Thee are neural discharges emitted by the brain as random noise.
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-  The brain uses “ Bayes’ Law” with statistics noisy inputs sum up and down.  Wait until the accumulated statistics exceeds a threshold probability value.  The higher the probability threshold the longer we have to wait for a decision.  We also set a speed to accuracy tradeoff.
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-  The brain accumulates evidence at each of several successive levels of processing.  It makes massively parallel inferences and micro-decision a t every stage.
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-  On top of strict mathematically optimality we have a-priors, biases, time pressures, and value judgments that are  weighed in the mix. Maybe we also had too much to drink.  Regardless, the human brain is a near - optimal statistician and parallel processing computer as we accumulate evidence up to our threshold
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-  Pascal was only 39 years old when he died  ( 1623  -  1662).  He was a sickly child and his mother died when he was 3.  When he was 9 on his own he discovered the first 32 theorems in Euclid’s geometry.  At 16 he published a book on Geometry.  At 19 he invented a calculator with goggled wheels.  He founded the modern theory of Probabilities.   He did the math for building a hydraulic press.  Today we use Pascal’s Wager to make good decisions.
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-  Thomas Bayes  ( 1701 -  1761)  devised the theory of Probabilities :
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------------------------------  p ( A/B)  =  P(B/A) * P(A)  /  P(B)
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-  Probability of an event based on conditions related to the event giving probability interpretations for statistical inferences.
-  April  27, 2020
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----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
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 -----   707-536-3272    ----------------   Monday, April 27, 2020  -----
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DETERMINISM - physics acting at random?

-  2724  -  DETERMINISM  -  physics acting at random?  The Quantum Physics of Determinism is how randomness at the atomic level evolves to deterministic behavior at the human level.   Our natural world is deterministic yet the building blocks that make it up are indeterministic, totally acting at random
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----------------------  2724 -  DETERMINISM  -  physics acting at random?
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-  Some things just happen at random.  With no rhyme nor reason.  Randomness seems to be a built in feature of our natural world at its foundation.
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-  Radioactive decay of atoms is totally random.
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-  Photons striking a mirror reflect or pass through randomly.
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-  The theory being that quantum mechanics is “ indeterministic”, it all depends on the “statistics of randomness“.
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-  Einstein came up with the theory in 1905 that light could be both a particle and a wave.  The wave function that determines this is in a perfectly deterministic equation, called the Schrodinger Equation.  His equation is the “determinism” of a wave function.
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-   The other famous physicists, Heisenberg viewed the wave function as a probabilistic “haze” of potential existences.  He concluded that only when you observe a particle does it materialize somewhere.
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-   Before observation the wave function was spread over a huge region of space.  At observation it collapses into a narrow spike at a single position and becomes a “ particle”.  However, we have no laws in physics that govern this collapse.  It just happens at random?
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-  For Einstein wave collapse into a particle required instantaneous action at a distance.  He reasoned that no communications could travel faster than the speed of light.  Light speed was a Universal Constant at 186,000 miles per second.
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-  He had trouble with “ measurement” being the “ creation” of reality out of the act of observing it.
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-  Or, was the wave function collapse not a physical process at all but more simply the acquisition of knowledge inside our brains?
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-  What physics was trying to demonstrate was that a probabilistic event through the underlying reality was deterministic.  ( mind blowing!).
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-  The logic of physics says that indeterministic microphysics can lead to deterministic macrophysics.  Quantum randomness indeterminism averages out to reality.
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-  A baseball can have atoms behaving randomly yet its flight can be totally deterministic.  Gas molecules have random motion that together determine an exact temperature.  A “temperature” being the average of a large number of individual vibrating molecules.
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-  It appears that the real world is a layer cake of indeterminism and determinism.
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-  The Earth’s climate is dictated by laws of motion, daily, seasonally probabilistic events however, long term trends are still predictable.  Biology follows the same logic.
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-  Human self-determination follows this layer cake logic as well.  To truly have “free will” we need indeterminism.
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-  Macrodeterminism is your decision.  Microdeterminism is not.
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-  One gram of Uranium 238 contains 2.5*10^21 atoms.  Each atom is identical and indistinguishable.  Yet, 12,600 times per second one of these atoms will decay throwing off an alpha particle. 
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-  No theory in physics can pre-determine which atom will decay when.  It is a totally random process yet it is predictable in the macro sense.  Probability calculations  can determine accurately how long it takes for half of the atoms to decay (the half-life)
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-  Casualty means that events can be completely determined by prior states.  Is the entire Universe a single determinant system?  Is there an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the Universe?  Is the future determined completely by preceding events?
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-  Mathematical models involving differential equations ( equations measuring the rate of change over time)  are not deterministic because they involve randomness.  Their results have sensitive dependence on initial conditions.  Theory implies that even as small as a butterfly flapping its wings can cause a chain reaction that could lead to a hurricane years later.
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-  Chaos Theory tells us that it is impossible to predict real life events.  The Schrodinger Equation uniquely predicts the development of the wave function with time.  If the wave function is deterministic then Quantum Mechanics is deterministic and that could imply that there is one single wave function for the entire Universe starting at the origin.
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-  Our individual atoms are random in motion, yet the enormous mass of atoms that make up our bodies allow us to live and breath.  Human decision themselves reduce to the mechanics of atoms in our brains. 
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-  I have to stop thinking about this.  It makes me dizzy.
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-----------------------------------   Other reviews available on this weird physics:
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-  1762  -  Delving into extreme physics.  How do we know that the reality we perceive is true?  There is no way to remove the observer from his perception.
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-  1605  -  Physics wants a Theory of Everything combining Quantum Mechanics and Relativity.
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-  1546  -  Paul Dirac’s physics.  Quantum Theory does not work when we push the laws to extremes, high energies , or small distances.
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-  1183  -  Mysteries for science students to discover the answers to.
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-  1074  -  Physics the way I learned it.
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-  April 27, 2020                                     1793                                     2724                --- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 ---------------------   Monday, April 27, 2020  -------------------------
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SPECTROSCOPY - the mystery of light?

-  2723  -  -  SPECTROSCOPY  -  the mystery of light?  -   Light covers a broad spectrum of frequencies.  The lower frequencies we call radio waves, the high frequencies we call Gamma Rays.  Then, there is everything in between.  A spectrum is simply putting light through a prism and separating out the individual frequencies so light can be studied.  The science is called spectroscopy.
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----------------------  2723   -  SPECTROSCOPY  -  the mystery of light?
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-  We can use frequencies and wavelengths interchangeably because they are related by a constant factor, the speed of light is that constant.  The product of frequency and wavelength = speed of light,  f *w = c.  Wavelengths per second times distance per wavelength  =  distance per second =  a constant  velocity of 186,282 miles per second in space.
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-  The spectrum of visible light is the familiar rainbow of colors.  It is called a continuous spectrum because it has no interruptions.  Other types of spectrum are emission and absorption spectrums. 
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-  A cloud of gas does not produce a continuous spectrum.  Rather its light is emitted only at specific wavelengths that depend on the elements in the gas and the temperature of the gas.
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-   The third type of spectrum is the absorption spectrum. If a continuous spectrum of light is behind the gas, when the light travels through the gas specific wavelengths are absorbed by the elements in the gas.  These show up as dark absorption lines in the continuous spectrum.
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-  Each element’s atom, or molecule possesses a unique set of electrons with a unique set of energy levels.  When a gas is hot, or at any temperature really, the atoms are bouncing around exchanging energy.  Sometimes an electron gets bumped up to a higher energy level.  When it falls back to its ground level state it emits a photon of light.
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-   The energy loss from the electron must go somewhere for the Conservation of Energy.  The photon always carries the exact amount of energy lost.  And , since light energy is a function of frequency, it will emit a specific frequency for that exact amount of energy.
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-  For example:  An electron that falls from level 2 to level 1 in its orbits about the nucleus and emits an ultraviolet photon at 121.6 nanometers.  An electron that falls from level 3 to level 2 in its atom emits a red-visible photon at  656.3 nanometers.
-
-  This same effect of the transition of energy levels is reversed when light enters a gas and the energy is absorbed to boast electrons into higher energy levels.  With these emission and absorption spectrum lines each element has a unique chemical fingerprint.
-
-  All of these signatures have been carefully studied in laboratories.  So, when astronomers see these same chemical fingerprints out in the Universe they recognize the elements that created them.
-
-  Temperature is simply a measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules in an object.  For large, dense objects, the photons do not easily pass through like they do with a gas.    Photons get randomly absorbed or bounced around inside a dense object so many times that they eventually end up at the average kinetic energy which is the object’s temperature.
-
-    That is why the continuous spectrum emitting from such an object depends ONLY on its temperature.  ( However, if the object is in motion the “Doppler effect” can also effect its spectrum.)
-
-  There are two laws governing spectrums that are affected by temperature:
-
-------------  (1)  Each square meter of a hotter object’s surface emits more light at all wavelengths.

-------------  (2)  Hotter objects emit photons with higher average energy.  Higher energy always means higher frequency and shorter wavelengths.
-
-  All bodies follow these two laws.  Your body is 310 Kelvin and emits mostly infrared photons and no visible light.  You do not glow in the dark, unless someone is watching you with an infrared camera.
-
-   A cool star is 3,000 Kelvin and emits mostly red light.  Our Sun is a hot star at 5,800 Kelvin and emits a strong green light at 500 nanometers wavelength.  The Sun does not look green to us because the light gets filtered by our atmosphere and our eyes see the whole visible spectrum making it appear yellow or white. 
-
-  The hottest stars emit mostly in the ultraviolet light that we can not see and appear as blue-white to our eyes.
-
-  Known as the Stephen - Boltzman law:  each square meter of a hotter object’s surface emits more light at all wavelengths to the forth power
-
----------------  Energy emitted per square meter of surface =  a constant * Kelvin^4
-
----------------  Energy  =  5.7*10^-8 watts / (m^2  *  Kelvin^4)  *  (temperature)^4
-
-  To determine the total energy emitted for the object multiply this number by the surface area of the object.
-
-    Known as Wien’s law:  hotter objects emit photons with higher average energy.  Higher energy always means higher frequency and shorter wavelengths.  The wavelength where the energy intensity is at its  maximum is “inversely” related to temperature.  Remember as energy increases wavelengths get shorter.
-
-----------------  Maximum Intensity Wavelength  =  the constant  2,900,000  / temperature
-
-----------------  Maximum Intensity Wavelength  =  2,900,000 nanometers / Kelvin
-
-  With these two laws astronomers can measure the temperature and the size of the stars.  We measure the spectrum of light from the star.  The spectrum’s intensity peaks at 190 nanometers in the ultraviolet.  From this wavelength at maximum we calculate the temperature to be 15,000 Kelvin.  A very hot star.
-
-  With the temperature of 15,000 Kelvin we can calculate the energy emitted per square meter to be 2,900,000,000 watts per square meter.
-
-  We measure the stars total radiated power in watts and now we can calculate its total surface area in square meters and therefore its size.
-
-  If we find a planet its reflected light gives it its color.  The absorbed light heats its surface and determines the surface temperature.  If we look at the spectrum reflected off the planet Mars we see ultraviolet emission lines indicating it has a hot upper atmosphere.
-
-   Most of the blue light is absorbed by the surface of Mars making it appear red because the red light is mostly reflected.  CO2 absorption lines indicate there is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  An infrared peak of thermal emission indicates the surface of Mars is 225 Kelvin.
-
-  Neptune is colder than Mars and appears blue to our eyes.  We are getting closer to being able to get a spectrum from the planets in other solar systems.  Over 3,000 planets have been discovered to date using Doppler and Transit indirect methods.  Soon a direct image will be made with our newer telescopes coming on line.  As soon as we can get a spectrum of light we can learn a great deal more about these exoplanets.
-
-  April 26, 2020                                  843                                                2723       
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 ---------------------   Sunday, April 26, 2020  -------------------------
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SPACETIME - at the macro and micro levels.?

-  2722  -  SPACETIME  -  at the macro and micro levels.?   How Can Space and Time be Related?.   Space and time seem to be absolute quantities to us.  It is hard to see their interrelationship until you take their ratio as velocity and extend that ratio to its limits.  Velocity is space / time!
- 

-
----------------------  2722  -  SPACETIME  -  at the macro and micro levels.?
-
-  In order for the speed of light to be a constant physical law in the Universe, regardless of the relative motion of all observers everywhere, then space and time must change in a compensating way to keep the velocity constant.
-
-  Space and time are so different.  Space is volume, 3 dimensional volume.  Move left, right, forward, backward, up and down and that box of volume is called space.  It is the stuff that matter occupies.  Remove all the matter and space is what is left.
-
-   Usually our senses do not experience space, except for the lengths and distances.  One thing occupies a space another thing is separated in space occupying a different space.  The separation we see as distance. It is 3 dimensional as well.
-
-  Time on the other hand is one dimensional.  How can it be related to space?  Time is how we separate events.  One event happens after another event.  There is a cause then there is an effect that follows the cause.  The sequence of events only moves in one direction.  It is one dimensional.  How can these two things be related?
-
-  One way they are related is the way we describe motion.  Movement through space can be defined as distance only with respect to a reference.  Motion is defined as movement through space per unit time. 
-
-  Motion is separation in space divided by separation in time.  We call this ratio of the two “velocity“.  When velocity is zero we are at the reference point for space and time.  When the ratio of the two is positive we have relative motion with respect to the reference.
-
-  As long as the relative motion is constant and unchanging there are no external forces involved.  Constant motion is a natural state the same as at rest is a natural state.  The difference only depends on how you set the reference. 
-
-  Whether at rest at the reference, or in constant motion at a constant velocity in a straight line, then motion is in its natural state and no forces are involved.  However, if the velocity speeds up or slows down, or changes direction, then external forces are involved. 
-
-  Even if the speed of motion is constant,  if it changes direction from a straight line than an external force is involved.  We define either a change in motion or a change in direction as a form of acceleration.  Acceleration is the rate of change of the rate of change of space with respect to time.
-
-  One of the inherent problems with ratios is that they tend to have limits.  Numerators divided by denominators tend to produce limits when either approach very large numbers or very small numbers. 
-
-  In the case of velocity, space divided by time, there is a natural limit of 670 million miles per hour.  This is nature’s speed limit.  No object can pass through space faster than 670 million miles per hour.  What makes this natural law especially difficult is that it always applies regardless of relative motion between objects.
-
-    Objects everywhere regardless of their motion must see the same limit.  The laws of physics is the same for all observers everywhere.  In order for this to happen then space and time must change in order to keep the ratio constant for all observers.  It also means that when two observers are separated in space there will always be that same limit in the speed of communications between them.
-
-  Everything you can see or experience has already happened some time ago.  Even something you see one foot away, your hand writing on this paper, happened one nanosecond before your eyes could see it.
-
-   If you look at the clock across the room, you are seeing it 15 nanoseconds after it clicked its second hand.  If the event happened on the other side of the Grand Canyon it really occurred 10,000 nanoseconds ago.  The first ray of sunlight you see is already 8 minutes old.  The stars visible to the naked eye are like they were 10,000 years ago.  That starlight is already 10,000 years old.
-
-  Everything we see or experience is history.  There is no way to experience different events as being simultaneous.  If events are separated in space they must also be separated in time.
-
-   Something that appears undecided to you has already happened.  And, you will simply have to wait your turn to experience it.  In that way reality is what we experience and everyone experiences it differently.
-
-  In this way time and space are relative quantities and not absolute quantities.  The fabric of spacetime together are stretching out in an expanding Universe.  Clocks moving through this fabric in different ways tick time at different rates because different amounts of the motion through time transfers into motion through space.  At the maximum motion through space time stops.  At the maximum motion through time space disappears.
-
-  Space and time are not absolute quantities.  They vary with motion through spacetime.  Space and time individually adjust themselves in a compensating manner in order to keep the speed of communications between observers the constant 670 million miles per hour regardless of the relative speeds of the observers themselves.
-
-  The maximum speed through space is reached when all the light speed motion through time is fully diverted into light speed motion through space.  Moving at light speed through space leaves no motion for traveling through time.  It is only spacetime together that is absolute.  It is only against absolute spacetime that objects can be said to be accelerating.
-
-   Spacetime is the absolute reference for motion.  A constant trajectory through spacetime in a straight line is NOT accelerating.  Constant motion in a straight line feels no resistance.  Photons feel no resistance because they always move at a constant velocity in a straight line in spacetime.  Photons feel no acceleration.
-
-  We can feel acceleration.  It provides a force on us.  On the surface of the Earth the acceleration we feel is 9.8 meters per second per second.  ( 32 feet per second per second).   
-
-  There are two different ways used to model this force that we feel.  Either the mass of the Earth is pulling on the mass of your body with a force, called gravity.  Or, your body is sliding down the slope of curved spacetime caused by the mass of the Earth creating a curvature in spacetime.    The surface of Earth is stopping you from sliding down the slope to the center of the Earth.  That is what you feel.
-
-  It is the same way the Earth is circling the Sun.  The Sun’s mass creates a curvature in spacetime and the Earth in constant velocity follows a straight line in spacetime as it orbits the Sun.
-
-   We do not feel it because we are traveling at a constant 66,500 miles per hour.  ( See note 1 ).  Although our speed in orbit is a constant, our velocity is not because we are constantly changing directions in geometric space.
-
-  We are orbiting in a circle around the Sun.  We are constantly accelerating toward the center of the circle.  We model this as the force of gravity pulling us toward the center with a force measurement of 35,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Newtons.  ( 35*10^21 kilogram*meters / second^2).  ( See note 2).  The force of gravity is exactly balanced by the centripetal force of the Earth trying to pull away and travel in a straight geometric line.  The centripetal force is - 35,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Newtons.  ( See note 3).  The two forces offset each other and we feel no net effect.
-
-  The footnotes use the models developed by Isaac Newton and they work well when the rate of space / time is far from its limits.  As motion approaches the  speed of communications between separations in space then the more complex models developed by Albert Einstein are needed.
-
-   At faster speeds and greater accelerations of gravity then the interrelationship between space and time become noticeable.  Their ratio must not exceed the speed of communications between objects regardless of the relative speeds of the objects themselves.  As strange as this may seem?  The reality that we observe may have little to do with the reality that is out there.
-
-----------------  Footnotes:
-
(1)  Actually Earth’s orbit is elliptical and not a perfect circle.  Being elliptical , as we are slightly closer to the Sun our speed  in orbit increases and as we are slightly farther away from the Sun our speed slows down.  66,500 miles per hour is an average.
-
(2)  The force of gravity is proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
-
-----------------  The radius of Earth’s orbit is 93 million miles.
-
----------------    The circumference of Earth’s orbit is 584 million miles, 2* pi* r
-
----------------  The mass of the Earth is 5.97 * 10^24 kilograms.
-
-----------------  The mass of the Sun is 1.99*10^30 kilograms.
-
----------------- The Gravitational Constant of Proportionality is 6.67*10^-11 meters^3/ (kilogram * seconds^2)
-
-----------------  F  =  G * m* M / r^2
-
-----------------  F  =  35 * 10^21 Newtons.
-
(3)  The Centripetal Force is the mass of the Earth times the acceleration of the change of direction of velocity towards the center of the circle.

------------------------  F  = m * a
-
-  The acceleration is the tangential velocity squared divided by the radius of the circle of orbit.
-
-------------------------a  =  v^2 / r
-
------------------------ F  =  m * v^2 / r
-
-----------------------  The mass of the Earth is 5.97 * 10^24 kilograms.
-
----------------------  The velocity is 66,500 miles per hour.
-
-----------------------  The radius of Earth’s orbit is 93 million miles.
-
-----------------------  F  =  35 * 10^21 Newtons.
-
-  Now lets change perspectives;  how does spacetime change at the micro-level?.    Space and time change at the macro-level to keep the velocity of communications a constant.  At the micro-level space and time become lumpy with uncertainties and seem to avoid this limitation all together.  We live in the middle of these extremes and only recognize them at the frontiers of physics and astronomy.
-
-  We have been discussing space and time and their inter-relationship on a macro-scale.  In order to keep the laws of physics the same for everyone, everywhere, we must keep the speed of communications at a constant.  The constant is the speed of light which is 186,000 miles per second, or , 670  million miles per hour.  As an object moves through space and approaches this limit of space divided by time, the ratio, cannot exceed this limit. 
-
-  Therefore, time slows down so it takes longer to travel the same amount of space.  Or, viewed from the point of view of time space is shrinking so during the same amount of time the object travels a smaller amount of space.
-
-   This compensating behavior causes the speed of travel to stop accelerating and eventually to remain a constant velocity when the ratio reaches 640 million miles per hour.
-
-  That is what is happening at the macro-level of space and time.  They are relative not absolute quantities, and, they can change relative to each other.  What is happening at the micro-level?  At the smallest atomic levels space and time enter the world of “uncertainty”.  (Refers to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle in Quantum Mechanics.) 
-
-  Just as particles behave more like waves of uncertainty, space and time behave like waves.  The positions in space become a wave of probabilities of uncertainties.  The velocities which are the ratio of space and time also become waves of probabilities of uncertainties.
-
-   At the smallest scales things do not become “points“.  Certainties cannot be resolved.  At the smallest scales they become bulls eyes of  wave patterns that spread effects over a range of probabilities. 
-
-  These waves can interfere with each other.  They can reinforce each other.  The waves are always present but they are only noticeable on the very smallest scales.  When we get to the size of atoms energy, space, and time are waves of uncertainties.
-
-  In our desire to understand reality we need to measure the workings of the Universe.  We need mathematics and hard data to define our theories so we can accurately predict a future outcome.  Uncertainties are not what we ordered.  They muddy up the works.  In contradiction the math has produced the most accurate theories we have ever produced.
-
-  Uncertainties are what we get at the micro-level.  What is even worse is that physics only involves things we can measure and when we measure something at the micro-level we introduce more uncertainty by measuring it. 
-
-  If we measure position we change its velocity ( position with time ).  If we measure its velocity we change its position ( position within space ).  If we measure energy we disturb the time of measurement needed to resolve the energy.
-
-  In earlier paragraphs we learned that space, time, matter and energy all contribute to the geometry of the gravitational fields.  Just as space and time change in response to motion, space and time also change in response to matter and energy.
-
-   This occurs at the macro-level as well as the micro-level.  In the big scheme of things we humans are right in the middle.  Our 2 meters of height is half-way between the biggest things in the Universe and the smallest things in the Universe.  We do not experience these strange behaviors of space and time until physics and astronomy take us to the extreme limits of these dimensions.
-
-  At the smallest levels things can remain connected even though they are separated in space.  We normally think that things can not communicate over separations in space faster than the speed of light can cover that distance.   
-
-  However, at the smallest scales, where these uncertainties are noticeable, they seem to bypass these restrictions of spatial separation.  They somehow remain connected regardless of separation
-
-  When quantum connections are measured on two separate quantum uncertainties a collapse of one measured uncertainty will instantaneously result in the collapse of the other exactly according to their connected uncertainty probabilities.
-
-   The uncertainties are “entangled” across space.  Their communications are somehow not limited by the constant speed of light over distances of separation.  Somehow space versus time is overcome at the quantum level for these entangled quantum effects.
-
-  At the micro-level space, time, and energy seem to exist as small bundles, or packets, or as they are called today, “ quantums”.  The study of these has developed the math that describes their behavior which is called Quantum Mechanics. 
-
-  Quantum Mechanics and Uncertainty Principles have allowed science to accurately and repeatedly explain what it sees.  At the same time our science does not allow us to see what we explain.  Once an uncertainty waveform is collapsed by a measurement there is not a way to run it backwards and return it to the waveform again.  (This could be the arrow of time.)
-
-  Space, time, and energy become unavoidably wavy , bumpy and lumpy at the micro-scales.  The uncertainty fluctuations remain inversely proportional to the time resolution of our measurements.  The more we learn we find the less we know.
-
-  April 26, 2020                                1241    1242                              2722           
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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   Sunday, April 26, 2020  -------------------------
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QUANTUM MECHANICS - controlling our reality?

-  2721  -  QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  controlling our reality?  This review discuss the strange world of Quantum Mechanics and suggests that it is really controlling our reality below the surface.  Quantum behavior may be what allows birds to fly thousands of miles with precise navigation.  It may be what allows plants to synthesize sunlight.  It may be what links your brain to eyesight.
- 

-
------------------ 2721  -  QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  controlling our reality?
-
-   Is Quantum Mechanics Controlling Our Reality?   A measured atom is described much differently than an unmeasured atom.  At the atomic level the process of measurement changes the unmeasured attributes.  So, once we know what something is it isn’t that anymore.  When you remove information the thing changes.  Reality always exists with uncertainty as to what is really there.
-
-  The measured attributes are the ones we learn and know about.  We “think” that is “reality‘.
-
-  There is a totally unreasonable effectiveness of how mathematics describes the reality we observe.  We get answers and predictions from math that are totally accurate to what nature does.  It is like math is something we have discovered, not something we have invented to explain things.
-
-  Light is a special oscillation, it oscillates only sideways.  It does not have back and forth vibrations.  Sound waves on the other hand vibrate back and forth.  Seismic waves from earthquakes vibrate in all directions.  Electromagnetic radiation only vibrates sideways and only moves forward at one speed,  670,633,500 miles per hour.
-
-  Motion can only be defined in relative terms.  There is no way to identify absolute motion.  It is always relative to something else.  Motion is distance ( space )  over duration of time.  Both distance and time only exist if you have a start and stop  in both time and place.  Motion is the change in space-time.  Velocity  =  delta x / delta t
-
-  However, space and time appear different for each observer.  Space and time themselves change in combination with motion and velocity to keep physics the same for every observer.  Space and time modify themselves so the reality of physics remains the same everywhere regardless of where you are or how you are moving.
-
-  There is no reality in the absence of observation.  Observation always removes information.
-
-  Gravity links everything in the Universe.  However, the strength of gravity diminishes with separation.  Quantum Mechanics links everything in the Universe.  But, Quantum Mechanics is undiminished with separations in space or time.
-
-  Gravity is not a force but a curvature of 4 dimensions of space-time.
-
- Quantum Mechanics is a theory of the probability of occurrences and not representing the things themselves.
-
-  Consciousness creates reality.  Without consciousness there is no reality.
-
-  Physics is composed of the laws of nature and the laws of fields.  Electromagnetic, gravitational, strong and weak nuclear fields.  We call them forces but fields is how forces exist.  Gravity is referred to as both a field of potential energy and a geometry of space-time.
-
-  Light is created by the motion of electrons.  Photons are massless particles that are emitted when electrons change energy levels.  It could be in the energy levels orbiting an atom, or, it could be the kinetic energy of an acceleration electron.
-
-  All energy comes in bunches called quantums. 
-
-----------------------------  Light energy  =  n*h*f
-
-------------------“n” is the number of bunches, or quantums.
-
--------------------“h”  is Planck’s Constant of Action which is the action energy of one bunch, or one photon.
-
------------------  h  =  6.625 * 10^-34 kilograms * meters^2 / second
-
-------------------  h  =  4.136 * 10^-15 electron volts * seconds / cycle
-
-  Seconds / cycle is the time of one wavelength.  Cycles / second is the frequency of vibration , or the frequency of oscillation.
-
-   “f”  is the frequency of oscillation of the radiation.  Frequency is cycles per second.  Wavelength is meters per cycle.  Frequency * wavelength is the speed of light ,”c”,  in meters per second.

---------------------  f  *  w  =  c

-  The frequency of light is also the color.  Wavelengths of light is the color:
-
----------------------  red  =      700 nanometers per cycle
-
----------------------  yellow  =  600 nanometers per cycle
-
----------------------  blue  =     400 nanometers per cycle
-
-  Frequency of colors:
-
----------------------  red  =     429,000,000,000,000 cycle per second
-
----------------------  yellow  =  500,000,000,000,000 cycles per second
-
----------------------  blue  =  750,000,000,000,000  cycles per second
-
-  Color and frequency are also the temperature of whatever is emitting the light:
-
----------------------  red  =  4,143Kelvin
-
----------------------  yellow  =  4,833 Kelvin
-
----------------------  blue  =  7,250 Kelvin
-
-  Our Sun is 6,000 Kelvin and blue-green in color.  Our atmosphere takes out the blue making the Sun look yellow, and the sky look blue.
-
-  Momentum is mass * velocity  (  p  =  m* v ) , but , for a massless particle like light momentum is “Planck’s Constant of Action * wavelength”.
-
-----------------  E  = h * f  --------    photon energy
-
------------------  p  =  h * w   ---------  photon momentum
-
-  Physics is the science that matches mathematics to measurement results.
-
-  There exist paired relationships in reality that restrict the precision of mutual measurements.  These pairs include position and momentum, since momentum is mass * velocity it is position and velocity, and energy and time.  The formula for the precision the mutual measurement can obtain is:
-
-------------------  delta p  *  delta x  must be greater than “h”
-
------------------  change in momentum * change in position  >  Planck’s constant of action
-
------------------  We freeze time to get a wave’s position in space.
-
------------------  We freeze space to get a wave’s picture in time.
-
-----------------  The trade-off is the better we know position the less we know velocity and vice versa.
-
-  Intensity is proportional to a wave’s amplitude squared.  Amplitude squared is a measurement of “probability“.  Probability is the relative number of ways a particular event can occur.  Quantum randomness can cause identical situations to give different results.  It all depends on their probabilities.
-
-  Any wave can be written as a unique sum of sine waves.  This is called  ‘Fourier Analysis“.
-
-  An atom is 1,000 times smaller than the wavelength of green light.  0.5 nanometers versus 500 nanometers.  A nucleus is 10,000 ties smaller than an atom 0.00005 nanometers versus 0.5 nanometers.
-
-  A confined wave can be made to vibrate only at certain resonant frequencies or wavelengths.  This is how the klystron or magnetron works in a microwave oven.
-
-  We tend to thing of Quantum Mechanics as another world.  A strange world, unfamiliar, counter intuitive, not the reality of classical physics.   It only applies to small things like atoms and classical physics works for everything we can see and touch,  our reality.
-
-   However, once we understand the quantum rules we learn they are working on  all scales.
-
-  Quantum Mechanics is operating in each cell in our body.  It is used by your brain to make pictures of what your eyes receive.  It allows birds to navigate thousands of miles using the Earth’s magnetic field to guide them.  We have to start thinking of Quantum Mechanics as our world of reality
-
-  Classical physics hides Quantum Mechanics because it becomes a combination of many things, many events.  Classical physics can always be broken down into a sum of its parts.
-
Quantum effects like entanglement binds individual particles together into an indivisible whole.  They can not be broken apart.  Even when separated far apart entangle particles operate as a single whole.  Entangled electrons will always spin in the opposite direction, one clockwise and the other counter-clockwise no matter which way you measure them.
-
-  Entanglement may be the secret nature uses for photosynthesis, the process plants use to convert sunlight into chemical energy.  In classical physics we see one particle in one place and one time.  In Quantum physics a particle can be in many places simultaneously.  It is counterintuitive.  Space and time somehow emerges from fundamentally spaceless and timeless physics.
-
-  Gravity may be the residual noise that emerges from the quantum fuzziness of the Quantum Universe we live in.  If so, gravity may not even exist at the quantum level. 
-
-  Entanglement may be what causes all this confusion and wonderment that nobody understands.  It may be what creates consciousness.  An announcement will be made soon, stay tuned.
-
-  April 26, 2020                                     1280                                   2721             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Sunday, April 26, 2020  -------------------------
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DARK ENERGY - some form of anti- gravity?

-  2632 -  DARK  ENERGY  -  some form of anti-gravity?  - Is dark energy the “cosmological constant“. The fact that we see the Universe expanding as it does means that there must be some new form of energy causing these distant galaxies to recede from us faster and faster as time goes on.
-

-
---------------------   2632 -  DARK  ENERGY  -  some form of anti- gravity?
-
-  See Review 2631 about Dark Matter.  Dark Energy is totally different and even more mysterious to astronomers.  Dark Matter is 23% of the Universe and Dark Energy is 72% of the Universe.  Remember that mass and energy are 2 forms of the same thing:
-
------------------------    Energy  =  Mass * (speed of light)2
-
-  Of all the revolutionary discoveries that we've made about the Universe, the most unexpected and surprising has to be Dark Energy. Ever since the Big Bang the force  between the initial expansion, working to drive everything apart, and gravity working to pull everything back together, the Universe has behaved as though these two opposing influences were in perfect balance.
-
-  Then,  6 billion years ago, the expansion all of a sudden started speeding up again, causing distant objects to accelerate. “Dark Energy” is the name we give to the unknown cause of this unexpected phenomenon, but suddenly things don't add up.
-
-  Does dark energy produce gravity?  Does the increase in dark energy as space expands also create more gravity?
-
-  The mathematics governing General Relativity is quite complicated, and General Relativity itself offers many possible solutions to its equations. But it's only through specifying the conditions that describe our Universe, and comparing the theoretical predictions with our measurements and observations, that we can arrive at an understandable theory.
-
-  Every form of energy in the Universe, no matter how weird, exotic, or unfamiliar it is, obeys the same law of gravity, that is “Einstein's General Relativity“. Most of the types of energy we are used to come in the form of quanta: tiny little point-like packets of energy that move through the fabric of spacetime.
-
-  Some of those quanta are “radiation-like“, meaning they move at the speed of light. Others are “matter-like“, meaning they're moving slower compared to the speed of light.
-
-  Examples are photons, which always act like radiation, normal matter and dark matter, which always act like matter, and neutrinos, which behave like radiation in the early Universe.
-
-  All massless particles travel at the speed of light, including the photon, gluon and gravitational waves, which carry the electromagnetic, strong nuclear and gravitational interactions.
-
-  Any particle with a non-zero rest mass will travel slower than light, and as the expansion of the Universe causes it to lose kinetic energy, eventually it will become non-relativistic, behaving as matter rather than radiation.
-
-  The reason for this dichotomy is that every particle has two types of energy it can possibly possess:  rest-mass energy, which is the amount of energy inherent to the particle itself, via Einstein's most famous equation, E = mc2,  and kinetic energy, which is the energy due to the particle's motion through the Universe.
-
-  As the Universe expands, the number of particles remains the same but the volume that they occupy, the size of the Universe, increases.
-
-  How the matter density drops over time should dilute as the volume does: in proportion to the size of the Universe cubed. But if you have a lot of kinetic energy, or you're something like a massless photon where your energy is defined by your wavelength, not only do you dilute with volume, but your wavelength also gets stretched as your Universe expands. Radiation, therefore, dilutes in proportion to the size of the Universe to the fourth power.
-
-  Radiation is dominant over matter for roughly the first 9,000 years, but remains an important component, relative to matter, until the Universe is many hundreds of millions of years old, thus suppressing the gravitational growth of structure.
-
-  But there are other forms of energy the Universe is allowed to have besides particles. In particular, three different ideas have existed for a long time that all have energy, but all have their own evolution.
-
-  Cosmic strings: which are long, thin, one-dimensional strands of energy that stretch across the Universe.  As the Universe expands, cosmic strings can still span the entire Universe in one dimension, but will take up less of the Universe's volume in the other two.
-
-  Domain walls: which are long, thin, two-dimensional sheets of energy that stretch across the Universe.  Domain walls can span the whole Universe in two dimensions, but will still dilute in the one other dimension.
-
-  Cosmological constant: which is a form of energy that's inherent to the fabric of space itself.  For a cosmological constant, the fact that space is expanding just means that there's more volume, and it doesn't dilute at all. The energy density will remain a constant.
-
-  Is “dark energy” the “cosmological constant“? The fact that we see the Universe expanding as it does means that there must be some new form of energy causing these distant galaxies to recede from us faster and faster as time goes on.
-
-  But if the energy present in the Universe is what causes gravity to work, as all the different forms of energy attract all the other forms of energy, then why are progressively more distant galaxies appearing to accelerate away from us as the Universe ages?
-
-   You would think that if the Universe possessed a cosmological constant, it would be gaining energy as the Universe expanded, and would gravitate more, slowing the expansion rate down. But that isn't what happens at all.
-
-  The four possible fates of our Universe into the future; the last one appears to be the Universe we live in, dominated by dark energy. What's in the Universe, along with the laws of physics, determines not only how the Universe evolves, but how old it is. If dark energy were about 100 times stronger in either the positive or negative direction, our Universe as we know it would have been impossible.
-
-    Why does the presence of dark energy, either in the form of a cosmological constant mean that distant galaxies are accelerating away from us at faster and faster speeds as the Universe continues to expand?
-
-  The answer is because we live in a Universe governed by Einstein's laws, and we have to follow what those laws tell us, even the parts of it that are counterintuitive. Einstein first put forth his greatest theory of all, General Relativity, in 1915.
-
-   Using this theory  Karl Schwarzschild worked out the solution for a non-rotating black hole. Other solutions soon followed: for an empty Universe; for gravitational waves; for a cosmological constant all by itself.
-
-   But the most important advance came in 1922, when Alexander Friedmann derived the general solution for a Universe filled with energy that was both isotropic (the same in all directions) and homogeneous (the same in all locations in space).
-
-  The two equations he derived are, even today, still known as the Friedmann equation, and fortunately we only need to examine the first one to learn how the Universe expands dependent on what forms of energy are in it. The first term in the equation is the Hubble expansion rate (squared): a measure of how quickly the fabric of space is stretching at any moment.
-
- All of the other terms in the equation represent a combination of:
-
---------------------------------  all the matter,
-
--------------------------------  all the radiation,
-
--------------------------------  all the neutrinos,
,
--------------------------------  all the dark energy, if it is a cosmological constant
-
-   Because the dark energy density remains a constant, the expansion rate will never drop below a certain amount if dark energy is real.  When the Universe expands enough that the density of everything else becomes negligible, the expansion rate will asymptote to a constant as well.
-
-  For our Universe, this means that the expansion rate will never drop below about
-
--------------------  55 kilometers / second / Megaparsec, about 80% of its present value ,
-
-------------------  which is: ------------- 74.2 km / sec/ Mpc
-
-------------------  which is: -------------------  49,300 miles per hour / million light years distance
-
-  Whether the expansion of the Universe accelerates or decelerates depends not only on the energy density of the Universe , but also on the pressure of the various components of energy. For something like dark energy, where the pressure is large and negative, the Universe accelerates, rather than decelerates, over time.
-
-  For matter, the pressure is negligible so long as it's moving slow compared to the speed of light. For radiation, the pressure is positive, meaning the expansion rate slows more quickly than it does for matter alone.
-
-  But for dark energy, the pressure is not only negative, it's three times as powerfully negative as radiation pressure is positive. For dark energy, the pressure is actually equal to the negative of the energy density.   Instead of decelerating, the Universe accelerates when dark energy dominates.
-
-  There is a large suite of scientific evidence that supports the picture of this expanding Universe and the Big Bang, complete with dark energy.  This leads to an even more counterintuitive result: as the Universe continues to expand, dark energy means that the total amount of energy contained within our observable volume always increases.
-
-  Yet as it does, the Universe doesn't decelerate, but rather speeds up. The most sacred laws in all of physics, the conservation of energy, only applies to particles interacting in a static spacetime. When your Universe expands (or contracts), energy is no longer conserved.
-
-  There is an amount of energy intrinsic to the fabric of space itself, but the effects of the energy density are overwhelmed by the effects of the negative pressure that arises. The Universe's expansion doesn't slow down due to the presence of dark energy, but rather distant galaxies will speed away faster and faster due to its cumulative effects.
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-   For anything beyond our Local Group of galaxies, its fate is already sealed: it will speed away, faster and faster, until we can no longer access it in our accelerating Universe.
------------------------------
-
------- Other reviews about Dark Energy and see Review 2631 to learn about Dark Matter.
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-  2337  -  Dark Energy  -  When the Universe began, gravity soon separated away from the three other forces.  This happened at 10^-43 seconds and at a temperature of  10^32 degrees Kelvin.  Gravity is the force that pulls masses back together.  But, there is another force that is expanding the Universe.
-
-  2297  -  Dark Matter is the gravity that is holding each galaxy together.  Dark Energy is the anti-gravity that is hurling separated galaxies away from each other at an ever accelerating rate.  Astronomers and physicists cannot explain either one.  These two unknowns occupy 23% and 72%, totaling 95%, of all the matter-energy in the Universe.  Everything we know and understand is in the remaining 5%.  We have a lot to work on.
-
-  2257  -  What is the fate of our Universe?  The key to unlocking our ultimate cosmic fate is dependent on our understanding what we are looking at   And then ensuring that our answers aren't biased by the assumptions we're making about the objects we're measuring. Dark energy may not be a constant.  Stay tuned, an announcement on the fate of the Universe will follow.
-
-  2138  - -  The Birth of My Universe.  The Universe was homogeneous before Inflation happened. and because it expanded much faster than the speed of light it remained homogeneous.  The velocity of the expansion today is 47,000 miles per hour for every million lightyears distance. In 1998 astronomers discovered that this velocity was accelerating.  There is some type of Dark Energy in the vacuum of space that is accelerating the expansion of the Universe.
-
-  2112  -  Cosmological constant , the fudge factor that expanded the universe.  The fudge Factor that expanded the Universe. .  We know the Universe is not only expanding its expansion is accelerating at an ever faster rate.  Now, science is resurrecting the cosmological constant fudge factor  in order to use Einstein’s equations to explain an accelerating expansion that began 5 billion years ago.
-
-  2105  -   Energy Expanding Universe.  Universe is expanding at 49,306 miles per hour per million lightyears distance.  .  Eventually at the edges of the Universe the separation speed exceeds the speed of light.  Then light from those galaxies at the edge will never reach us.
-
-  1896 -  Dark Energy and the expansion of the Universe.  Astronomers are trying different methods to measure the accelerating expansion of the Universe.  The hope is for new discoveries to point to the source of “Dark Energy” that is creating this repulsive force.
-
-  1884  -  What we know about the expansion of the Universe?  Making accurate distance measurements to stars and galaxies is an amazing challenge for astronomers.  This review discusses how we got to what we think we know about the Universe’s expansion and what could be causing it.
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-  1864  -  How is Dark Energy expanding the Universe?  Why is this expansion rate accelerating?  Where does the energy come from?  What is the likely end result?
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-  1855  - Cosmology,  studying energy flows and statistics.  -  Cosmic Inflation requires that the Actual Universe to be much larger then the Observable Universe.  The observable is 93 billion lightyears diameter.
-
-  1800  -  Dark Energy  -  Something is counter acting Gravity.  For the first 7 billion years gravity was king.  Then, something else took over once expansion reached this point. Now the Universe is expanding at an ever accelerating rate over this next 7 billion years.
-
-  1749  -  No matter where you go in the Universe your field of reference has everything expanding away form you, an at ever accelerating rate.   Dark Energy Expanding the Universe.  What is it that is causing the Universe to expand at an ever increasing rate?  What force is overcoming the force of gravity?
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-  1594,  1595,  1596, 1597, 1599  -  Reviews to study why is 95% of the Universe “dark”. 
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- 1516  -  If the Universe density were greater then 10^-29 grams / cm^3 then gravity would win over repulsion expansion.  We need to find 200 times more Dark Matter in order to reach this “ critical density”.
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-  1499  -  Graph of Universe composition versus Redshift expansion rate.
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-  1290  -  Calculations of the average density of the Universe. Ours is a dynamic universe unbalanced by the mysterious Dark Energy. Why is Dark Energy Expanding the Universe?  Most astronomical data we have today confirms the fact (theory in fact) that the Universe is still expanding at an ever increasing rate.  The cause is suspected to be some type of anti-gravity that is named “ Dark Energy”.    We know what gravity is and we expected gravity to eventually stop the expansion and reverse the Universe into a “ Big Crunch”.   However, we now think that Dark Energy is the predominate force in the Universe and that it will expand the Universe forever into a “Cold , Rarified Space of almost Nothing”
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-  1147  -  Dark Energy is not predicted by any physics we know of.  Here are 3 theories that are in the works.
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-  1083 -  1084  -  1085 -  Dark Energy  -  Equation for how fast mass would have to decrease to keep the speed of light at 186,600 miles per second.
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-  1047  -  Is the Universe like Swiss Cheese?
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-  822  -  Things are “Dark” because we can’t see them and we do not know what they are.
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-  715 -  Cosmic Dark Ages.  First billion years after the Big Bang.
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-  660  -   then there are Dark Matter reviews , and Cosmic Inflation reviews
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-  374  -  What is dark matter?  How do we know it is there? 
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-  April 25, 2020                                                                            2632                                                                               
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