3141 - ANTIMATTER - how to study it?

  -  3141   -  ANTIMATTER  -  how to study it?   New research from a CERN-based ALPHA (Antihydrogen Laser Physics Apparatus) has demonstrated for the first time how lasers can be used to slow down antihydrogen atoms, cooling them to near absolute zero (nearly -460 Fahrenheit) and making it possible to finally make precise measurements of these volatile particles.

- -----------------------  3141  -   ANTIMATTER  -  how to study it?

-  Antimatter is invisible to the naked eye, will self-destruct if you touch it, and should have caused the destruction of the universe just moments after the Big Bang.

-

-  Scientists have been attempting to capture and experiment on antimatter for decades, but finding the right tool to properly corral these atoms has been difficult because particle decelerators (a particle accelerator’s ice-cold cousin) and dense gas clouds that might hold other types of matter steady can easily cause the annihilation of antimatter. That’s why the research team behind this experiment turned to a neutral medium, photons, for their experiment.

-

-  Because a photon is made of pure energy, researchers can use photons to interact with antimatter particles without triggering their destruction. By using an ultraviolet laser tuned precisely to the energy of these antihydrogen atoms, the researchers were able to decelerate these atoms by 6x their initial speeds using lasers that up to now have been elusive.

-

-  When the universe collided into existence just after the Big Bang, it should’ve contained equal amounts of both antimatter and matter, creating symmetry in the universe, an antiparticle for every particle.

-

-  But because matter and antimatter annihilate on impact by essentially canceling out each other’s charge and spin and creating a massive amount of energy in their place, this could have ended the universe as soon as it began.

-

-  The big question now is: why didn’t it, and why is our universe asymmetrically full of matter instead of antimatter? Because hydrogen is matter’s most abundant element, that naturally makes antihydrogen an attractive candidate for scientists to study in order to get to the bottom of this mystery.

-

-  To make antihydrogen, the same CERN particle accelerators that feed protons to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) make antiprotons by slamming protons into a metal target. The resulting antiprotons are held in CERN’s Antimatter Decelerator ring and delivered to groups like ALPHA. These are then combined with positrons (the anti-electron) that can be collected from decaying radioactive sources to create an antihydrogen atom.

-

-  This elusive antimatter in the same as matter and has the exact same structure and properties as matter as we know it, but an opposite charge and spin. Studying this strange breed of matter could help scientists crack open essential questions about our universe, including why antimatter and matter didn’t destroy the universe after the Big Bang and how Einstein’s theory of general relativity may be proven, or broken.

-

-  Produce roughly 500 to 1,000 antihydrogen particles over the course of 4 hours by mixing antiprotons and positrons (the opposite of an electron) together in a magnetic chamber

-

-  Use microwaves to bump out excess particle clutter from the apparatus, including antihydrogen atoms in unnecessary energy levels

-

-  Pulse ultraviolet laser beams at the remaining antihydrogen particles, causing them to change energy states and, ultimately, slow down.

-

-  To slow down the antihydrogen particles scientists pulsed ultraviolet light beams on the atoms, causing them to jump to and fro energy levels and slow down.

-

-  When done just right, this process can slow down highly energetic antihydrogen particles with speeds of about 186 mph to just under 30 mph.

-

-  This experiment was able to hold the atoms in this state for over an hour.  This is a huge leap from the origin of antimatter science in the 1990s, where atoms would destroy themselves in a matter of seconds.

-

-   In addition to investigating theories like the symmetry of matter and antimatter and general relativity, better control over these antimatter atoms could also allow scientists to one day even form antimatter molecules or adapt the system to better control ions for quantum information systems as well.

-

-  The photon is the quantum excitation of the electromagnetic field.  It is massless but carries momentum. A photon can therefore exert a force on an object upon collision. Slowing the translational motion of atoms and ions by application of such a force, known as laser cooling, was first demonstrated 40 years ago.

-

-   Laser cooling revolutionized atomic physics and it is now a workhorse in many fields, including studies on quantum degenerate gases, quantum information, atomic clocks and tests of fundamental physics. 

-

-  Laser cooling of ant hydrogen which is the antimatter atom consisting of an antiproton and a positron. By exciting the 1S–2P transition in antihydrogen with pulsed, narrow-linewidth, Lyman-α laser radiation, we Doppler-cool a sample of magnetically trapped antihydrogen. 

-

-  The laser trap couples the longitudinal and transverse motions of the anti-atoms, leading to cooling in all three dimensions. We observe a reduction in the median transverse energy by more than an order of magnitude—with a substantial fraction of the anti-atoms attaining submicroelectronvolt transverse kinetic energies. 

-

-  We also report the observation of the laser-driven 1S–2S transition in samples of laser-cooled antihydrogen atoms. The observed spectral line is approximately four times narrower than that obtained without laser cooling.

-

-   The demonstration of laser cooling and its immediate application has far-reaching implications for antimatter studies. A more localized, denser and colder sample of antihydrogen will drastically improve spectroscopic and gravitational studies of antihydrogen in ongoing experiments.

-

-   The demonstrated ability to manipulate the motion of antimatter atoms by laser light will potentially provide ground-breaking opportunities for future experiments, such as anti-atomic fountains, anti-atom interferometry and the creation of antimatter molecules. 

-

- Other Reviews available:

- 

-   3115  -  ANTIMATTER  -  created for research.  -  When the Universe first formed some 14 billion years ago an equal amount of matter and antimatter were formed.  Somehow the two sets of particles got separated and we got lucky and ended up on the matter side of the equation.   However, if the two particles ever come back together they annihilate each other back to pure energy again.  Not good for us.

-

-  3092  -  ANTIMATTER  -  Teaching the Science.   If you do not know the answer it must be science.  Science is a process to learn answers to questions..  When you are curious about something, you observe its characteristics, you form a hypothesis, and then confirm it right or wrong with objective means.

-

-  3046  -    ANTIMATTER  -  and the Higgs Boson discoveries?  Why is the universe is dominated by matter over antimatter, but there could be entire stars, and maybe even galaxies, in the universe made of antimatter. If the Universe did start out of ‘nothing”  then there is equal amounts of matter and antimatter that would come back together and annihilate each other back to “nothing” again.

-

-  3039  -  ANTIMATTER  -  the opposite of normal matter?    "Antimatter." is just like normal matter, with all the same properties and all the same abilities to make up atoms and molecules, except for one crucial difference: It has an opposite charge

-

-  2679  -  ANTIMATTER  -  what happens when we find it?  One of the biggest mysteries in Physics remains, why is there more matter than antimatter?  The Conservation of Energy tells us that at the time of the Big Bang, when matter was first created from energy, there should have been equal amounts of matter and antimatter created. 

-

-   2562  -  ANTIMATTER  -  mystery in physics?   Why is there more matter than antimatter?  The Conservation of Energy tells us that at the time of the Big Bang, when matter was first created from energy, there should have been equal amounts of matter and antimatter created.  When matter and antimatter come back together again they annihilate each other and everything returns back to energy again, according to E=mc^2, Energy is Conserved.

-

-  2561  -  ANTIMATTER  BLACKHOLES  -  what happens when they meet? Antimatter is not science fiction, it is all around us.  Antimatter is a mass that has the opposite electric charge but otherwise is exactly the same as ordinary matter, its counterpart.  What makes antimatter fascinating is that when it meets up with matter the two annihilate each other back into energy, according to E = mc^2.

-

-   2560  -  ANTIMATTER  - is all around us?   Anti-matter is a term that most people relate to science fiction.  It is the ultimate fuel used to power space ships traveling at near light speed.  Few people realize that anti-matter is all around us, all the time, everyday.  Anti-matter is created naturally in nature through radioactivity.  

-

-   2376  -   ANTI-MATTER  - Why does it exist?  Present theory suggests that if particles outnumbered antiparticles in the Big Bang by as little as one part in 100 million, then the present universe could be explained by those extra particles that were not annihilated by an antiparticle counterpart. 

-

-  2244  -  Matter is a mystery that we do not know how to explain. When the Big Bang occurred, our standard model predicts that there should have been an equal amount of matter and antimatter created.  If it all came from nothing it has to add up to nothing.  There needs to be equal amounts of matter and antimatter. 

-

-  1892  -  Energy is converted into matter every day in our upper atmosphere.

-

-  1746  -  Does antimatter really exist?

- 

-  1393  -  Does antimatter really exist?  We know that the center of our Milky Way Galaxy is still producing antimatter, and the resulting Gamma Rays.

-

-  1303  -  Why look for antimatter in he Antarctic.

-

-  1272  -  Teaching the science of antimatter.

-

-  1149  -  Why does matter outnumber antimatter?

-

-  971  -  Notes from  lecture about the Standard Linear Accelerator lecture on antimatter.

- 

-  April 29, 2021                                                                                  3141                                                                                                                                                        

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----  

--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Thursday, April 29, 2021  ---------------------------

3138 - HOLOCAUST - is in our future?

  -  3138   -  HOLOCAUST  -  is in our future?   Before the atoms existed there was not any structure that could  tell time.  Time could not exist among random fundamental particles.  There was no structure for time or space before atoms.  Size is a function of the Compton Wavelengths which are inversely proportional to mass.   Time is a quantity that if it cannot be measured it can not exist.

----------------------  3138  -  HOLOCAUST  -  is in our future?   

-  So you think you are having a bad day?  Well, I am here to cheer you up.  Things could be a lot worse.  And, the great think about these things is that if they happen you do not have to worry about it.  No worries!  Let’s start out with a nuclear holocaust, and asteroid impact, and then a gamma ray burst and end up with time stopping altogether.

-

-  A nuclear holocaust would certainly be a bad day.  Iran is working hard to bring their nuclear bombs on line.  They have said they will take Israel off the map.  Russia and the U.S. still have their arsenals to exchange. 

-

-   The odds of a nuclear war are put at 1 chance in 30 that it will happen.  Ranking destruction with a rating of “1” for a localized chaos to a “10” for destruction of the Universe this would rank about a “6”.  Hundreds of millions of people would be killed. 

-

-   An even more likely scenario is for terrorists to use smaller nuclear bombs to attack a single city.  There is a 50 - 50 chance this will happen in the next 15 years.

-

-  A giant asteroid could impact the Earth again.  It happened 65,000,000 years ago to wipe out all the dinosaurs on Earth.  The odds are 1 in 1,000,000 that it will happen again in the next 100 years.  (See Review 2627  “ Asteroid to Hit the Earth”.) 

-

-   A 6.2 mile diameter asteroid would rank a “9” on our destruction scale.  A 3.1 mile diameter asteroid would kill 25% of the world population.

-

-  There could be a Gamma Ray Burst in our cosmic neighborhood.  Some scientists believe that one did occur 440,000,000 years ago causing the other mass extinction on Earth.  The odds are 1 in 15 that it could happen again in the next 100,000,000 years.

-

--------------------------------------  Then there are:

-

--------------------------------------    Global epidemics,

-

--------------------------------------    Pandemics,

-

--------------------------------------    Global Warming,

-

--------------------------------------    Environmental toxins,

-

--------------------------------------    Biotech warfare,

-

--------------------------------------    Ecosystem collapse,

-

--------------------------------------    Super Solar flare,

-

--------------------------------------    Nanotechnology disaster,

-

--------------------------------------    Alien invasion,

-

--------------------------------------    Supper earthquake, or super volcano.  If the volcano under Yellowstone National Park goes super it could engulf most of North America.

-

-

-  Humans and machines are merging.  Hip replacements, face replacements, lung, heart , and liver replacements.   Soon these replacements will all become machines.  What will the world be like when the merger is complete.  When humans are half robotic how will you know which one you are talking to?

-

-  Gene modifications can transform plants into new ones with desirable traits.  What will happen when the same thing happens with humans.  People will want their babies born with the most desirable traits.  When enough of these babies grow up they will take over the world as a superior race.  Ordinary humans will be an inferior race.  Teenagers will control the world and their parents will be peasant laborers.

-

-  If life is discovered on Mars, or an asteroid, it might likely harbor extremely hardy microbes.   If our planet mistakenly gets seeded with these super microbes they could quickly take over because humans would not have any immune defenses against them.

-

-  Mad science could design a super bomb out of the latest advance technologies.  Uranium bombs are bad enough but they are only 0.1% efficient.  A bomb made out of anti-matter would be 100% efficient.  Fortunately so far science can only produce a few atoms of anti-matter at a time.  What if someone produced 100 pounds of anti-matter That bomb could destroy the world.  Armageddon in an instant.

-

-  The Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland , the world’s largest particle accelerator, could smash so much mass in such a small space as to produce a mini-blackhole.  What if it began growing and swallowed up the Earth.  The Earth would become a blackhole just one inch in diameter.  And, we would never see it coming.  So, why worry?

-

-  4% out of 23%,  or 83%,  or the matter-energy in the Universe is Dark Matter.  We do not know what it is.  But, what if we ran in to a bunch of it?  It could be floating around in the cosmos and accidentally bump into us.  What would the interactions become between two different forms of matter.  Would we survive such an encounter?

-

-  The Sun goes through as 11 year cycle of sunspots, brightness and dimness.  What would happen if the Sun went into an extended period of either cycle?  Global Warming or Global Freezing.  Science believes a Global Freezing event did occur on Earth 650,000,000 years ago, called “ Snowball Earth.”.  Could it happen again?  Or could the opposite happen?  Is the sun a variable star?  How much can it vary?

-

-  Then there is the possibility that time could just end.  Time is direction, duration, and cause - effect ordering of events.  Time is what God invented to keep everything from happening all at once.  We think time slows as it enters a Blackhole and that time stops with it reaches the center of a Blackhole.  Science calls the center a “singularity”.  A singularity has infinite density and zero time.  There are Blackholes all over the cosmos and at the center of our Milky Way Galaxy where time has stopped altogether.

-

-  Earlier science thought time was constant, never changing.  In 1910 Einstein changed that thinking and showed how time could slow down and space could bend.  Mass causes space to bend.  Objects fall through space to places where time passes more slowly.  Enough gravity and the resulting Blackhole causes time to slow down until it stops completely.

-

-  It is hard to imagine how time could end.  However, it is equally hard to imagine how time could not end.  That would mean the Universe would go to infinity.  It is equally hard to imagine infinities.

-

-  The physics to support either theory of time ending or time never ending does not exist.  When you get to a point of zero size the math does not work.  Same with infinite size.  The math just does not handle multiplying by infinity or dividing by zero.

-

-  We know time by duration, seconds, hours, days, years.  When time began the Universe began.  It started with quarks, electrons, neutrinos, and other fundamental particles.  These random particles began to assemble into atoms with protons and neutrons just 10 microseconds after the Big Bang.  Their size was 10^-15 meters.

-

-    Before the atoms existed there was not any structure that could  tell time.  Time could not exist among random fundamental particles.  There was no structure for time or space before atoms.  Size is a function of the Compton Wavelengths which are inversely proportional to mass.   Time is a quantity that if it cannot be measured it can not exist.

-

-  So if you have a really Bad Day you should ponder some to these other events.  If there is a really, really Bad Day time will stop and you won’t have to worry about a Bad Day either way.  Have a Nice Day and stop worrying.

-

-  See review 2422 -  “ The Beginning of Time”  The physics behind what time is and how it evolved in the past and in the future.

-

-  April 25, 2021       HOLOCAUST  -  is in our future?            1200     3138                                                                                                                                                        

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----  

--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Tuesday, April 27, 2021  ---------------------------

3139 - ELECTRON - there are 3 generations?

  -  3139   -   ELECTRON  -  there are 3 generations?  Why are there three generations of electrons?  This review discusses the various properties of the electron and how adding energy creates the second and third generation of electrons called Muons and Taus.

- 
----------------------  3139  -   ELECTRON  -  there are 3 generations?  

-  An electron is one of the lightest fundamental particles.  The neutrinos are lighter but all the other fundamental particles are heavier.  Electrons come in three generations with the next generation being Muons which are over 200 times heavier than the electron. 

-

-   The third generation is the Taus which are over 3,000 times heavier.  If you add energy to an electron it transforms itself into a heavier particle, the Muon.  This happens over our heads every day.  

-

-  Cosmic Rays,  which are heavy nuclei, smash into the gas atoms in the upper atmosphere causing a shower of fundamental particles to rain down on us. Among them are the Muons that pass right through your body and into the surface of the Earth.

-

-  The electron has a negative electric charge.  It has a spin of ½ and all particles with a spin of ½ are called “Leptons“.  All Leptons do not participate in the Strong Nuclear Force that controls the nucleus of all the atoms. 

-

-   Neutrinos are also Leptons but are neutral and have no electric charge.  Because electrons carry an electric charge they interact through the electromagnetic force.

-

-  The family of Leptons include 6 fundamental particles:

-

----------------  electron  -------------------  electron neutrino

-

---------------  Muon   ---------------------- Muon neutrino

-

---------------   Tau   ------------------------  Tau neutrino

-

-  Each generation is created at higher energy levels, and , therefore, heavier mass.  Each of the 6 Leptons are part of a family of Fermions and each have an equivalent anti- particle.  The Muon is over 200 times heavier than the electron.

-

---------------  mass of an electron   =   511,000 electron volts / c^2

-

--------------  mass of a Muon      =    105,600,000 electron volts  / c^2

-

-  Electrons make up all the atoms and are responsible for the chemical binding that creates all the molecules.  The flow of electricity in conductors is due to the motion of electrons.  When electrons are in motion they constitute an electric current.  When an electric charge is in motion it creates a magnetic field.  So a moving electron carries a magnetic field.  A stationary electron carries an electrostatic charge.

-

------------------  The electron’s charge    =    - 1.6 * 10^19 coulombs.

-

------------------   The electron’s mass    =   9.11 * 10^-31 kilograms.

-

------------------   The electron’s mass    =   511,000 electron volts / c^2

-

-  Electrons can exhibit a particle - wave duality.  They can behave with both sets of properties, those of particles and those of waves.  Each electron has its own wave function so the exact momentum and position of an electron cannot be simultaneously determined. 

-

-   This property is called “Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle“.  Because the electron is also a wave its momentum and position must be given in probabilities, that is uncertainties.

-

-  The electron is also a “Fermion“.  All particles with ½ integer spins are called Fermions because they all obey the Exclusion Principle.  The Exclusion Principle applies to all particles that can not occupy the same energy state at the same time. 

-

-   Electrons, protons, and neutrons all obey the Exclusion Principle.  Fermions are particles that are “excluded” from occupying the same energy state.

-

-  Particles that do not obey the Exclusion Principle are called “Bosons“.  Photons are examples of Bosons and photons can occupy the same energy state and at the same time. Like photons in a flashlight beam they can be all on top of each other. Electrons have to live in separate energy shells.  Bosons have integer spins not ½ integer spins like electrons..

-

-  The anti-particle for electrons is the “Positrons” having the same mass but a positive charge.  Electrons and Positrons can collide and annihilate each other in a burst of high-energy photons.  Vise versa, high energy photons can collide and transform into pair production of electrons and Positrons.  When electron and Positrons annihilate each other they return mass to energy in the form of Gamma Rays each having 511,000 electron volts of energy.

-

-  Electrons have an intrinsic angular momentum and a magnetic moment along their spin axis.

-

-  When electrons travel through semiconductors they can become “Cooper Pairs” whereby their motion is coupled to matter via the lattice vibrations in the crystals called Phonons.  Cooper Pairs are also responsible for superconductivity in metals that are cooled to near absolute zero temperatures.

-

-  The classical electron radius is 2.8179 * 10^-15 meters, although it has not been determined if an electron has a structure.  It is also a wave.  Experiments have concluded that if there is a structure it must be smaller than 10^-18 meters.

-

-  Electrons can be accelerated to near light speeds to an energy of 51,000,000,000 electron volts / c^2.  Gamma is 1 / (1 - v/c)^0.5.  The Gamma at this velocity is 100,000.  Therefore, the rest mass of an electron is 511,000 electron volts /c^2

-

-  The number of electrons in the Universe is 10^79. There is about one electron per cubic meter of space.

-

-  As mentioned in the first paragraph Muons are created in the upper atmosphere by the onslaught of Cosmic Rays. ( They are also created in particle accelerators here on Earth).  Cosmic Rays are high-energy atomic nuclei traveling at near light speeds.

-

-   When Cosmic Rays collide with the atomic nuclei in the gas molecules in the atmosphere they explode into a shower of particles.  Pions are particles that are created but they decay in a few nanoseconds into Muons which in turn decay in 2.2 microseconds into electrons.  The energy that creates these heavier particles is the Kinetic Energy of the speeding Cosmic Rays. 

-

-----------------------    Kinetic Energy = momentum * velocity.  =  mass * ( velocity )^2.

-

-  The Muon decay into an electron  and also an electron anti-neutrino and a Muon neutrino.  This decay occurs in 2.2 microseconds.  However, the Muon is able to travel the hundreds of miles from the upper atmosphere to the surface of the Earth before the decay happens.  

-

-  This phenomena proves the time dilation of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.  The Muons are traveling so fast they experience time slowing down so their lifetimes are extended and to us observers they live longer in order to reach the surface of Earth before decaying into electrons.

-

-  Muons were first discovered in 1936 when Carl Anderson was studying Cosmic Radiation coming down from Cosmic Rays.  When the Cosmic particles were viewed in a cloud chamber and under a magnetic field their trajectory path was curved by the magnetic force acting at right angles to the path of the charged particle.  The degree of curvature was a measure of the mass of the particle.  

-

-  Anderson calculated the mass of the Muon was in between the mass of the electron and the mass of a proton, but, it had a negative charge the same as an electron.  At the time he called them Mesons.  When other Mesons were also discovered they became known as Mu Mesons.  When it was later discovered that the Mu Mesons were not Mesons at all they became known as Muons.

-

-  When neutrinos are fired at protons the collisions produce a negative Muon  and a  Charm Quark, which decays into a Strange Quark, a Muon neutrino and a positive Muon.  Particle Physicists use these high energy collision to discover the fundamental particles that fly out as debris from the collision.

-  Adding even more energy to these collisions creates a heavier electron called a Tau Lepton

-

-----------------------  mass of the Tau   =   1,777,000,000 electron volts / c^2

-

----------------------   mass of the proton  =  939,000,000 electron volts  / c^2

-

---------------------    mass of the electron  =  511,000 electron volts  / c^2

-

-  The lifetime of the Tau Lepton is 3*10^-13 seconds.  This is a 10,000,000 times shorter lifetime than the Muon.  The Tau decays into a Muon or an electron.  The Tau was first discovered at the Stanford Linear Accelerator in 1977.  No structure has been found in any of these Leptons, the electron, Muons, or Taus.  It there is one it is less than 10^-18 meters in size.  All have a spin of ½ and all have the same negative electric charge.

-

------------------------------------  Other reviews available:

-

-  2845  -  ELECTRON  -  defining the wave function?  In water waves, the quantity that varies periodically is the height of the water surface. In sound waves, it is the pressure that varies. In light waves, electric and magnetic fields vary. What is it that varies in the case of “matter waves“? 

-

-  2562  -  Antimatter  -  mystery in physics?   Why is there more matter than antimatter?  The Conservation of Energy tells us that at the time of the Big Bang, when matter was first created from energy, there should have been equal amounts of matter and antimatter created.  When matter and antimatter come back together again they annihilate each other and everything returns back to energy again, according to E=mc^2, Energy is Conserved.

-

-   2557  -  ELECTRON  -  just the fundamentals?  The electron is the one fundamental particle that most affects our daily lives.  It is responsible for all electricity, magnetism, chemistry and biology, to name a few.  It was first identified as a particle in 1874. 

-

-  2495  -  ELECTRON  -   best description imagined?   -  This review covers the many things we have learned about the electron.  It is a fundamental particle in our Universe that is responsible for electricity, electronics, chemistry, biology, and the neurological thinking that goes on in your brain.  So, in a way, in reading this review your electrons are studying themselves.

-

-  2494  -  ELECTRON  VOLTS  -  and the nuclear forces.   The proton at 1 MeV is at rest.  The Cosmic Ray is a proton traveling at nearly the speed of light.  It was flung out of a galaxy that was 12 million lightyears away.  It was so near light speed that after 12 million lightyears it was only behind a photon, released at the same time,  by 46 nanometers.   Because Relativity slows time at light speed the Cosmic Ray has only experienced 20 minutes of flight.   Science is stranger than fiction 

-

-  2373 -  The electron is one of the fundamental particles that make up the Universe.  There are twelve in all .  A moving electron creates one of the four fundamental forces in the Universe, the electromagnetic force.   We may not understand all the physics of an electron but we understand the behavior of electrons because we have invented electric stoves, microwave ovens, televisions, computers and digital cameras ( to name a few ). 

-

-   2232  -    What is the shape of an electron?  As far as physicists currently know, electrons have no internal structure and thus no shape in the classical meaning of this word. In the modern language of particle physics the fundamental blocks of matter are continuous fluid-like substances known as “quantum fields” that permeate the whole space around us. 

-

-   1652 -  Electrons are all around us?  This review summarizes what we know about electrons.  A few hundred years of study and there are still mysteries to keep us challenged.

-

-  1306  -  Electron Volts in the Large Hadron Collider.    When the Universe first formed it was composed of a hot, dense, plasma of charged particles.  It was so hot that these ionized particles popped in and out of existence, constantly.  To recreate this condition today particle physics is trying to accelerate and smash charged particles together in Mammoth Colliders.  Today the CERN Large Hadron Collider is smashing a stream of protons and an opposite rotating stream of anti-protons together.  Both streams are traveling nearly the speed of light.  The energies created exceed 14,000,000,000,000 electron volts.  At these high energies it is hoped that some of these primordial particles will be recreated.  And, hopefully, more about how our Universe was created in the Big Bang.

-

-  1068 -  Muon Capture.   A Muon is one of 12 fundamental particles that make up the Universe.  Actually there are 24 particles if you count anti-matter.  All the fundamental particles in matter can be divided into 2 groups:  Fermions and Bosons.  

-

-  507  -  What is an Electron.   Lorentz Factor?

-  

-  April 26, 2021      ELECTRON  -  there are 3 generations?      1226    3139                                                                                                                                                        

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-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com -----  

--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

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--------------------- ---  Tuesday, April 27, 2021  ---------------------------

3140 - QUANTUM MECHANICS - applied to astronomy?

  -  3140   -  QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  applied to astronomy?   Blackholes created at the beginning may be ending their lifetimes about now.  Astronomers expect a giant explosion of Gamma Rays with this happens.  They are on the look out hoping to see the death of a minBlackhole                  

--------------  3140  -  QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  applied to astronomy?

-   Most everything we know about astronomy we owe to light.  Photons are particles called “Bosons” and they do not obey the law of Quantum Mechanics called the “Exclusion Principle“.

-

-   Photons and all Bosons can occupy the same quantum state at the same time.  Electrons can not occupy the same quantum state at the same time and are therefore classified as “Fermions“.  All Fermions do obey the Quantum Mechanic Exclusion Principle, including electrons, protons, and neutrons.

-

-  See Reviews 2810 and 2703 to learn about the Quantum Mechanic Uncertainty Principle and the Exclusion Principle.  when we apply these laws to astronomy several new laws applying to the stars can be derived.

-

------------------- (1)  The Degeneracy Pressures caused by the Exclusion Principle is what keeps stars from totaling collapsing under the force of gravity.

-

------------------  (2)  Quantum Tunneling allows fusion reactions to occur at the core of our Sun.

-

--------------------- (3)  Virtual Particles created by the Uncertainty Principle in the vacuum space “may” be the Universe’s expansion pressure called Dark Energy.

-

---------------------  (4)  Virtual Particles may cause Blackholes to evaporate and have a finite lifetime.

-

- (1)  Electron Degeneracy Pressure is what creates Brown Dwarf stars and White Dwarf stars.  When stars are not big enough to create fusion at their cores, or, when their cores run out of fuel they have no thermal pressure to withstand the force of gravity.  They would collapse into a solid neutron.  

-

-  Except, Electron Degeneracy Pressure caused by the Exclusion Principle prevents gravity from collapsing them beyond that point.  After a star’s death they may collapse down to a smaller diameter but Degeneracy Pressure will prevent the further collapse and the star will live the remainder of its life as a White Dwarf.  This is what will happen to our Sun in another 5,000,000,000 years.

-

-  If the star was massive enough to have gravity force great enough to overcome the electron degeneracy pressure the star will overcome the Exclusion Principle and force the electrons down into the nucleus creating neutrons with the electron-proton pairs. 

-

-   The star will collapse down into a 10 mile diameter as a Neutron Star.  At this point the Neutron Degeneracy Pressure prevents a further collapse and the star lives the remainder of its life as a Neutron Star.

-

-   If the star was still more massive it is possible for gravity to overcome even the Neutron Degeneracy Pressure and the star collapses into a Blackhole.  The Blackhole would live forever except for the other principle, the Uncertainty Principle.

-

-  (2)  Quantum tunneling is what makes nuclear fusion possible in stars the size of our Sun.  Larger stars have greater gravity pressure and their cores become dense enough and hot enough for fusion to occur without quantum tunneling.  

-

-  Quantum tunneling is caused by the Uncertainty Principle where the particles location is determined by probabilities.  When a star the size of our Sun compresses its core density is not great enough to force fusion of hydrogen nuclei to occur.  But, quantum tunneling of particles overcomes the density barrier and fusion is allowed to occur at a certain rate.  Hydrogen fusion to helium is what fuels our Sun.

-

-  (3)  Virtual particles pop in and out of existence in the expansion and vacuum of space.  They exist due to the Uncertainty Principle but for such a short time that they do not violate the Conservation of Energy.  We are unable to detect these particles.  

-

-  However, we can detect the expansion of space and that is happening at an accelerating rate.  We call it Dark Energy.  We believe virtual particles are responsible for it but we have not detected them and Dark Energy remains a mystery.

-

-  (4)  Virtual particles are also associated with the limited lifetime of Blackholes.  Nothing escapes a Blackhole, not even light.  However, at the edge of the Blackhole’s Event Horizon virtual particles can boil off and escape into space.   In this way the Blackhole is slowly evaporating.  This evaporation is not confirmed but the theory is credited to Steven Hawking as Hawking Radiation.

-

-  We have not detected virtual particles so Blackhole evaporation and Dark Energy remain to be discovered.  The Uncertainty Principle still applies, we just do not know how.  In the case of our Sun’s fusion and all star’s collapse we do know how the theory applies.  Gravity eventually overcomes the Exclusion Principle.  Yet, among the four fundamental forces gravity is extremely weak.

-

-  Gravity is weaker by 39 orders of magnitude compared to the electromagnetic force, the weak and strong nuclear forces.  We can not explain why that is so.  Pick up a paper clip with a refrigerator magnet.  The entire mass of the Earth is causing gravity to pull the clip down but the little magnet has enough force to pull the clip up. 

-

-   We obviously have much more to learn.  Quantum Mechanics not only opens up the atomic world to our understanding but to the cosmic world as well.

-

-  The Lifetime of a Blackhole can be calculated with this fromula:

------------------  Lifetime  =  10,240 *pi^2 * G^2* M^3 / h*c^4

-

-  “G” is the force of gravity, “M” is the mass of the Blackhole, “h” is Planck’s Constant of Action and “c” is the speed of light.  From the formula you can see that lifetime varies as the cube of the mass.  

-

-  Therefore, low mass Blackholes have shorter lifetimes.  If you use this calculation on the smaller mass Blackholes you get a lifetime of about 10 billion years.  This is about the lifetime of the Universe.  

-

-  Blackholes created at the beginning may be ending their lifetimes about now.  Astronomers expect a giant explosion of Gamma Rays with this happens.  They are on the look out hoping to see the death of a mini- Blackhole.

-

-  Mini-Blackholes would be about the mass of the Earth 6*10^24 kilograms.  Lifetime about 13.7 billion years.  Could we see one of these in your lifetime?  I have never heard it said, but I would suspect that in genetics, it is the quantum Mechanic Uncertainty Principle that causes life to age and be responsible for our lifetimes as well.  My guess.

-

-  3133  -  QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  too weird to ponder?  Quantum Mechanics is the most powerful theory in physics.  But, after 100 years of thinking and studying we are as confused as ever.  Quantum Mechanics has weird theories that get confirmed with experiments results and to phenomenal accuracies, out to a dozen decimal places. 

-

-  3041  -  QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  controlling our reality?  This review discuss the strange world of Quantum Mechanics and suggests that it is really controlling our reality below the surface.  Quantum behavior may be what allows birds to fly thousands of miles with precise navigation.  It may be what allows plants to synthesize sunlight.  It may be what links your brain to eyesight.

-

-  2984 - QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  make the best clocks?  Precise optical clocks are but one application of the optical comb. Optical combs are transforming precision measurement in many areas, from finding planets around distant stars (precision doppler measurements), to potentially measuring the expansion of space itself (time dependence of redshift).

-

-  2721  -  QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  controlling our reality?  This review discuss the strange world of Quantum Mechanics and suggests that it is really controlling our reality below the surface.  Quantum behavior may be what allows birds to fly thousands of miles with precise navigation.  It may be what allows plants to synthesize sunlight.  It may be what links your brain to eyesight.

-

-   2414 -  QUANTUM MECHANICS -  to explain the Universe.  Using quantum mechanics to explain the world we live in gets really, really weird.   A lot of what we know about the Standard Model of Nature’s fundamental particles came from studying Cosmic Rays.  Maybe the next revelation will come from studying the computer?

-

- 2319   -  The Declaration of Independence reads more like a mathematical theorem than a political document.  It attempts to define truth, rights, and reality.  The fundamental goal of science is also to define reality.  The heart of science and mathematics is shrewd honesty that springs from really wanting to know what the hell is going on

-

- 2287 - The Universe is a Computer.  The quantum in space-time acts like a bit in a computer.  Space is not really space it is “information“.  And “time” is simply a clock.  If you have information and a clock you have a computer.  A computer does everything it does just using a switch between a one and a zero.  

-

-  2282  -  The waves of matter.  The matter that makes up our world is only 5% of what is out there to make the Universe. What is the rest? 

-

-  2266  -  The birth of quantum mechanics.

-

-  1548  -  The Universe - biggest smallest, from the Universe down to quantum fluctuations at the Planck Scale.

-

-  2098  -  Hubble Constant and the Quantum Gravity.  Understanding gravity in the framework of quantum mechanics is one of the great challenges of modern physics today. 

-

-  2282  -  Quantum Mechanics and the waves of matter. 

-

-  2266  -  The birth of quantum mechanics

-

-  2228  -  Quantum mechanics and the Theory of Relativity.

-

-  2204  -  The quest for reality.

-

-  2171 -  Quantum mechanics applied to astronomy.

-

-  2010  -  Quantum mechanics and gravity.

-

-  1982  -  Quantum physics of determinism

-

-  1606  -  Weird science versus real science.

-

-  1548  -  The Universe biggest to smallest.

-

-  April 27, 2021     QUANTUM  MECHANICS  -  in astronomy?  1028  3140                                                                                                                                                        

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Tuesday, April 27, 2021  ---------------------------

3137 - PLANCK CONSTANT - the smallest constant?

  -  3137  -  PLANCK  CONSTANT  -  the smallest constant in physics.  The Planck constant is related to the quantization of light and matter. It can be seen as a subatomic-scale constant. In a unit system adapted to subatomic scales, the electronvolt is the appropriate unit of energy and the petahertz the appropriate unit of frequency. Atomic unit systems are based on the Planck constant.

------------------  3137  -  PLANCK  CONSTANT  -  the smallest constant?

- Planck's constant relates the energy of a photon with the frequency of light. It is the quantum of electromagnetic action that relates a photon’s energy to its frequency. The Planck constant multiplied by a photon’s frequency is equal to a photon’s energy. The Planck constant is a fundamental physical constant denoted as “h” , and of fundamental importance in quantum mechanics.

-

-  The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typical of the order of kilojoules and times are typical of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.

-  

-  The Planck constant is defined to have the exact value  = 6.62607015×10−34 Joule-seconds in SI units.

-

-  Planck's constant allows the precise calculation of the energy of light emitted or absorbed and thereby permits the determination of the actual energy of the photon. Along with constant for the speed of light, Planck's constant is a fundamental constant of nature.

-

-  At the beginning of the twentieth century, German physicist, Maxwell Planck, proposed that atoms absorb or emit electromagnetic radiation only in certain units or bundles of energy termed “quanta“.

-

-   The concept that energy existed only in discrete and defined units seemed counter-intuitive, outside the human experience with nature. Accepting his experimental results regarding the radiation emitted by an object as its temperature increases, Planck developed a quantum theory that accounts for a wide range of physical phenomena.

-

-  Prior to Planck's work, electromagnetic radiation (light) was thought travel in waves with an infinite number of available frequencies and wavelengths. Planck determined that energy of light was proportional to its frequency. As the frequency of light increases, so does the energy of the light.

-

-  Planck began his university studies at the age of sixteen. By the age of twenty-one he had earned a doctorate in physics. While a graduate student, Planck studied entropy and the applications of the second law of thermo-dynamics. 

-

-  When Planck started his studies in physics, Newtonian or classical physics seemed fully explained. In fact, Planck's advisor claimed that there was essentially nothing new to discover in physics. Despite such warnings, Planck choose to study physics.

-

-   Planck's talents and dedication were recognized and upon the death of his mentor Gustav Robert Kirchoff, Planck became a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Berlin were he did the major portion of his work regarding the relationship of light energy to light wavelength.

-

-   Planck was able to measure radiation from heated bodies because although atoms are constantly vibrating and generating electromagnetic waves when heated, an atom vibrates at higher frequencies and gives off radiation at higher levels of energy.

-

-  Planck admitted that he did not fully understand quantum theory. In fact he regarded it as only a mathematical aberration or temporary answer until a more intuitive or common sense answer was found. 

-

-  Despite Planck's reservations, Albert Einstein's subsequent Nobel Prize winning work on the photoelectric effect was heavily based on Planck's theory and described light as being composed of photons, each with an energy equal to Planck's constant times the frequency of the light.

-

-  Light is now understood as having both photon (particle) and wave-like properties.

-

-  In 1916, American physicist Robert Millikan's experiments gave the first precise calculation of Planck's constant. Modern laboratories, including the National Institute of Standards and Technology strive for more precise values for Planck's constant because it is so fundamental to applications of modern physics and chemistry.

-

-  Planck's constant, combined with the speed of light, and the universal gravitational constant (G), can yield a quantity with the dimensions of time (5.38 x 10-44 seconds). 

-

-  This quantity is called “Planck time” a very important concept in cosmology. Because it is a fundamental constant, more precise values for Planck's constant also improves the precision of related atomic constants, such as proton mass, electron mass, elementary charge, and Avogadro's number.

-

-  At the end of the 19th century, accurate measurements of the spectrum of black body radiation existed, but predictions of the frequency distribution of the radiation by then-existing theories diverged significantly at higher frequencies. In 1900, Max Planck empirically derived a formula for the observed spectrum.

-

-  He assumed a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black-body radiation could only change its energy in a minimal increment, that was proportional to the frequency of its associated electromagnetic wave. He was able to calculate the proportionality constant, , from the experimental measurements, and that constant is named in his honor.

-

-  The black-body problem was revisited in 1905, Einstein independently proved that classical electromagnetism could never account for the observed spectrum. These proofs are commonly known as the “ultraviolet catastrophe”.

-

-  They contributed greatly, along with Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect, in convincing physicists that Planck’s postulate of quantized energy levels was more than a mere mathematical formalism. The first Solvay Conference in 1911 was devoted to “the theory of radiation and quanta”.

-

-   Einstein’s explanation for observations of photoelectric effect was that light itself is quantized; that the energy of light is not transferred continuously as in a classical wave, but only in small “packets” or quanta. The size of these “packets” of energy, which would later be named photons, was to be the same as Planck’s “energy element”, giving the modern version of the Planck–Einstein relation:

-

-  The Planck constant also occurs in statements of Werner Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. 

-

---------------------------------  Other reviews available;

-

-    2396  -  PLANCK  -  the smallest things-  The answer to the enduring question of the smallest thing in the universe has evolved along with humanity. People once thought grains of sand were the building blocks of what we see around us.  Then the atom was discovered, and it was thought indivisible. 

-

-    2397 -  PLANCK TIME  - Time Come to Us in Particles.  Time seems continuous.  But, there are actually quantum steps in time.  The second hand on  your watch seems to jump in steps.  Time itself does the same thing in much, much smaller steps. 

-

-  2641  -  What Forces Control Everything?   A force is a push or a pull.  So, a force is something that moves something.  Not really, no force is needed if something is moving at a constant velocity in a straight line.  But, a force is needed to accelerate something, to “change” its velocity, or, to change it from moving in a straight line.  Energy is a force acting over a distance. (E = F*d)  So, to move something through space takes energy.  The force of gravity has potential energy that can quickly change into kinetic energy if you step off a cliff.  The electric force is between electric charges.  The magnetic force is between magnetic poles.  But, combine these two and you get electromagnetic radiation which is light.  

-

-  April 25, 2021    PLANCK  CONSTANT  -  the smallest constant       3137                                                                                                                                                        

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Sunday, April 25, 2021  ---------------------------

3136 - QUASAR - most massive blackhole discovered?

  -  3136  -  QUASAR  -  most massive blackhole discovered.  Astronomers have discovered the second-most distant quasar ever found using three Maunakea Observatories in Hawai.  It is the first quasar to receive an indigenous Hawaiian name, Pōniuā`ena, which means "unseen spinning source of creation, surrounded with brilliance" in the Hawaiian language.

-----------------  3136  -  QUASAR  -  most massive blackhole discovered?

-  This is only the second quasar yet detected at a distance calculated at a cosmological redshift greater than 7.5 and it hosts a blackhole twice as large as the other quasar known in the same era. The existence of these massive blackholes at such early times challenges current theories of how supermassive blackholes formed and grew in the young universe.

-

-  Quasars are the most energetic objects in the universe powered by their supermassive blackholes and since their discovery, astronomers have been keen to determine when they first appeared in our cosmic history.

-

-   By systematically searching for these rare objects in wide-area sky surveys, astronomers discovered the most distant quasar (named J1342+0928) in 2018 and now the second-most distant, Pōniuā`ena (or J1007+2115, at redshift 7.515). 

-

-  The light seen from this quasar  traveled through space for over 13 billion years since leaving the quasar just 700 million years after the Big Bang.   The supermassive black hole powering it is 1,500,000,000 times more massive than our Sun.

-

-  It is the most distant object known in the universe hosting a blackhole exceeding one billion solar masses.  For a blackhole of this size to form this early in the universe, it would need to start as a 10,000 solar mass "seed" blackhole about 100 million years after the Big Bang, rather than growing from a much smaller blackhole formed by the collapse of a single star.

-

-  Current theory holds the birth of stars and galaxies as we know them started during the Epoch of Reionization, beginning about 400 million years after the Big Bang. The growth of the first giant blackholes is thought to have occurred during that same era in the universe's history.

-

-  The discovery of this quasars deep into the reionization epoch, is a big step towards understanding this process of reionization and the formation of early supermassive black holes and massive galaxies. It has placed new and important constraints on the evolution of the matter between galaxies (intergalactic medium) in the reionization epoch.

-

-  This blackhole acts like a cosmic lighthouse. As its light travels the long journey towards Earth, its spectrum is altered by diffuse gas in the intergalactic medium which allowed us to pinpoint when the Epoch of Reionization occurred.

-

-  In 2019, the preliminary data suggested this was likely to be an important discovery. Observing the new quasar using Keck's NIRES spectrograph in order to confirm its extremely high redshift and measure the mass of its blackhole.

-

-  The Near Infrared Echellette Spectrograph (NIRES) is a prism cross-dispersed near-infrared spectrograph built at the California Institute of Technology.  

-

-  NIRES covers a large wavelength range at moderate spectral resolution for use on the Keck II telescope and observes extremely faint red objects found with the Spitzer and WISE infrared space telescopes, as well as brown dwarfs, high-redshift galaxies, and quasars. 

-

-  The Keck Observatory telescopes are among the most scientifically productive on Earth. The two 10-meter optical/infrared telescopes on the summit of Maunakea on the Island of Hawai'i feature a suite of advanced instruments including imagers, multi-object spectrographs, high-resolution spectrographs, integral-field spectrometers, and world-leading laser guide star adaptive optics systems.          Other reviews about quasars:

-

-  2737  -  QUASAR  -  the most distant light?  When astronomers take a photo of the most distant light coming from a Quasar that is 13,000,000,000 lightyears away they are recording astronomical history.  That same Quasar that was likely the center of an infant galaxy is now 46,000,000,000 lightyears away.  That Quasar that is at the center of a distant galaxy may not even exist today.

-

-   2506  -  QUASARS  -  extreme  blackholes?  How do astronomers see the brightest objects in the Universe that are the farthest away?  It is the closest thing we have to a time machine.  The expansion of space over cosmic distances stretches the wavelengths of visible light making the light redder and redder until is in the infrared part of the spectrum.

-

-   2496  - QUASARS  - Blackholes with personalities.   Quasars are high-energy sources in the heavens that astronomers discovered over 50 years ago.  They have remained mysteries to this day, however we certainly know a lot more about them.

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-  2286 -  QUASARS  -  the hosts of super massive blackholes.  Quasars are the most powerful radiating objects in the Universe.  They are exceedingly bright while at enormous distances.  Their distances are judged by the redshift of their light spectrum.  Greater distances mean farther back in time. Today they are called Active Galactic Nuclei  known to host super massive blackholes.

-

-  April 24, 2021      QUASAR  -  most massive blackhole             3136                

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ---- 

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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Saturday, April 24, 2021  ---------------------------

3135 - UNIVERSE - what is it expanding in to?

  -  3135  -  UNIVERSE  -  what is it expanding in to?  -  If the Universe is infinite, how can infinity be expanding?  Astronomers believe the Universe is finite and that eventually it comes back on itself.  To explain this we have to decide the shape of the Universe.  The shape is flat?

      -----------------------  3135  -  UNIVERSE  -  what is it expanding in to?

-  Astronomers all agree that the Universe is still expanding and that , in fact, it is expanding at an every increasing rate.  But, what is the Universe expanding into?  It started as a compressed point of energy ( called a Singularity ) and has been expanding for 13,700,000,000 years. 

-

-  The energy released with the Big Bang started the expansion of space and time.  So, inside the Universe is space and time, therefore , outside the Universe there is no space nor time.  Right?

-

-  We can not say the outside is “ nothing”, because even nothing has 3 dimensions of space and time that still goes on.  But, outside time stops and there are no dimensions.   So, what do we call it?  It is the same as the Singularity before the Big Bang and before space-time got started.  But, what’s that?

-

-  If the Universe is infinite, how can infinity be expanding?  Astronomers believe the Universe is finite and that eventually it comes back on itself.  To explain this we have to decide the shape of the Universe.  The shape is flat.  It could be open or closed in shape.  But, we think its flat. 

-

-   To explain the different shapes it has to do with parallel lines.  If you fire two photons exactly parallel with each other in the same direction.  They stay parallel if the shape is flat.  If the Universe is closed it is like the Earth, a sphere.  

-

-  You fire two photos parallel at the equator and they crash together at the poles.  In a closed shape parallel lines intersect.  If the Universe is open it is like a saddle.  Fire 2 photons parallel to each other and they diverge never to meet.

-

-  Today’s conclusion is that the Universe is flat.  It is like a thick sheet of paper in shape with 3 dimensions that are infinitely long in 3 dimensions.  If it is finite it is like a donut.  On a donut, parallel lines always come back to the same point, eventually.  Now, is the Universe really a donut or is that “just the mathematical model” that we use to describe the shape of the Universe?  

-

- Take the Einstein view of gravity.  He says it is curved space-time.  But, is space and time really curved or is it that just the mathematical model that best describes space and time in the theory of relativity?  So is the Universe in a finite shape of a donut or is that just the  mathematical model that seems to fit?

-

-  Conclusions are that the Universe is flat and finite.  But, it must be expanding into something.  The outside something is something where space and time do not exist.  So, what do you want to call that?  Time stops and dimensions are at a diminished point.  I’d call it hell!

-

-  Could outside our Universe be another Universe?  Is there an infinite set of parallel Universes out there?

-

-  There is the theory of Inflation where in the first seconds of the Universe’s expansion it expanded at a logarithmically fast rate and then slowed down to the rate we experience today.  Maybe other Universes inflated at the same time.  Maybe they are like soap bubbles all expanding and we are living in just one of those soap bubbles.

-

-  Astronomers had things figured out pretty well until 1998.  That is when two supernova redshift teams determined that the Universe was not only expanding, it was speeding up in its expansion.  That is when Dark Energy was discovered. 

-

 -  Dark energy is an anti-gravity responsible for this accelerating expansion and it represents 70% of all the mass-energy in the Universe.  Before then we thought the fate of the Universe would be determined by its geometry.  Now we have some unknown force determining the fate of the Universe.

-

-  Because the speed of light is constant and finite, it acts as both a vision and a look back in time.  When we look back in time it appears that gravity was the dominate force in the expanding Universe for 7,000,000,000 years and then it switched and Dark Energy has been the dominate force the last 7,000,000,000 years.  But, what is it?

-

-  Telescopes that observe with photons have taught us a lot.  But , to learn more we will have to observe with gamma rays coming from gamma ray bursts in the distant Universe.  We need to be able to observe with neutrinos and with gravity waves, or gravitons.  There is much more to the Universe than we understand right now.  We can not see it all with just “light“.  

-

-  So, what is the Universe expanding into?  Another Universe where time and space do not exist.  Or, another parallel Universe where the constants of nature are likely to be different than the constants we know and understand here in our Universe. 

-

-  What we think so far is that the Universe is flat and finite, and the mathematical shape of a torus, or toroid.  A torus is  a surface of revolution obtained by rotating a circle around an axis that lies in the plane of the circle but outside it.  It’s a donut.

-

-  So our life revolves around a donut.  No worries, you are such a small speck on  the surface it is flat as far as you are concerned.  I need another 100,000 years to figure this stuff out???

-

-  April 24, 2021                                                            2193        3135                                                                                                                                                        

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews 

---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------

--------------------- ---  Saturday, April 24, 2021  ---------------------------