MATH The power of combinations?

-  2222  -  The power of combinations?  Pass it on to anyone who wants to learn the power of combinations.  The power of teamwork, networking, and the world-wide-web are demonstrated in this math.
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 ----------------------------   2222   -  The power of combinations?
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-  Statistics depends on the law of large numbers.  Given enough opportunities for specific events to happen, despite how unlikely to be for each opportunity, it will eventually happen.  If it can happen it will happen!
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-  Another way to put it: the number of combinations of interacting elements increases exponentially with the number of elements.
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-   A “combination” of “n” different taken “r” at a time with no attention to order increases exponentially.  The formula uses “!” which means “factorial”, which is 5!  =  5*4*3*2*1  =  120.  “Factorial” is multiplication in a descending sequence of numbers down to the number 1.
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--------------------------------  Combination  =  n!  /  r!  (n - r)!
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-   To illustrate this formula  let’s use a third-grade class of 30 students.    If the teacher chooses to have them work individually than the number of combinations is 30.
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------------------------  Combination  =  30!  /  1!  (30 - 1)!  =  30*29  /  29  =  30
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-   But if the teacher asked the class to work in pairs how many combinations are there?
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-------------------------  Combinations  =  30!  /  2!  (30 - 2)!  =  30*29  /  2  =  435
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-   There are 435 different pairs that could work together.
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-.  How about if the teacher asked students to work in groups of 3 that would be 10 groups.  How many  different combinations are there?
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-------------------------  Combinations  =  30!  /  3!  (30 - 3)!  =  30*29* 28  /  6  =  4060
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-   There are 4060 combinations of these student groups.
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-  The number of combinations is growing exponentially from 30 ,to  435, to 4060,  to 27,405 to………………….
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-   What would happen if the teacher said to the class okay you can work together in any combinations you want?
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-   Number of possible groups of students working together in a class of 30 students is a set of “n” elements with (2^n - 1) possible subsets that can be formed
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-------------------  Combinations  =   1,073,74,823
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-----------------  Combinations  =  2^30 - 1  =  1,073,74,824  -1
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-.  Lastly let's put the class of students on the Internet.   Now the class is growing to 2,500,000,000,  the number of www.users.
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------------------------  3 * 10^18 pairs  =  10^750,000,000 possible pairs
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-.  Probability that any and all of these can interact with any of the others is 10 followed by 750,000,000 zeros .
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-.  Another example of how combinations can work  is the famous problem of  “how many people need to be in a room before there is a probability that two have the same exact birthday“.
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-.  The answer is 23 people in a room and the probability is better  than 50 % that two have the same birthday.  But how do we get to that number?
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 -  A single birthday has 1 chance in 365 days of occurring that 0.27 %  So, any one person has one chance in  365 of having my same birthday.
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-.  And, to take the reverse,  there 364 / 365, or 99.7 % probability that any particular person will have a different birthday.
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-.  If “n” is the number of people in the room then   (n-1)   is probability of 364 /  365 of having a different birthday.
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-  If you combine these probabilities of being different it becomes  364/365 *  364/365 * 364/365 * 364/365 …………………..  (364/365)^22   =   0.94
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-.  When “n” is 23 there is 94 % probability that none of them will share the same birthday as you.
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-.  The probability that at least one of them has the same birthday as you is  ( 1 - 0.94).   or 0.06.   A 6% probability that one of the 23 people shares your birthday.
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-   Six percent  is a very small number,  If there are 23 people in a room the likelihood is high that no one has the same birthday as me but they may have the same birthday matching someone else.
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-.  Either someone has a same birthday as me or no one has the same birthday as me. These two likelihoods add up to one,   0.94 + .06  =  1
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-  Now if the question is different that any two people have the same birthday as each other.  Not only is (n -1) people sharing the same birthday but  (n-1)*2 / 2 pairs of people in a room share the same birthday.  When n  =  23:
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--------------------------------  (n-1) * n  /2  =  23 * 22 / 2  =  253
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------------------------------  23!  /  2! * ( 21!)  =  253
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-.  That is more than 10 times larger than (n -1) which is 22

-.  There are 253 possible pairs of people but only 22 pairs include me.
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-.  Will that get us the answer that the odds of two people having the same birthday begins to occur when 23 people are in the room.
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-.  Let’s look at the contrary way what is the likelihood that none of the 23 people have the same birthday. We've already determined that for two people the answer is 364/365 which is by 99.7%.
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-.  Now add a third person in the room and the probability becomes a 99.4 %.
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-.  At a fourth person and it is 94.1%.
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-.  When you get to 23 people the probability is 49 % that don't have the same birthday and :
(1 - 0.49)  =  51% probability that two people will have the same birthday
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-  The law of combinations grows at an exponential rate.  The probability with 10 people is 12%.  The probability with 20 people is 40%.  The probability with 23 people is 50.7%.  the probability with 100 people is 99.99996 %
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- The probability that all the birthdays are the same:
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----------------------different  =  (366-n ) /  365^n
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---------------------  same  =  1  -  365! /  365^n ( 365-n)!
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-  Each person in the room has a 365 chance to match a birthday.  For 23  people the number of chances is 365^n  =  365^23.
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-  Pass it on to anyone who wants to learn the power of combinations.  The power of teamwork, networking, and the world-wide-web are demonstrated in this math.
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-  December 31, 2018.           1650         
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Genetics - Where I came from?

-  2221  -  Genetics  -  Where I came from? This story all started 14,000,000 years ago when Gorillas split off from Orangutans.  Then Chimpanzees split off from Gorillas some 8,000,000 years ago.  We humans split off from them into three groups about 500,000 years ago,  Humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans.
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----------------------------- 2221   -  Genetics  -  Where I came from?
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-   I am sitting here writing this Review using a brain I inherited just so I could learn where the brain came from.  Research in our brain lineage is finding new evidence that takes us back 4,000,000 years..  Here is bits and pieces of what we have learned. Sorry it is a crooked path and not nearly a straight line. 
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-  This story all started 14,000,000 years ago when Gorillas split off from Orangutans.  Then Chimpanzees split off from Gorillas some 8,000,000 years ago.  We humans split off from them into three groups about 500,000 years ago,  Humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans.
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-  We bipedal humans walk on two legs.  However, we likely evolved some 3,320,000 years ago from tree dwellers that did not.  Analyzing partial feet bones from the 3,320,000 old fossils were reported as adaptations from efficient tree climbing.  The theory is that younger individuals hung out in the trees for safety.  Then, once fully grown spent time on the ground foraging.
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-  The human brain is big in relation to body size.   It is six times bigger than that of other placental mammals. 
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-  There is a family of genes found in all animals.  These genes are critical to the embryo’s development.  These genes produce those proteins that tell the stem cells what to turn into.  Their instructions produce cells ranging from neurons, to muscles, to brain cells. 
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-  14,000,000 years our ancestors somehow got an extra hunk of DNA.  This particular genetic code is still present in chimps and gorillas.  But, it is not present in Orangutans.
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-  4,000,000 years ago our own lineage split off from the other apes. This new gene pumped up the neurons into advanced cognitive thinking.  This same gene is found in Humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans.
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-  Our brains are 4% of our body weight but consume 20% of our energy.  What caused  development in these larger brains?  Was it the social challenges in the group, both cooperative and competitive?  Was it ecological challenges of finding food and avoiding predators?  Or, was it cultural challenges in sharing knowledge and skills like I am sharing now? 
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-  A particular study found the extra brain size was 60% used for ecological challenges, 30% for collaboration, and 10% for group competition and family disputes.
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-  Our earliest human ancestors branched off the primate family tree in Africa.  But, the evidence from there is spread around the world.   
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-  2,100,000 years go in China  stone tools were found that span over 800,000 years of time.   A 1,630,000 year old partial human skull was unearthed there. 
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-  Many stone tools were found in India dated to 385,000 years ago. 
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-  The jaw of a modern human was found in Israel dated to be 194,000 years old. 
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-  In Siberia a bone was found dated to be 90,000 years old.  The genome found in the bone determined that it was from a girl that was a teenager of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father. 
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-  In Saudi Arabia a finger bone was found of a modern human living there 85,000 years ago.  With this bone were animal bones, stone tools, and sediment evidence that it was next to a fresh water lake surrounded by a grassland full of game. 
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-  The Garden of Eden must be around there somewhere. 
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-  Other Reviews available:
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-  999  - The human genome and your health.  All life on Earth can be traced to simple sections of the DNA.  The A, T, G, and C nucleotides are called the genome.  Your genome can even be traced to if you eat asparagus and you can smell your pee.  Well can you?  Not everyone can.  It depends on your genome.
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-  December 31, 2018               
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 --------------------------   Monday, December 31, 2018  --------------------------
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Laws of Motion

-  2220  -  The Laws of Motion.  The laws of motion were first set in motion by Galileo (1564-1642).  Before Galileo people believed that the rate of fall of an object was proportional to its weight, cannon balls and feathers.  Galileo said all objects fall at the same rate regardless of their weight, if there is no air resistance.
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----------------------------- 2220  -  Laws of Motion
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-  The laws of motion were first set in motion by Galileo (1564-1642).  Before Galileo people believed that the rate of fall of an object was proportional to its weight, cannon balls and feathers.  Galileo said all objects fall at the same rate regardless of their weight, if there is no air resistance.
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-  He was right but it was hard for him to prove it in those days..  No vacuums were available to get away from air resistance.  The time pieces were water clocks that measured to within a fraction of an hour.
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-  Galileo solved these problems by running his experiments on inclined planes.  That slowed things down so he could measure them. (See footnote 1)
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-  Johann Kepler came along 1581 to 1630 with a mathematical mind.  He used Tycho Brahe’s observation data on the orbits of the planets to develop his three laws of motion. (See footnote 2)
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-  (I)  The planets orbit in ellipsis with the Sun as one focus.
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-  (II)  Planets sweep out equal areas in equal times.  When the planet is closer to the Sun it moves faster, when it is farther away it moves slower.
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-  (III)  Period^2  =  major axis^3, or the time for one orbit squared = the distance from the Sun cubed.
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-  Next came Isaac Newton (1643-1727) who at age 23 published the law of Gravitational Force = G* M*m/d^2.  The force of gravity increases as the product of the masses and decreases with the square of the distance between them. (See footnote 3)
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-  Isaac Newton defined the three laws of motion using mathematics:
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-  (1)  A body at rest remains at rest. A body in motion remains in motion with constant velocity.  Unless acted upon by an outside forces things keep moving at a constant speed forever.
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-  (2)        Force = mass * acceleration, or F = m*a
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-  (3)    Gravity Force = G* M*m/d^2.
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-  G is the Gravitational Constant which was not determined until Henry Cavendish in 1798, 132 years later, performed his famous experiment.
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-  He hung metal balls from wires and measured the force of gravity by the twist and torque in the wires as the balls were brought closer together.  He plugged the data into Newton’s formula and calculated G, the Gravitational Constant.  Then he plugged that answer back into Newton’s formula and calculated the mass of the Earth. (See footnote 4)
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- Mass of Earth = 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons
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-  Density of Earth = 5.5 times density of water.
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-  G  =  .00000000006674215 meters^3/kilograms*seconds^2
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- G  =  1 Astronomical Unit / Year
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-  Newton’s math derived the velocity needed to sustain a circular orbit
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-  Circular Velocity^2  =  Gravitational Constant * Mass / radius =  G*M/r
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-  Faster or slower velocities than this create ellipses larger or smaller than this circle.
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-  Escape velocity is the minimum velocity needed to have a parabolic orbit and to escaped the gravitational pull of the Earth.
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-  Escape Velocity^2  =  2*G*M/r
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-  At the Earth’s surface:
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- Circular Velocity^2  =  17,700 miles/hour at Earth’s surface
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- Escape Velocity^2  =  25,041 miles/hour at Earth’s surface.
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-  Two objects orbit about their center of mass.  Strictly speaking the Earth does not orbit the Sun.  The Earth and the Sun orbit each other about their mutual center of masses.  In our case, since the Sun is so much larger, the mutual center of mass lies inside the Sun, but not at its center.
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-  The semi-major axis of the Earth-Sun ellipse = R sun + R Earth
= 1 AU = 1.5*10^8 meters.
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- R Sun / R Earth = Mass Earth / Mass Sun
= 5.9742*10^24 Kilograms / 1.9891*10^30 Kilograms = 3*10^-6
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-  R Sun = 3*10^-6- 4.5*10^2  =  450 Km = 280 Miles
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-  R Sun = 280 miles
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-  Radius of the Sun = 435,000 miles

-  So the center of Earth-Sun mass is only .06% of the distance from the center of the Sun.
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-  Newton’s calculations on Kepler’s II law of equal areas in equal times was translated into orbital motion is the conservation of angular momentum.
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-  Which is the same as equal areas in equal times.
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-  Angular momentum  =  mass * velocity / radius  = m*v/r = constant
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-  If the radius changes then the velocity must change to compensate to keep the momentum constant.  If the distance becomes shorter the velocity increases.  If the distance is greater the velocity decreases to keep the angular momentum constant.
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- Newton’s calculations for the III law, period^2 = radius^3 became:
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- Period^2 = 4*pi^2 * radius^3  /  G* (m1 * m2)
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-  G works out to be unity if the period is measured in years and the radius in Astronomical units.  The AU is the average distance for Earth to Sun = 1.496*10^11 meters.
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- Period of Earth is one year = 3.156*10^8 seconds
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- Radius =  1 AU = 1.496*10^11 meters.
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- G = 6.674215 m^3/kg*sec^2
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- Mass Sun = 1.99*10^30 kilograms
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- Mass Sun = 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms
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- Mass Sun is 330,000 times the mass of the Earth
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-  We can measure the mass of Jupiter form the orbit of one of its Galilean moons.
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- Mass of Jupiter = 300 Mass of Earth
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-  Using Newton’s math we can calculate the orbit of Halley’s comet.  William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus in 1781 orbiting beyond Saturn using this equation.
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-  Data collected in 1840 showed astronomers that another mass, or planet, is disturbing the orbit of Uranus.  Using this data astronomers predicted the existence of another , 8th planet beyond Uranus.  On September 23, 1845 Neptune was discovered just where the calculations said it should be.
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-  (1)  Galileo built the first telescope, power 32.  He sent one to Johan Kepler.  Galileo discovered the 4 moons of Jupiter and claimed that this supported Copernicus’s claim that the Earth and planets orbited the Sun.  Everyone else thought the Earth was the center of the Universe.  Some politicians still do believe it.  At the time his ideas were so contrary to the Church Authority beliefs that Galileo was charged with heresy and put under house arrest until he died in 1642.
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-  (2)  Johann Kepler graduated from the University of Tubingen.  He studied Tycho Brahe’s data on the planets.  In particular Mars, he showed that an ellipse fit the data for the Mars orbit, exactly.  Kepler have 13 children so he was up most of the night anyway
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-  (3)  Isaac Newton born January 4, 1643 in England has been judged to be one of the greatest intellects who ever lived.  At age 17 he entered Cambridge University and graduated at age 22. He made the connection between the apple falling from the tree and the moon falling around the Earth.  He theorized that the gravitational force on the Moon fell off according to the square of the distance from the center of the Earth to the center of the Moon.
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-  The same year he discovered the spectrum of sunlight.  Using a prism he could split sunlight into the rainbow of colors and through another prism combine it back into white light again.  At age 27 he became a math professor and invented the math of calculus.  He proposed the light was a stream of particles.
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-   He invented the parabolic mirror and the reflecting telescope.  He confirmed that the planets orbited the Sun in ellipsis.  He published the three laws of motion and lived to age 84, where he is buried in Westminster Abbey with the inscription: “If I have seen further than other men, it is because I stood on the shoulders of giants.”
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-  (4)  Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) was a Cambridge physicists who truly matched the mold of the mad scientists.  He was excessively shy and absent minded.  He rarely spoke.  He had a total fear of women.  If he set eyes on the women that kept the house and fed him he immediately fired them.
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-   He inherited lots of money so he could dedicate himself to one thing, curiosity in science.  He did not publish his findings.  It was left to Maxwell 100 years later to rescue his notes and publish the results of his works.  He discovered hydrogen, burned it and created water.  He discovered argon.  He measured the Gravitational Constant and calculated the mass of the Earth.
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-  (5) See Review #393 Kepler says: “Cube of Radius = Square of Period”
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-  December 28, 2018          559            10-12-05   
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 --------------------------   Friday, December 28, 2018  --------------------------
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Mysteries for Science Students

-  2219  -  Mysteries for Science Students.  Astronomy as the science of the very big.  Physics as the science of the very small.  Astronomy uses the theory of Relativity, which is basically the theory of “gravity“.  Physics uses the theory of Quantum Mechanics, which is basically of particle physics and ‘uncertainty”.
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----------------------------------  2219  -  Mysteries for Science Students
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-  We are all students if we are still learning, Right?  Well mysteries in science today are solutions for students in the future.  The science I refer to in this review is the broad look at astronomy and physics.  Astronomy as the science of the very big.  Physics as the science of the very small.  Astronomy uses the theory of Relativity, which is basically the theory of “gravity“.  Physics uses the theory of Quantum Mechanics, which is basically of particle physics and ‘uncertainty”.
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-  In the world of “big things” space and time, matter and energy appear to be “continuous” properties.  But, they are not.  Because if we look at them closely enough they enter the world of “small things” which are all quantisized, that is they come in discrete packages, or quantums, that are not continuous.
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-   Space can be quantisized to packets that are 10^-35 meters in size.  Time can be quantisized to packets of 10^-43 seconds duration.
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-  When you use today’s math on the quantisized packages you enter the world of “uncertainties”  These small things can only be described in terms of “probabilities“.  It is only when we add them up into big things with many uncertainties cancelling out that we have what appears in our big world to be continuous and certainties. 
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-  The 1st mystery in your list is how to describe matter and energy as quantum equations using these probabilities.  We can do Quantum math for space, length, and distances.     We can do Quantum math for time and therefore velocity and acceleration. We have Quantum math for light, or photons.  But we do not have math for Quantum gravity, matter and energy. 
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-  The 2nd mystery is that Relativity produces math for gravity if it is viewed as the warping of space and time.  Quantum Mechanics needs gravity to be an exchange of particles, called gravitons, similar to photons.  We just do not have a way to merge the theory’s contradictions between Relativity and Quantum gravity. 
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-  A 3rd mystery is a composition of the Universe that appears to be 95%  Dark Matter and Dark Energy.  We call it “dark” because we can not see it and so far do not know what it is.  That leaves only 5% of the Universe that is everything we can see and can make science out of it.  The fundamental particles that make up this 5% of ordinary matter and energy are only 18 in number.  Particles like quarks, electrons, photons, gluons, bosons, etc.
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-  A 4th mystery is why “uncertainty” appears to be a fundamental physical law.  When we enter the world of small things we can not determine the momentum (mass and velocity) and position at the same time.  The more certain we are about one property the less certain we are about the other. 
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-  This is not just a measurement problem it is a physical law that causes all the equations to be expressed in terms of probabilities.  A poor analogy but one I will use is that if we measure accurately the velocity of a race car we can not know its position accurately.  If we measure its position accurately we can not know its velocity accurately.  The same uncertainty trade-off exists between measuring time and energy.
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-  The 5th mystery is the one of “entanglement”.  When two particles are entangled it means that some property in one particle is tied to and instantly transmitted between the same property in another particle.  When the spin of one entangled particle is flipped, the spin of the other particle also flips, regardless of the distance between them. 
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-  Called “action at a distance” the other particle could be on the other side of the galaxy, but, when one flips the other flips instantly.  Instantly is faster than the speed of light, thought to be impossible.
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-  A 6th mystery is the Big Bang.  This mystery must somehow bring astronomy and physics back together.  If we run the clock backwards in an expanding Universe we get all matter and energy compressed together in a single speck of pure energy.  Somehow the energy transformed itself into an expansion of space and time that evolved into the Universe we see today.  When we get close to the Big Bang the equations in physics do not work.
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-  The 7th mystery is the mathematics of String Theory that does start to explain some of these mysteries but not all of them.  And, String Theory is not one theory but 5 theories that need to be consolidated into one theory.  (See footnote 3) 
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-  To make String Theory work you need 36 particles, double the number of 18 fundamental particles we know today.  Called “super symmetry”  it requires a pairing of every particle with a higher mass, or higher energy particle.  Our particle accelerators have not been able to discover any of these particles to date.
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-  The math for String Theory also requires 10 dimensions, plus time.  Not just the 3 dimensions, plus time that we understand as spacetime.  We can not detect these extra dimensions because the strings are so small.  If we took a single hydrogen atom and expanded it up to the size of the Milky Way Galaxy the strings in these extra dimensions would still be smaller that the diameter of a human hair.  ( See footnote 1) 

-  The 8th mystery is back to the Uncertainty Principle and the Wave-Particle Duality of all matter. (See footnote 4).   The math says that the smaller the measurement the higher the energy it takes to measure it.  (See footnote 2).
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-  That is the reason the Large Hadron Collider, the particle accelerator operating in CERN, Switzerland, is so massive and uses so much energy.  All matter has waves and the smaller the mass the bigger the wavelength.  A baseball has a wavelength of less than the width of a proton.  So, the batter can not see the uncertainty probabilities associated with the wave when he hit’s the ball.
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-    However, an electron has a wave for its mass that is equal to its size.  Therefore an electron’s position is always one of probabilities as to where it is at any point of time.

-  A 9th mystery is the mystery of consciousness.  How are our brains working at the quantum level of probabilities and uncertainties?  We are because we think, but, how do we really think?

-  A 10th mystery is called the Anthropic Principle.  The Universe is composed of 20 natural constants that are always the same everywhere in the Universe.  We have no way of deriving these constants except by experiments and measurements.  None have ever been derived mathematically.
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-  The Gravitational Constant is 6.674215*10^-15 meters^2 / (kilogram * seconds^2).  The speed of light is a Constant 2.998*10^8 meters / second.  The mass of an electron is always and everywhere the same,  9.108*10^-31 kilograms.  The same with the other natural constants. 
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-  The mystery is greater because there values are what they are for whatever reason.  But, if any one of them were changed by the slightest amount the Universe would not exist as we know it and carbon-based life as we know it would not exist either.  We would not be here thinking about it if any of these constants were any different.  We are here because they are what they are, Thank God!
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(1)  Think of these 7 extra dimensions as ‘degrees of freedom”  Space is 3 degrees of freedom.  Time is one degree of freedom.  But, other properties of particles could be charge, spin, polarity, that could offer other degrees of freedom, thus are the other dimensions.  The math in String Theory works because it treats each particle as a vibrating string.  The different vibrations and different configurations of the strings account for the different properties of the 36 particles in super symmetry.
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(2)  w = h / p, where “w” is wavelength,  where “h” is Planck’s Constant.  “h”  = 6.625*10^-34 kilograms*meters^2/second, where “p” is momentum, which is the product of mass and velocity.  Therefore wavelength =  6.6*10^-34 / mass * velocity.  Wavelength is inversely proportional to mass.  The smaller the mass the greater the wavelength.
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E = h*c / w,  where “E” = energy and “c” = the speed of light, c = 3*10^8 meters / second.  Therefore wavelength = 2*10^-25 kilogram * meters^3 /  seconds^2 / Energy.  Wavelength is inversely proportional to Energy.    The greater the mass the smaller the wavelength and the greater the energy needed to measure it.
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(3)  There are currently 5 different theories in “String Theory”.  Because Perturbation theory is used in the math each theory depends on the assumptions used and the properties you start with.  The theories are Type I, IIA, IIB, HO, and HE.  There is one more theory that is designed to encompass all 5 of these theories and it is called M-Theory.
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(4)  Wave-particle duality and the 2 slit experiment.  Put a single slit in a paper and shine a light through it on to a screen.  The image is a single white line.  Put two slits in the paper and the image is no longer 2 white lines.  It is a pattern of white lines and dark lines representing an interference pattern of a wave.  All solid matter appears solid to us but it is actually almost all empty space.
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(5)  Other reviews that you might be interest in.  Available upon request:
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-  #938  Universal Constants.  What are the natural constants and how do they shape our Universe.
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-  #1074  Physics the Way I Learned It.
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-  #738  The Science of Physics.  How all of physics can be narrowed down to two simple topics.
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-  #762  The Trouble with Physics.  How string theory and academics have lead physics astray.
-
-  #531 Joseph Henry, an American teacher.
-
-  #532  Robert Millican, a Physics teacher.
-
-  #524  Physics keeps getting simpler.  If you ask a stupid question you feel stupid.  If you don’t ask a stupid question you remain stupid.
-
-  #559  The laws of motion.
-
-  December 27, 2018           1183   
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 --------------------------   Friday, December 28, 2018  --------------------------
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Physics - in CD’s and DVD’s

-  2218  - Physics  -  in CD‘s and DVD‘s.  Compact disks brought us digital recordings rather than the earlier analog recordings.  A recording on a CD is nothing more than a very long string of 1’s and 0’s.  The 74 minutes of audio equates to 640 megabytes of computer data.  A DVD is a digital versatile disk the same as a CD except the pits are even smaller and the tracks are even closer together.
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-

-
----------------------------- 2218 -   Physics  -  in CD’s and DVD’s
-
-  You can date yourself by what you remember. When I was growing up in my small town my Dad ran the juke box business.  He was self employed in his own one man business called Universal Games.  He had juke boxes in all the restaurants and clubs in town.  We would go around at each stop and put in new 45 RPM records , count the money,  and split the total with the proprietor.  We wrapped the nickels in paper tubes to take them to the bank.  Our hands would be gray and near black from counting nickels.
-
-  45 RPM was the right size recording to work with the mechanical marvels in juke boxes.  Whenever one was not working we would load it up in our truck and take to his garage to fix it.  I learned al lot of electrical and mechanical engineering from the schematics used in their repair manuals.
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-  Audio technology has come a long way from analog to digital recordings.  Remember Ben Franklin’s wax cylinder, then the wire recorder, 78 RPM vinyl records, 45 RPM records, 33.3 RPM records, reel-to-reel tapes, cassette tapes, video cassettes, compact disks,  …  this Review is about Compact Disks, CD’s and  will take you up to DVD’s and holographic recordings.
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-  Compact disks brought us digital recordings rather than the earlier analog recordings on vinyl records.  A recording on a CD is digital,  nothing more than a very long string of 1’s and 0’s.  Each 1 or 0 is one “bit”.  8 bits make one data “byte” .  2 bytes or 16 bits make a number.
-
-  On a CD they use 16 bits to record the intensity of each sound at successive times.  That is where the music comes from.
-
-  A CD holds 44,100 of these 16 bit numbers.  To get stereo recordings they create a complicated coding scheme for these numbers.  With this scheme they can get 88,200 numbers for the sounds that you hear in stereo.
-
-  Great fidelity is created from 16 bit numbers.  Each binary number can produce 2^16 different sound intensity levels.  2^16  =  65,536 possible numbers for sound levels.
-
-  This high fidelity is very robust because the recording only has to recognize a 1 or a 0.  There are now shades of gray in between.
-
-  The CD is stamped out in a plastic disk.  When the stamp hit’s the plastic it puts little pits where the 1 needs to be.  The flat plastic in between pits are zeros.  The pits are stamped from above the disk but the laser reads the pits from below the disk.  To the laser the pits appear to be raised bumps.
-
-  To the laser each pit, or bump, is 1 to 3 *10^-16 meters in length and 0.5 *106-6 meters wide.  10^-6 meters is a millionth of a meter,  0.000,001meters.  A human hair is 100 times wider than one pit.  If you took the width of a human hair and cut it into 100 equal pieces, one piece would be the size of one pit.  This is too small to see with the naked eye. 
-
-  The pits of 0’s ad 1’s are spread out in a spiral line from the outside to the  center of the disk.  The spiral tracks are only 1.6 *10^-6 meters apart.  That leaves room for 22,000 tracks on a 5.25 inch CD.  The total length of the track is more than  3 miles.  It takes 74 minutes of audio to travel the  full 3 miles, traveling 2.5 miles per hour.
-
-  The average rotation speed is 300 RPM .  But, the speed varies.  The speed of the rotating disk needs to be slower on the outside of the disk and gradually speeds up as it approaches the center of the disk in order to maintain a constant reading speed
-
-  The laser reads the bumps because the light intensity changes when it reflects off a bump versus reflecting off a flat surface.  If the laser light hit’s a pit it scatters and a lower light reflection intensity is read as a “1’.  If the laser light reflects of a flat surface , maximum reflection intensity is read as a “0”.
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-  The CD focuses the laser at the level of the bumps but at the point it enters the surface of the disk it is 500 times wider.    The lens in front of the laser focuses the beam  in the shape of a cone.   This has the effect of the laser beam going around any dust that is on the surface and focuses to  a  point only on the bumps at the information level of the disk and not on the surface.  The CD dust particles on the surface are not a problem.
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-  CD’s use LED laser light that has a wavelength of  0.78 * 10^-16 meters.  The height of the bumps are ¼ of this wavelength.   So, a reflected wave does more than scatter the light.  Reflecting at one-half wavelength the waves experience destructive interference and the waves actually cancel each other out reducing the light intensity to as low as possible.  Therefore, it is definitely read as a zero.
-
-  Exactly one-half wavelength reflected, lines up a crest with a trough of the incoming wave.  The two waves cancel each other out , “destructively”.
-
-  Turn the CD upside down and look at the light reflecting off the surface.  You see a rainbow effect. The exact opposite type of reflecting wave interference is occurring off the adjacent tracks that are 1.6*10-6 meters apart.  The reflecting waves experience “constructive” interference, increasing their intensity, brightening the reflecting beam.
-
-  You see a reflecting rainbow because different colors have different wavelengths and the constructive interference pattern occurs at different angles of reflection for different wavelengths.
-
-   The 74 minutes of audio equates to 640 megabytes of computer data.  If a single photograph takes up to 1 megabyte of data than you can store up to 640 pictures on a CD.  To get a motion picture video you will need lot more storing capability.
-
-  A  DVD is a digital versatile disk the same as a CD except the pits are even smaller and the tracks are even closer together.  A DVD has 30 times more capacity than a CD.
-
-  A ‘ recordable”  CD-R  disk uses a chemical dye that becomes opaque when a high powered laser beam hits the die.  This opaque spot is burn spot that serves the function of a pit.
-
-  A  Re-recordable CD-RM disk are similar except they use crystal structures that change when exposed to the high power laser beam.  The crystal process is reversible and the same disk can  be recorded many times.
-
-  In each case the high power laser beam makes the recording but the lower power reading laser does not change the recording.
-
-  There is a limit to how tiny the pits, spots, bumps can be recorded and a still be  read by the laser beam.   The wavelength of red light is 0.7 * 20^-6 meters.  The wavelength of blue light is 0.4 * 10^-6 meters.   Once the pits, or bumps, get small enough to approach the single wavelength of laser light the ability to read the data becomes too ambiguous.
-
-  Blue lasers should be able to read twice as much data as red lasers cause their wavelengths are half the width.  But, blue lasers are harder to manufacturer than red lasers.
-
-  Technology marches on and the next generation of DVD’s promise to store three times as much  data.  Current pit sizes and red lasers limit disk capacity of a disk to 4.7 gigabytes per layer.  This is 8 hours of video for a four layer disk.  Blue lasers have  a capacity for 25 gigabytes per layer.  The HD-DVD has 15 gigabytes storage capacity. With multiple layers they can hold a high definition movie.  Wow, that’s is a whole lot of 1‘s and 0’s
-
-  Ultraviolet lasers are the new challenge to get even more capacity on a DVD.  Another technology challenge is to have as asymmetric pits that reflect differently depending on their orientation.  The pit are lopsided craters.  The engineering dream is to pack 1,000 gigabytes on to a 4 layer DVD.  One disk would hold all the episodes of the Simpson’s.
-
-  The new technology is called multiplexed optical data storage.  This technology requires  reconfigured lens to focus the laser of four layers of cratered pits.   You will be buying MODS disks when this becomes available.
-
-  Holographic storage is the storage technology of the future.  Holographic drives could combine terabytes (1,000 gigabytes)  of capacity with rapid data transfers.  Don’t get excited too early.  These new multiplexed optical data storage technologies present many technical challenges to overcome.  Stay in school to be ready for what is needed to change the future.   The future ain’t going to be what it used to be.
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-  December 27, 2018                534
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 --------------------------   Friday, December 28, 2018  --------------------------
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What is everything made of?

-  2217  - The Standard Model of physics is the most accurate scientific theory known.  More than a quarter of the Nobel Prizes in physics over the last century are direct inputs to or direct results of the Standard Model of almost everything.  What is everything made of, and how does it hold together?
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-

-

----------------------------- 2217  -  The Standard Model of Physics
-
-  The Standard Model is the most accurate scientific theory known.  More than a quarter of the Nobel Prizes in physics of the last century are direct inputs to or direct results of the Standard Model of almost everything
-
-  The Standard Model answers this question: What is everything made of, and how does it hold together?
-
-  The world around us is made of molecules, and molecules are made of atoms. Chemist Dmitri Mendeleev figured that out in the 1860s and organized all atoms, the elements , into the periodic table of elements. Now there are 118 different chemical elements in the table.
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-  By 1932, scientists knew that all those atoms are made of just three particles – neutrons, protons and electrons. The neutrons and protons are bound together tightly into the nucleus. The electrons, thousands of times lighter, orbit around the nucleus at speeds approaching that of light. Physicists Planck, Bohr, Schrödinger, Heisenberg invented a new science, quantum mechanics, to explain how electrons orbit the nucleus.  .
-
- The negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons are bound together by electromagnetism. But the protons are all huddled together in the nucleus and their positive charges should be pushing them powerfully apart. The neutral neutrons are unaffected by these electric charges.
-
-  What binds these protons and neutrons together?
-
-  The photon, the particle of light was the forth particle.  The fifth particle was found  when Anderson measured electrons with positive charge.  He discovered the ‘positrons’ striking the Earth from outer space. Dirac had predicted these first anti-matter particles. Five became six particles, when the pion, that Yukawa predicted would hold the nucleus together.
-
-  Then came the muon, 200 times heavier than the electron ,but otherwise a twin.
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-  By the 1960s there were hundreds of “fundamental” particles. In place of the well organized periodic table, there were just long lists of baryons (heavy particles like protons and neutrons), mesons (like Yukawa’s pions) and leptons (light particles like the electron, and the elusive neutrinos)  with no organization and no guiding principles to simplify the table.
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-  to complicate thing further  “quarks” were discovered to come in six varieties, we call flavors.  We have up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top. In 1964, Gell-Mann and Zweig discovered how to mix and match any three quarks to get a baryon. Protons are two ups and a down quark bound together; neutrons are two downs and an up. Choose one quark and one antiquark to get a meson. A pion is an up or a down quark bound to an anti-up or an anti-down.
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-   All the material of our daily lives is made of just up and down quarks and anti-quarks and electrons.  The Standard Model of elementary particles provides an ingredients list for everything around us.
-
-  But, how do we keep those quarks together They are tied to one another so tightly that you never ever find a quark or anti-quark on its own. The particles that bind them together are called gluons.  And the theory is called “quantum chromo dynamics“.
-
-  The other aspect of the Standard Model is “A Model of Leptons.”   That is the name of the landmark 1967 paper by Steven Weinberg that pulled together quantum mechanics. He provided the vital pieces of knowledge of how particles interact and organized the two into a single theory.
-
-  Weinberg’s single theory incorporated the familiar electromagnetism, joined with “the weak force” that causes certain radioactive decays.  His theory explained how they were different aspects of the same force.  His theory incorporated the Higgs mechanism for giving mass to fundamental particles.
-
-  The Standard Model has predicted the results of experiment after experiment, including the discovery of several varieties of quarks and of the W and Z bosons, which are heavy particles that are for weak interactions in the same way that the  photon is for electromagnetism. The possibility that neutrinos aren’t massless and are part of the Standard Model was proposed in the 1990s.
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-  Discovering the Higgs boson in 2012, long predicted by the Standard Model and long sought after, was a thrill but not a surprise. Theories like the Grand Unified Theory, Super symmetry, Technicolor, and String Theory have not yet successfully predicted any new experimental phenomenon or any experimental discrepancy with the Standard Model.
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-  After five decades the Standard Model is the Theory of “Almost’ Everything.
-
-Other Reviews about Physics:
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-  2051  -  Paul Dirac discovered the anti-particle in his math before it was discovered in the lab. God used advanced mathematics in constructing the Universe.
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-  2050  -  The quest for reality in a strange world.  We will be lucky to get out of it alive.
We could not exist without the Universe being 7 billion years old.  We needed at least two generations of star explosions to cook the ingredients before life could happen.
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-  2040  -  The Earth loses 6.6 pounds of molecules every second in the upper atmosphere.  That is 200,000,000 pounds per year that escape Earth’s gravity.
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-  This Review lists 9 more Reviews about Physics, 2015 to 1301 which to tries to answer the question , Can bird poop break a car windshield? (Requires 4 pages of math.)
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-  December 25, 2018             
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 --------------------------   Thursday, December 27, 2018  --------------------------
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Christmas 2018 - Grandpa's Laws

Christmas 2018
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-Grandpa’s Laws:
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-  1.  The law of conversation of energy  -  you get out of something what you put into it.
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-  2.  Entropy - the second law of thermodynamics  -  things will always tend to disorder and get worse.  You only get so many heartbeats in life and eventually you get to the last one and you’re done.  So, enjoy the good times whenever you can find them.  Work at finding them.
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-  3.  Law of Inertia  -  never give up.  Bodies in motion tend to stay in motion.  80% of success is in showing up.
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-  4.  The law of Truth  -  Always tell the truth , that way you will have less to remember.
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-  5.  Evolution  -  you gradually become as your thoughts.
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-  6.  Law of Education  -  the biggest return on investment in education is the ability to make yourself do what needs to be done, when you ought to do it, whether you like it or not.  Otherwise you tend to do what you like to do, instead of liking to do what needs to be done….. If you think education is difficult, trying being stupid.
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-  7.  The law of Attraction  -  you can never be lonely if you like the person you are alone with.
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-  8.  The law of Experience  -  experience is a hard teacher because she gives the test first and the lesson afterwards.
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-  9.  Action equals reaction  -  love thy neighbor.  You reap what you sew.
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-  10.  Resistance  =  Potential  /  Current  =  The pat of least resistance is only paved in the beginning.  You can never have a brand new start , but, you can start now and have a brand new ending.
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-  11.  The laws of Probability  -  the harder you work the luckier you get.
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- 12.  The law of Effectiveness  -  It is more important to do the right things than to do things right.  Effectiveness is more important than efficiency.
-
-  13.  The law of Efficiency  -  It is not what you got that counts, it is what you do with what you got, that counts.
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-  14.  The law of Volume  -  If you want to put rocks in a jar put the big rocks in first.  Is it full?  Now you can add sand.  Is it full?  Now add water.  If you do it backwards you can never get the big rocks in the jar. Do the important things first, then you can always find time for the small rocks.
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-  15.  The law of Goals - A goal is a dream with a deadline.  Obstacles are those intimidating things you see when your eyes are hot focused on the to the goal.  You always miss 100% of the shots you do not take.
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-  16.  The law of Elasticity -   A mind once stretched by an idea never again regains its original dimensions.
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-  17.  The law of Christmas  -  We make a living by what we get, we make a life by what we give.
……………………………….............  Merry Christmas,  Grandpa’s laws.    

Einstein’s math and gravity lens.

-  2216  -  Einstein ‘s math  proves gravity slows down time and explains how gravity bends light to magnify background galaxies.   Formulas are derived to measure the total mass of the galaxy cluster that is bending the light that appears as a giant ring around the cluster.  Another formula uses the orbital velocity for the galaxies circling the center of the cluster.  Math galore!
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-

-
 ----------------------------   2216 -  Einstein’s math and gravity lens.
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-  Two satellites intended for Europe’s equivalent to the United States’ GPS network, were placed into orbit incorrectly, causing them to travel around Earth in ellipses rather than circles. That was not ideal for the satellites’ originally intended navigational use, but scientists realized the wayward satellites were perfect for testing Einstein’s general theory of relativity.
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-  According to general relativity, gravity affects not just space, but also time. The deeper within a gravitational field you are, the slower time passes. So a clock at a higher altitude will tick faster than one closer to Earth’s surface, where Earth’s gravity is stronger. The satellites’ orbital mishap allowed the most precise test yet of this effect, known as a gravitational redshift.
-
-  As the two misplaced satellites move in their elliptical orbits, their distance from Earth periodically increases and decreases by about 5,300 miles. Using the precise atomic clocks on the satellites, the scientists studied how that altitude change affected the flow of time. The clocks sped up and slowed down by tiny fractions of a second agreeing with the predictions of general relativity within a few thousandths of a percent. 
-
-  Einstein’s math was right again.  The Hubble Space Telescope gave us another proof of his math.  The telescope focused on a foreground cluster of galaxies 5.4 billion lightyears away.  Directly behind this cluster at 9.7 billion lightyears distance was another galaxy.  The image of the most distant galaxy appeared as an Einstein Ring as gravity bent the image around he nearer gravity cluster.  The ring was 38 arc-seconds in diameter.
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-  Here is how the arc of the ring could be used to calculate the mass of the galaxy cluster that was inside the ring including the dark matter that was hidden there..  Here is how the mass of the cluster is related to the arc of the ring:
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-----------------------  Mass  =  a^2  *  c^2  *  (d*D)  / 4  *  G  (d-D)
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----------------------   where :  a  =  angular diameter of the ring          in radians.
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----------------------  c  =  the speed of light                meters/second
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---------------------  d  =  distance to the farthest galaxy            meters
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---------------------  D  =  distance to the nearer galaxy cluster       meters
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---------------------  G  =  the gravitational constant              m^3  /  kg *  sec^2
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-
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-----------------------  Mass  =  a^2  *  c^2  *  (d*D)  / 4  *  G  (d-D)
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----------------------   a  =  38  arc seconds  =  38  /  206,265 arc seconds /  radian
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----------------------  a  =  1.842  * 10^-4          radians
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-----------------------  a^2  =  3.39  *  10^-8       radians^2
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----------------------  c  =  3  *  10^8                meters / second
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---------------------  d  =  9.7  billion lightyears  =  9.7  *  10^9  *   9.5  * 10^  15  meters / LY
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----------------------  d  =  92.15  *10^24  meters
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---------------------  D  =  5.4  billion lightyears   =   5.4  *  10^9  *   9.5  * 10^  15  meters / LY
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----------------------  D  =  51.3  *  10^24
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----------------------  (d * D)   =   4,727  *  10^48   =    4.727  * 10^51      meters^2
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----------------------  (d  -  D)  =  40.85  *  10^24   =  4.085  *  10^25       meters
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---------------------  G  =  6.67  *  10^-11             m^3  /  kg *  sec^2
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-
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------------------------  Mass  =  a^2  *  c^2  *  (d*D)  / 4  *  G  (d-D)
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------------------------  Mass  =  (3.39 * 10^-8)  *  ( 9 * 10^16)  *  (4.727 * 10 ^51)  / 4  *  (6.67 * 10^-11)  (4.085 * 10^25)    kg
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-------------------------  Mass  =  (1.442 * 10^61)    /   (1.090   *  10^16) 
-
---------------------------Mass  =  1.333* 10^45    kg       /    2 * 10^30  kg  /  solar mass 
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--------------------------  Mass  =  6.67  *  10^14             solar mass
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-
-  The Solar Mass of the Galaxy Cluster is 6.67  *   10^14  the mass of our Sun.  So,  that would be the number of stars in the cluster if all were the size of our Sun,  667,000,000,000,000 suns
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-  So, Einstein’s math was correct showing that the immense gravity will bend light to act like a magnifying glass.
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-
-
-  Another way to measure the mass of the galaxy cluster is to measure the speed of a star, pr a galaxy in circular orbit around the center of the cluster.
-
-  The average speed of galaxies in orbit in the cluster is 988 kilometers per second.  The average radius of the orbits is 9.5 lightyears.
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------------------------------  velocity squared  =  G  *  Mass  /  Radius
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------------------------------  V^2  =  G  *  M  /  R
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-------------------------------  (9.88  *  10^5)^2  m^2  /   sec^2         =  M  *  (6.67*  10^-11)   m^3 /  kg*sec^2   /  (9.5 * 10^6)    LY  *  (9.5 *  10^15)  m / LY
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- ------------------------------  (97.6  *  10^10)     m^2/sec^2   =   M  *  (6.67*  10^-11)  m^3    /    (90.25 * 10^21)      m   *  kg  * sec^2 
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-- ------------------------------  (8,808 *  10^31) kg  m^3   =   M  *  (6.67*  10^-11)  m^3       
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---------------------------------  (1,321 *  10^42)    kg  *  solar mass /  2 *10^30  kg   =   M 
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---------------------------------  M  =  660  *  10^12  solar mass   
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---------------------------------  M  =  6.6  *  10^14  solar mass   
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-  Astronomers used the geometry of the arc of the Einstein ring and the speed of orbiting galaxies to measure the total mass of the cluster of galaxies.  These calculations went further to prove the existence of Dark Matter, the unseen mass.  More mysteries to be solved in order to understand the universe we live in.  The biggest mystery is us being here trying to understand it. 
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-  Other Reviews available:
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-  1142  -  Can Einstein’s equations pass the tests?  His equations are alone in unifying space, time, mass, energy, motion and light.
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-  929  -  Einstein’s Legacy.   If you can link the equations of General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics it would be a supertechifragilisticexpialedocious breakthrough in physics.
-
-  49  -  Einstein is right again.  Measurements with the Gravity Probe satellite. 
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-  December 23, 2018.                   
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
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 ---------------------   Sunday, December 23, 2018  -------------------------
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The oldest Blackhole

-  2215  -  The newly discovered, oldest, enormous blackhole is the cause for much new thinking as to how the galaxies first formed.  And, new thinking in how dark matter played a role in the early formation of galaxies in the early universe.
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-

-
----------------------------- 2215  -  The oldest blackhole
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-  Astronomers have found the oldest blackhole.   It is not only ancient, it is enormous.  Blackholes have enough mass and a small enough volume to warp space-time to fold back on itself.  Not even photons of light can escape this condensed gravity. 
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-  Blackholes that collapse from stars could be 30 solar mass.  However, there are gigantic blackholes t the center of galaxies that are 800,000,000 times the mass of the Sun.  Most recent discoveries have dated some of these gigantic black holes to when the universe was only 690,000,000 years old.
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-  These discoveries are surprising because astronomers thought blackholes became large and gigantic by merging with other blackholes.  These multiple mergers would take time.  This enormous blackhole existed when the universe was only 5% its current age.  This is hardly enough astronomical time for multiple mergers.
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-  This oldest blackhole is over 13,000,000,000 years old.   Of course astronomers are not actually seeing the blackhole.  The are seeing a Quasar that has a blackhole at its center.  This particular quasar was discovered in 1962.  Quasars are the brightest things in the Observable Universe.  They are small in size but emit enormous amounts of light.
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-  We now know that quasars are actually supermassive blackholes at the center of galaxies.  They can be billions of solar mass in size. 
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-  But not all supermassive blackholes are quasars.  To be a quasar the blackhole must be consuming gas and stars at a breathtaking pace.  This external matter spirals down into the blackhole rotating at enormous speeds, heating to enormous temperatures, and emitting the brightest light found in the universe. 
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-  Just how can a super massive blackhole exist when the Universe was so young?
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-  The universe first emerged as the Big Bang 13.7 billion years ago.  It started out very hot and cooled down quickly.  It expanded and cooled down enough in 3 minutes for protons, neutrons, and electrons to form out of the soup of more fundamental particles.
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-  The universe was too hot for neutral atoms to form. Protons and electrons attract with opposite charges, but heat vibrations would not allow them to cling together.   Expansion and cooling continued another 380,000 years before that could happen.  At this point in  the expansion atomic neutral hydrogen and helium atoms could form.  There became a uniform cloud of transparent to light neutral hydrogen and helium gas. 
-
-  There were very small fluctuations in the density of this cloud of gas.  Gravity began to condense those pockets with more mass and create a vacuum where there were an absence of mass distribution. 
-
-  As the  gas concentrated it condensed into stars and galaxies.  These first galaxies formed when the Universe was only 180,000,000 years old.  This was only 500 million years before this first stars existed.  This is but a blink of the eye in galactic terms. 
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-  The fact that this oldest blackhole was such enormous size in such a short time challenges the calculations that astronomers have to make in order to explain it.  That is far too short a time for stars to be born, die and become blackholes.
-
-   After that we need time for blackholes to devour one another in order to become the enormous mass that was found.  We understand how this could happen, but, not in the shot time of 500 million years. 
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-  As blackholes consume matter they heat up and create a pressure that pushes back on matter that is falling into the blackhole.  The process becomes self regulating slowing down the whole process of growth.
-
-  One other explanation has blackholes forming earlier in a mere 66 million years after the big bang.  This explanation introduces dark matter that is five times more prevalent than ordinary matter.  Perhaps dark matter is the primary creator of blackholes.
-
-  This oldest, enormous blackhole is the cause for much new thinking as to how the galaxies first formed.  And, new thinking in how dark matter played a role in the early formation  of galaxies.
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-  There is more to be done, keep studying.  Do we need new laws in our mathematics?
Are we missing mass that we cannot see?  Do the rules change when we deal with enormous distances across the universe?  Are there undiscovered particles like axions or neutralinos that could be the answer?  Our next generation of students will find the answers. 
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-  December 24, 2018               
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--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
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 --------------------------   Saturday, December 22, 2018  --------------------------
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Dark Matter - What is holding galaxies together?

-  2214  -  Dark Matter  is what is holding our own galaxy together.  This same observation is repeated with every other galaxy that  astronomers have studied.  Their math formulas would not work if there was not some unknown gravity pull holding galaxies together. 
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----------------------------- 2214  -  Dark Matter  -  What is holding galaxies together?
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-  Dark Matter  is what is holding our own galaxy together.  And, this same observation is repeated with every other galaxy that  astronomers have studied.  Their math formulas would not work if there was not some unknown gravity pull holding them together. 
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-  And , the rotational velocity of the stars at the edge of the galaxies is the same a those near the center.   Again, the math requires a huge mass surrounding the galaxy.   This is the opposite for our solar system.  The planets at the outskirts like Pluto have much slower rotational velocity than the planet Mercury that is near the center.  The math works.
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-  To explain this observation with the math that we understand there must be some unseen mass surrounding the outside of the galaxy.  It is called Dark Matter because it does not interact with electromagnetic forces like ordinary matter.  It is matter that we  cannot see but we can measure because it does interact with gravity. 
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-  Our five senses interact with the electromagnetic energy.  Dark Matter does not.  Matter by our definition is what interacts with gravity.  We know Dark Matter is there because of how it interacts with stars in our galaxy and the same with other galaxies and with clusters of galaxies.  Measurements have repeatedly confirmed its existence.
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-   Most recently have been measurement of gravitational lensing created by light ending around clusters of galaxies.  Again, the math says the mass is there. 
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-  Astronomers have detected merging galaxies that are colliding and the collision is separating visible matter and invisible matter.  Dark Matter carries five times more mass than ordinary matter.  Without it the construction of galaxies and our own existence would not have happened. 
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- Dark Matter should really be called transparent matter because light passes right through it.  What is it?  Is it a new fundamental particle yet to  be discovered.  Could it be miniature blackholes that we cannot see?  Is there more than one particle involved in dark matter interactions? 
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-  Will the Large Hadron Collider at CERN detect some new particles that could explain dark matter?  All these questions are a promising target for research.    We know it exists , we do not know what it is?  Astronomy should view it today as a wonderful mystery.
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-  Footnotes:
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-  (1)  Universe is 4.9% f mass -energy that we know and think we understand.  Dark matter is 26.8% outnumbering normal matter by 5 to 1.  The remaining 68.3% is a negative pressure that is accelerating the expansion of the universe.
-  (2)   Other Reviews available on the subject:
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-  1850  -  Dark Mater is 23% of the Universe.  It is 90% of all matter.  Do we need new math to discover this?  Is it new mass or is it undiscovered energy acting like mass? 
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-  This review lists 20 more reviews written about Dark Matter.
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-  This Review also lists 6 more Reviews about Dark Energy. 
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-  1823  -  Was Dark Matter responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs?  Earth passes through the disk of our Milky Way galaxy every 32 million years.
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-  1820  -  What do we know about Dark Matter?  This Review lists 8 facts that we have concluded today.  Every galaxy is in the center of its own visible Universe. 
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-  1777  -  The mass of the galaxy interior to the Sun’s orbit is 66,000,000,000 times the mass of the Sun.  This gives you an idea of how many stars there are since the Sun’s orbit is only 1/3 of the way to the edge of the galaxy.   
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-  This review lists 12 more Reviews about dark matter.  What a mystery?
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-  1658  -  Does the math as to  why our galaxy should be flying apart. 
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-  1594  -  Why is 96% of the universe dark?
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-  1576  -  We need a breakthrough in physics to explain dark matter.
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-  December 13, 2018               
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---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
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 --------------------------   Thursday, December 20, 2018  --------------------------
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SpaceTime from atoms to blackholes

-  2213  -  SpaceTime from atoms to blackholes.  We can never experience spacetime directly we always infer its existence from everyday experiences.  In order to explain some new fundamental structure we need new discoveries and new math to explain new phenomena like quantum gravity and entanglement.
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----------------------------- 2213   -  SpaceTime from atoms to blackholes
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-  When you look into a starry night sky you see the stars in a sea of blackness, empty space.   You do not see anything between the stars because of the massive emptiness that separates everything.  They say space is what separates everything and time is what keeps everything from happening all at once.
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-  Despite how common and essential space and time are to our everyday lives it remains a system very hard to understand because of its staggering complexity.  Einstein really confused us when he proposed the general theory of relativity that said gravity was not a force that propagated through space but it was the result of space and time being warped.  The curvature of space time is what causes gravity. 
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-  When the baseball arcs through the outfield to land over the left field fence it is because the mass of Earth is distorting space time and the baseball is following the path of least resistance trough the curvature of space time.  Go figure? 
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-  What happens when you look to gravity in even more detail?  At the very smallest dimensions Einstein’s theory gives us math that is unsolvable, it is full of infinities that we can not get rid of.  We need a new theory of quantum gravity that works at the smallest dimensions..  But, after 2,500 years of searching for an underlying truth for gravity we are still searching for the math that works for both the smallest and largest dimensions. .
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-  To begin gravity with is so weak compared to the other forces of magnetism, electric charge, and the nuclear forces.  Yet this weakest of forces is thought to have quantum effects that created the mottled pattern in the early universe that has expanded into the stars and galaxies we see today.  We owe our universe to the quantum fluctuations of the gravitations field.
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-  The best laboratory to study the quantum effects of gravity seems to be the most massive objects in the universe, blackholes. We start with the equations that work perfectly well in our laboratories and extrapolate them into the conditions found in blackholes.  Math ventures into these most extreme conceivable conditions.
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-  The math in General Relativity  predicts that matter entering into a blackhole gets compressed without limits into a “singularity”.  Time itself comes to a stop.  Spacetime itself ceases to exist. 
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-  Maybe at the edges of the blackhole the math still holds?  The edge is called the event horizon whereby any matter passing through it can never gets back out.  Its descent to a singularity is irreversible. 
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-  At a much smaller scale this same mystery existed with the “blackbody experiments” in the 1800’s.  The math predicted that blackbodies would absorb an infinite amount of heat.  This problem was solved with Einstein’s theory of discrete packets of energy, later called photons.  Energy was not continuous. This math showed that a blackbody could reach thermal equilibrium if the radiated energy came in discrete units, or quanta.  It was not continuous.
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-  Some progress was made with the math for blackholes when Stephen Hawking showed that blackholes have a non-zero temperature.  And, at the event horizon they could both absorb and emit energy.  Particles could separate and “boil” off at the event horizon boundary.  It is random heat energy that is evaporating at the horizon. 
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-  As the blackhole emits this Hawking radiation it shrinks in size.  And, given enough time it would totally evaporate away back in to space. 
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-  To study this Hawking phenomena science has invented the smallest possible scale for a space to exist.  It is called the Planck scale that has the smallest dimension of 10^-35 meters. 
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-  The thermodynamics of blackholes is measuring the entropy of the system that is at the edge of microscopic complexity.  Our Einstein math does not work.  If you increase the radius of a blackhole by a factor of 10 the number of molecules goes up by a factor of 100.  If you increase the radius of a beach ball by factor of 10 the volume and the number of molecules goes up by a factor of 1,000. 
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-  For blackholes the number of molecules it contains is not proportional to its volume but rather to its surface area.  The blackhole may look like it is 3-dimensional but it behaves as though it was 2-dimensional.  This effect is called the holographic principle. 
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-  The building blocks of space may not be spatial.  The geometric properties of space may be a collective behavior and not that of individual atoms. 
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-  Like the molecule of water that flows, forms droplets, is carried in waves, freezes and boils.  But the individual H2O molecule does none of these things.  What you see is its collective behavior.  The building blocks of space may not be spatial.  What we observe may be some form of collective behavior. 
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-  It could be that space reconfigures itself in different phases just like water does.  Blackholes may be places where these phase transitions can occur.  This could be indicated by the discoveries we see from “quantum entanglement” 
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-  Quantum entanglement appears to be more primitive than space itself.  With entanglement particles appear to be entangled regardless of separation in space.  Entanglement may provide the link between the presence of matter and the geometry of spacetime.  The link also is with gravity, the more entanglement,  the weaker the gravity. 
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-  We can never experience spacetime directly we always infer its existence from everyday experiences.  In order to explain some new fundamental structure we need new discoveries and new math to explain new phenomena like quantum gravity and entanglement.
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-  Where is another Einstein when we need one?  We believe at the tiniest scales space emerges from ‘quanta”.  But, how do you explain these building blocks that need to reach what we do experience?  It is what we take for granted.  I depend on space and time every day. 
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-  There are several more Reviews on “space” and these below on “spacetime”:
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-  1790  -  This review explains why space must bend and time must slow in order to adhere to the Theory of Relativity. 
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-  This review lists  7 more Reviews about space-time. 
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-  1773  -  The size of space depends on how fast your are.
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-  1407  -  Space is in constant motion.  It s anything but empty.
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-  1242  -   At the smallest level things remain connected.
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-  781  -  Space is much todo about nothing.
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-  December 19, 2018               
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 --------------------------   Wednesday, December 19, 2018  --------------------------
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How the Universe began?

-  2212  -  In 1980 the theory of Inflation was put forth by Alan Guth to explain the uniformity and isotropic nature of the Universe today.  In order for the Universe to be uniform when looking 13.8 billion light years in one direction and the same 13.8 billion light years in the opposite direction the universe must have expanded faster than the speed of light. 
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----------------------------- 2212   -  How the Universe began? 
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-  In 1980 the theory of Inflation was put forth by Alan Guth to explain the uniformity and isotropic nature of the Universe today.  In order for the Universe to be uniform when looking 13.8 billion light years in one direction and the same 13.8 billion light years in the opposite direction the universe must have expanded faster than the speed of light. 
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-  Guth hypothesized that at the very earliest moment s of the universe, around 10^-36 seconds, the universe underwent a period of extraordinary accelerated expansion.  During this period the universe expanded by a factor of 10^26 times.  That is a multiplication of 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 times.
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-  This expansion is equivalent to expanding the size of an apple 100,000 times to the size of the Milky Way Galaxy.  This all happened in a trillionth of a trillionth of a second 
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-  It is what is known as Cosmic Inflation.  It explains the universe’s geometric flatness.  It explains the apparent connection of the Universe to have uniformity in all direction and at its farthest extremes.  It explains the lack of monopoles in our universe.  Monopoles are  magnets with a single pole, north or south but not both, simply one magnetic pole.
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-  Inflation is a quantum field that permeates all of space and time.   We have an electromagnetic field carried by photons.  We have a Dirac field carried by electrons.  We have quantum fields  that are the underlying structure for all matter and radiation of energy. 
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-  These quantum fields exist even in a vacuum.  An absolutely pure vacuum still contains some energy.  This energy  is a fundamental vibration in a quantum field that makes up our reality. 
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-  That same vacuum energy has the curious property of accelerating the expansion of the Universe.  It is the quantum field that starts off with a large amount of energy.  After inflation it reduces this energy to return to a flood of regular matter and radiation.
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-  This event seeded the entire universe.  It started out as a large, cold, empty space and expanded  while growing protons, atoms,  gas clouds, stars and galaxies.  The fundamental vibrations in the quantum field expanded into a space full of tiny bumps and wiggles.  These are the variations in density that evolved into the voids and the galaxies.
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-  Because of the variations in density the universe could evolve to have higher density pockets that allowed gravity to accumulate more and more matter in pockets of space.  More matter created more gravity that grew larger and larger.   Today these variations are imprinted in the temperature variations found in the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.  This is the leftover light that started out when the Universe was only 270,000 years old.  From there the matter became the seeds of all the structure we find in the universe today. 
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-  This structure formed all the stars and the cosmic web that we see.  We say the shape of the universe is “flat”. This shape is determined by the density of the total matter and energy.  For it to be flat it must be at the “critical density”  to allow all of space-time to not be curved.
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-  The critical density for a “not curved” Universe is 10^-26  kilograms per cubic meter, or about 10 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.  If it is more matter than that the shape of the universe would be spherical.  If it were less matter than that the shape of the universe would be saddle-shaped.  If the total matter is exactly at the critical density the shape is flat.
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-  The cause of Cosmic Inflation is uncertain.  One possibility was that an extremely high  energy state occurred when the four fundamental forces separated out of a single mega-force.  The forces of gravity , electromagnetism, the strong nuclear and weak nuclear force were all created from this one cosmic force.
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-   Although not proven the theory of Inflation remains cosmology’s best theory to explain the current structure and infancy of our universe.  If you  want to know where you came from this is the best explanation we have to offer. 
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-  Other Reviews on Inflation available:
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-  2144  -  Another explanation for the cause of inflation is that a phase transition of anti-gravity happened in an instant of time, like water freezing into ice.  -
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-  849  -  The force of gravity but gravity only comes as a function of mass.  And there ia a lot more space than there is mass. 
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-  823  -  Studying the sound waves in the Microwave Background radiation.
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-  December 18, 2018               
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 --------------------------   Tuesday, December 18, 2018  --------------------------
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