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------------------------------------ 2197 - New in science in 2018
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- This Review starts with microelectronics that is technology working down to the individual atoms. Then inside the atom itself learning about the individual protons. Lastly, the path takes us to the individual fundamental particles and then to last one recently discovered , the Higgs Boson.
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- Microelectronics has been following Moore’s Law which holds that the number of transistors on a chip will double about every two years. Remarkably this law has held true in the industry for the last four decades.
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- However. it is coming to an inevitable end as physical limitations are reached at the atoms themselves. Major innovations will be required if we are to sustain advances in computing. We are challenged to develop a next-generation in microelectronics and computing architectures.
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- If we look around, at the macro level there are two big global phenomena happening in electronics. One is the Internet of Things. It basically means every building, every car, every manufacturing capability is going to be fully accessorized with microelectronics. So, all of this is going to be somehow interconnected.
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- The second big revolution is artificial intelligence and machine learning. This field is in its infancy. New technology is needed to find applications in diverse technology spaces. These applications are currently limited by the memory wall and the limitations imposed by the efficiency and power consumption of computing. We need more powerful chips that consume much lower energy.
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- Semiconductors have been progressively shrinking and becoming faster, but they are consuming more and more power. If we don’t do anything to curb their energy consumption, the total energy consumption of microelectronics will jump from 4 percent to about 20 percent of the energy needed.
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- Today transportation consumes 24 percent of U.S. energy, manufacturing another 24 percent, and buildings 38 percent; that’s almost 90 percent. Electronics could become almost like transportation in consuming energy,. Energy consumption is the main driver for the need for semiconductor innovation?
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- Another driver is the need for national security. Microelectronics and computing systems are a critical part of our national security infrastructure. The need is global competitiveness. China has been investing hundreds of billions of dollars into making these fabs. Previously only U.S. companies made them. For two years, the fastest computer in the world was built in China. So this becomes a strategic issue for the U.S.
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- It will take a decade. There’s still a lot of work to be done. Your computer today operates at 3 volts. New developments still in the proposal stage will use something like 100 millivolt
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- To get to the atomic level we need to learn more about the proton. A proton’s mass is more than just the sum of its parts. Protons are made up of even smaller particles called quarks, so you might expect that simply adding up the quarks’ masses should give you the proton’s mass. However, that sum is much too small.
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- New, detailed calculations show that only 9 percent of the proton’s mass comes from the mass of constituent quarks. The rest of the proton’s mass comes from complicated effects occurring inside the particle.
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- Quarks get their masses from a process connected to the Higgs boson, an elementary particle first detected in 2012. Most of the proton’s 938 million electron volts of mass is due to complexities of quantum chromodynamics, or QCD.
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- QCD is the theory which accounts for the churning of particles within the proton. Making calculations with QCD is extremely difficult, so to study the proton’s properties theoretically, scientists rely on a technique called lattice QCD, in which space and time are broken up into a grid, upon which the quarks reside.
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- In addition to the 9 percent of the proton’s mass that comes from quarks, 32 percent comes from the energy of the quarks zipping around inside the proton. That is because energy and mass are two sides of the same coin, thanks to Einstein’s famous equation, E=mc2. Other occupants of the proton are massless particles called gluons that help hold quarks together. They contribute another 36 percent due to their energy.
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- The remaining 23 percent arises due to quantum effects that occur when quarks and gluons interact in complicated ways within the proton. Those interactions follow the principle of “scale invariance“.
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- In scale invariant theories, stretching or shrinking space and time makes no difference to the theories’ results. Massive particles provide the theory with a scale, so when QCD defies scale invariance, protons also gain mass.
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- We hope to learn more about protons by smashing them together in a giant particle accelerator. CERN is just such an accelerator designed to study the evolution of the Universe where, in the beginning, electricity and magnetism were the same thing. The equations in particle physics , called the gauge invariant laws, do not work if the particles have mass. But, if you add a Higgs field to the equations the mass calculations work out in all space and time.
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- If the Higgs Field exists there must be a Higgs Particle, a Higgs Boson. By smashing protons in the CERN Hadron Collider we are trying to simulate the first creations in the Universe. The ATLAS detector at CERN measures the collisions of protons every 25 nanoseconds. As the fundamental particles fly out of the collisions the detector maps out the path of each.
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- The ATLAS mammoth detector is four stories high. It is surrounded in a magnetic field that changes the paths of the escaping charged particles. By tracking the radius of each trajectory the mass, momentum and energy of each particle can be calculated. The electric charge, the path, the momentum and the energy calculations provide the scientists the data needed to identify the Higgs Particle, along with all the other particles.
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- From this research science has determined that the Higgs Field is the origin of all particle’s mass.
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- The Large Hadron Collider at CERN Switzerland collides protons together at the highest energies in order to track the fundamental particles that get scattered in all directions. The proton is not a fundamental particle. Inside protons are other particles called quarks, leptons, and force carriers. There are 6 quarks , 6 leptons and 4 force carriers.
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----------------------- Up Quark
----------------------- Down Quark
----------------------- Charm Quark
----------------------- Strange Quark
----------------------- Top Quark
----------------------- Bottom Quark
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------------------------------------------------------- Electron Neutrino
------------------------------------------------------- Electron
------------------------------------------------------- Muon Neutrino
------------------------------------------------------- Muon
------------------------------------------------------- Tau Neutrino
------------------------------------------------------- Tau
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- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Photon
- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- W Bosons
- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Z Boson
- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Gluon
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- That is 16 fundamental particles. The 17th particle is the newly discovered the Higgs boson.
Dubbed the "God particle," the Higgs boson is the missing cornerstone of particle physics.
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- Two teams of atom-smashing researchers at CERN's Large Hadron Collider independently verified, with 99.99997 percent certainty, the new subatomic particle, which is a near-perfect fit for what physicists have expected of the Higgs boson since its existence was first theorized 48 years ago.
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- Finding a Higgs-like boson validates much of how scientists believe the universe was formed. The media calls the Higgs boson the God particle because, according to the theory laid out by Scottish physicist Peter Higgs and others in 1964, it's the physical proof of an invisible, universe-wide field that gave mass to all matter right after the Big Bang, forcing particles to coalesce into stars, planets, and everything else.
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- If the Higgs field, and Higgs boson, didn't exist, the dominant Standard Model of particle physics would be wrong.
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------------------------------------------ Other Reviews available:
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- 2045 - The top quarks are to decay into a Higgs particle. The Higgs is supposed to decay into bottom quarks and leptons. The Higgs was found to have a mass of 126,000 million electron volts.
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- 1181 - Dark Energy and the Higgs Field. Dark energy is the force that is accelerating the expansion of the universe. How and why these opposing forces are finely tuned to allow life to exist? God set the numbers for both forces just right. We lucked out. Thank God.
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- This Review lists 6 more Reviews about the Higgs.
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- November 30, 2018. An Index of recent Reviews is available.
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--------------------- Wednesday, December 5, 2018 -------------------------
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