CORONA VIRUS - could it dominate all life?

-  2689 -  CORONA VIRUS  - could it dominate all life?  Of all the life on Earth only plants, animals and fungi can be seen with the human eye.  There are some 20 other varieties of life that we can not see.  In fact, most of life around us is small, unicellular, and unfamiliar.  Called microbial life it accounts of some 80% of all the life on Earth.  Then there is the virus that only lives off other life. 
-

-
-----------------------------  2689 - CORONA VIRUS  - could it dominate all life?
-
-  Today, March, 2020, we are experiencing a pandemic invasion of the corona virus. It is just one of many life forms that live with us and even compete for existence on the planet.
-
-  A flu virus is 4*10^-6 inches on a side and covers 16*10^-12 square inches.  The human body has about 20 square feet of skin.  That is 2,880 square inches of skin.  The smallest virus is only 0.5*10^-12 square inches. 
-
-  If we were covered in viruses there could be 200 to 5,000 trillion viruses occupying every inch of our skin.  Viruses are parasites that live on bacteria  and other hosts , and , there are some 650,000 bacteria occupying every square inch of our skin.
-
-  Viruses are not considered living organisms.  Bacteria are living.  There are at least 1,550 species of viruses and at least 5,000 species of bacteria.  Compare that with:
-
------------------------  26,900 species of algae
-
-----------------------   70,000 species of fungi
-
-----------------------  30,800 species of amoebas
-
-------------------------  5,000 species of bacteria
-
--------------------------  1,550 species of viruses
-
-------------------------  1 species of homo sapiens
-
-  So with a trillion bacteria grazing on our skin mostly feeding on the 10 billion of flakes of skin that we shed every day.   That gray stuff  that you see on the inside of your vacuum cleaner, along with the tasty oil and sweat that seep out of your pores is the food of bacteria.  The waste left behind can be identified as  “ body odor”.  There are an equal number of bacteria feeding on the insides of our bodies. 
-
-  The trillion bacteria inside our bodies live in our guts, our noses, our eyelashes, even our teeth enamel .   In our guts alone there are over 400 different varieties of bacteria.  Some digest sugar, some digest starches, some synthesize vitamins, some are warriors attacking other types of bacteria. 
-
-  The human body has some 10*10^15 cells.  But, there are 100*10^15 bacterial cells.  Human cells are outnumbered 10 to 1.  So, who is the dominate life form here, them or us?
-
-  How can so many bacteria exist on our bodies?  For one thing our body provides a constant warm, food source.  For another thing bacteria can rapidly reproduce.  A single bacterium can generate 280,000 billion ( 0.28 * 10^15 ) bacteria in a single day.  In contrast, in a single day a human cell can manage a single division.
-
-  When bacteria are dividing with such rapid numbers several “ mutations” are occurring.  A new bacteria endowed with some accidental advantage can take over.  That is what the corona virus just did.
-
-  They could quickly develop a stain of bacteria that resist a particular antibiotic.  All bacteria are swimming in a gene pool.  Any adaptive advantage can spread through an entire colony of bacteria very quickly.
-
-  Bacteria not only feed on us humans.  There are varieties of bacteria that eat wood, eat the glue in wall paper, eat the metals in hardened paint.  Bacteria have been found living and eating in sulfuric acid. 
-
-  They have been thriving in the waste tanks of nuclear reactors.  The live in boiling mud pots, and in volcanic fissures at the bottom of the oceans.  There was bacteria living in a sealed lens of a camera that was retrieved from the Moon after 2 years.
-
-  Now, again, which is the dominate life form?  Them or us?
-
-  Science has recently learned that microbes are living deep inside the Earth, in the rocks 2,000 feet below the surface.  Some of these bacteria are alive for centuries, dividing only once per century.  With this new data estimates are that there is more life below the surface of Earth than on top of it.
-
-  Astronomers are just beginning to study the possibilities of life on other planets, and other moons in our Solar System and now in some 1,200 newly discovered solar systems.
-
-   We have a lot more to discover on our home, mother Earth.  Our life is so fragile.  But, the diversity of life seems to be far beyond the bounds that we ever dreamed.  An announcement will be made soon, stay tuned.
-
-  Do you feel your skin crawling?   You probably should not have read this article.  Taking a shower won’t help.
-
-------------------------------------    Also see 2660:
 - 
-  2660  -  VIRUS  -  Could they have created life on Earth?  A new virus recently discovered could be the missing link between non living viruses and living bacteria.  It is called the Mimivirus because it mimics a bacterium.  It is the largest virus discovered so far, about 500 nanometers long.  The smallest virus is about 17 nanometers long.
-
-  March 31, 2020                                 1298                                       2689           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Tuesday, March 31, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CMB - cosmic background radiation ?

-  2688 -  CMB    -   cosmic background radiation ?  -  When you look into the night sky and see the pinpoints of starlight and the darkness in between, you are seeing only what your body can detect.  Your body only sees or feels those electromagnetic frequencies it can detect with your senses.  Your body as a frequency response that is very limited.
-

-----------------------------  2688 -  CMB    -   cosmic background radiation ?
-
-   Your eyes detect only frequencies between 400 and 700 nanometers wavelength.
-
------------------   (A nanometer is one billionth of a meter in length). 
-
-  The stars at night are not close enough for you to feel infrared radiation, 1000 to 1,000,000 nanometers wavelength; or, to get a star tan from ultraviolet radiation, 1 to 100 nanometers wavelength.  Your eyes only detect that small frequency range of visible starlight and your body only feels radiation when it is relatively intense.
-
-  If your eyes were broadband detectors that could detect the full spectrum of electromagnetic radiation there would be no “darkness” between the stars.  The entire sky would be filled with radiation.
-
-   There is the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation, the Cosmic Infrared radiation, the Cosmic Optical Background radiation, the Cosmic X-ray Background radiation, and even Gamma Ray radiation at the far end of the spectrum.
-
-  The infrared, optical, and ultraviolet radiation are mainly caused by thermonuclear fusion in stars, like our Sun.  Quasars and Black Holes suck in matter and convert gravitational energy into radiation that covers a very broad band from radio waves to gamma ray wavelengths.
-
-   Intergalactic clouds of dust absorb optical, ultraviolet, and X-ray radiation and re-radiate it in the far-infrared wavelengths.  All of these contribute to the background radiation that is between the stars.
-
-  Today’s satellite data from X-ray observations have shown that we have far underestimated the prevalence of super massive Black Holes in the Universe.  Chandra, one of our X-ray detection satellites, stared at a dark spot in the sky, about two-thirds the size of a full Moon, for 23 days, a very long time exposure.  It detected 600 point sources of X-ray radiation.
-
-   Studying this same dark spot in the sky with optical telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers determined that each one of those X-ray sources were at the center of an optical galaxy.  If you extrapolate that small dark spot in the sky to the whole sky than there are 300,000,000 super massive black holes over the whole sky.  What appears to be a background of X-ray radiation is actually a multitude of Black Hole point sources at the center of every galaxy.
-
-  The X-ray background covers the wavelengths from .001 nanometer to 10 nanometers.  If we take the length of one wave, the wavelength, times the frequency, the number of waves per second, we get the speed of the radiation, the speed of light.  (w*f = c) .
-
-   Therefore, the speed of light, 300,000,000 meters per second divided by the wavelength gives us the frequency of the X-ray spectrum, 30,000,000 Gigahertz to 300,000,000,000 Gigahertz.  One Gigahertz is one billion wavelength cycles per second, or on billion hertz.
-
-  The higher the frequency the higher the photon energy of the radiation.  This X-ray background radiation corresponds to 124 to 1,240,800 electron volts.  Photon energy is calculated using the formula, energy = Planck’s Constant * frequency.
-
-    Planck’s Constant  = 4.136*10^-15 electron volts * seconds.  One electron volt is about the energy needed in the blink of an eye.  It is about equal to the energy needed to raise a grain of sand one centimeter off the surface of Earth.
-
-  The Black Hole at the center of our Milky Way Galaxy is relatively small, only 4,600,000 solar masses.  The typical super massive black hole is 1000 times bigger, in the billions of solar mass.
-
-  Astronomers are beginning to conclude that black holes are the seeds for the start of all galaxy formations.  The galaxy of stars begins around a small black hole of 10 to 1000 solar mass.  In the beginning the galaxy of stars create the optical starlight that lights up the galaxy.
-
-  The black hole grows exponentially swallowing up material with its growing gravity pull.  After 500,000,000 years the hole is so fat, a billion solar mass, that the infalling material outshines all the stars in the galaxy and a quasar is born.  It looks like a giant point source of light.
-
-   After some time the quasar has eaten up the fuel that feeds it and the black hole falls asleep and is quiet again allowing the remaining stars to shine.  Our Milky Way Black Hole is in this sleep mode.
-
-  All of this cosmic radiation fills the background we can’t see between the stars.  The next time you look at the dark sky try to imagine the entire scope of radiation that fills in between the stars and the myriad of point sources and clouds of matter that create this radiation throughout our Universe.
-
-  Of course, the oldest and coldest radiation is the Microwave Background radiation that we have not talked about.  Its source was the hot plasma that filled our Universe up to 400,000 years after the Big Bang.
-
-   The Cosmic microwave Background radition wavelength is so spread out due to the expansion of the Universe that today it has a wavelength of 1,000,000 nanometers.  It has a cold temperature of 2.7 degrees Kelvin, - 270 degrees Centigrade.
-
-   Its diffused energy level is .00124 electron volts at 300 Gigahertz.  It is everywhere and comes to us from all directions.  Its point source is so far away, 13,700,000,000 light years away and it started its journey 13,700,000,000 years ago.
-
-  Life is so much more than we can see.
-
-   Isaac Newton, thought to be the smartest man that ever lived, once said that he felt like a young boy at the sea shore picking up a rock and a shell of knowledge with the whole ocean of the unknown out in front of him.
-
-  March 31, 2020                                 621                                        2688                                                                                                                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Tuesday, March 31, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

EINSTEIN - his cosmological constant?

-  2687  -  EINSTEIN  -  his cosmological constant?  -   In 1917 Albert Einstein completed his equations for General Relativity and a new theory for gravity.  He recognized that a problem with his equations required the contraction or the expansion of the Universe but not the static condition that everyone thought existed at the time.
-
-

-
-------------------------  2687  -  EINSTEIN  -  his cosmological constant?
-
-  How Is Einstein’s Fudge Factor Expanding the Universe?
-
-   Albert added a “cosmological constant”, a factor in the equations that allowed the Universe to exactly balance and remain static.
-
-  In 1929 Edwin Hubble proved to Albert that the remote galaxies were accelerating away from us.  The further away the faster galaxies receded.  The Universe was expanding, it was not static.  Albert said the cosmological constant was the greatest blunder of his life.
-
-  Today, we are not so sure it was a blunder.  We know the Universe is not only expanding its expansion is accelerating at an ever faster rate.  Now, science is resurrecting the cosmological constant in order to use Einstein’s equations to explain an accelerating expansion that began 5 billion years ago.
-
-   Dark Energy, a form of anti-gravity, a repulsive force,  started becoming more dominate than Dark Matter, and all matter/energy that creates gravity, an attractive force, 5 billion years ago.  Gravity decreases with distance.  Dark Energy and anti-gravity are constant in all space. 
-
-  Therefore, Dark Energy becomes more and more dominate as the Universe continues to expand.  Its rate of expansion gets faster and faster.  Science can rearrange Einstein’s equation and insert the cosmological constant back in and get this observed affect in the Cosmos.
-
-  Einstein’s original idea in creating his equations was to redefine gravity so gravity and accelerated motion were equivalent.  Without an outside reference you can not tell the difference between acceleration and gravity.
-
-  Einstein’s equation had the Universe as static with no boundaries but curved back on itself like the surface of a balloon.  The cosmological constant term in the equation produced a cosmic repulsion on large scales enough that would just counteract gravitational attraction on large scales. 
-
-  Without the cosmological constant in the equation there is no term to counteract gravity and the Universe would collapse on itself.  With the term small enough the Universe would expand but gravity simply continuously slows the expansion into infinity.
-
-  Einstein’s original equation related the curvature of space to the distribution of matter and energy.  When he added the Constant he put it on the left side of the equation suggesting it was a property of space itself. 
-
-  Today science wants to put the Constant on the right side of the equation and suggest that it represents a new form of energy density.  The Constant remains constant as space expands and eventually dominates gravity’s attraction that decreases with distance.
-
-  Since 1998 evidence  from supernovae explosions have convinced astronomers that over the past 5,000,000,000 years the expansion of the Universe has been speeding up.  Supernovae explosion were dimmer than expected which meant they were further away than expected because the Universe was expanding faster than expected.
-
-  Since 2000 the measurement of the angular size of the small variations in the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation have convinced astronomers that the geometry of the Universe is flat.  It is not a positive curvature like the balloon shape as Einstein thought.
-
-   For the Universe to be geometrically flat the average matter/energy density must be equal to the Critical Density.  The Critical Density is where the balance occurs between expansion and contraction. 
-
-  When astronomers measure all forms of matter / energy in the Universe they come up with only 5% of the amount needed.   We were missing 95% with what we could see.  When they add Dark Matter they can get up to 27% of what is needed.
-
-   For the Universe to be flat and accelerating as it is there must be 73% Dark Energy, vacuum energy that is repelling gravity.  It is in the vacuum of space.  The problem now is how do we measure the weight of “nothing” when it makes up 73% of everything?
-
-  So, what we are left with to date is a flat Universe dominated by positive vacuum energy that will expand the Universe forever at an ever increasing rate.
-
-   How do you explain this?  Our knowledge usually develops in an atmosphere of creative confusion.  I, at least, have the confusion part right!
-
-  March 31, 2020                                 1126                                         2687         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Tuesday, March 31, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PROTON - how to calculate its mass?

-  2686  -  PROTON  -  how to calculate its mass?  Physicists are still trying to understand the atom and to do this they must work with the smallest elementary particles in physics.  Let’s try to understand the size of the particles and the complexity of these calculations: 
-

-
-----------------------------  2686  -  PROTON  -  how to calculate its mass?
-
-  Physicists have calculated the mass of a proton and the calculations agree with observational evidence to within 4% , and they again prove that Einstein’s E=mc^2 is exactly correct. 
-
-  The calculations were not easy.  It took a supercomputer that can do 200,000,000,000,000 arithmetical calculations a second over one year to get the answer.  There are 31,560,000   seconds in a year, so after 6,320,000,000,000,000,000,000 calculations the computer come up with the right answer.
-
-  Physicists are still trying to understand the atom and to do this they must work with the smallest elementary particles in physics.  Let’s try to understand the size of the particles and the complexity of these calculations:  Let’s start with the smallest animal that we can not see, the bacteria.  The bacteria are 1,000 nanometers in size.  A nanometer is a billionth of a meter.
-
---------------   bacteria  -----------------------  1,000 nanometers
-
---------------   virus  ---------------------------  100 nanometers
-
---------------   protein molecule  ---------------  10 nanometers
-
---------------   DNA strand -----------------------  1 nanometers
-
---------------   an atom  --------------------------  0.1 nanometers
-
---------------   a nucleus  ---------------------  0.000,01 nanometers
-
---------------   a proton  ----------------------  0.000,001 nanometers
-
---------------   an electron  ------------------  0.000,000,001 nanometers
-
---------------   a quark -----------------------  0.000,000,0001 nanometers
-
-  The Quark is the fundamental particle inside the protons and neutrons that are the nucleus of atoms.  To illustrative the relative size of these particles let’s make the Quark the size of a marble.  A solid marble is a lattice structure of atoms and a cubic centimeter is about one molecular weight. 
-  Which means it has Avogadro’s number of atoms:  602,213,670,000,000,000,000,000 atoms per mole.  If we make one of those atom’s Quarks the size of the marble, then:
-
----------  atom  -----------  distance of a 10 kilometer race, 6.2 miles
-
----------  nucleus  ---------  football stadium and parking lot
-
----------  proton  ----------  football field
-
----------  electron  --------  soccer ball
-
----------  quark  -----------  marble
-
-  So, comparing the Quark to the proton is like comparing the marble to the football field.  The Quark is really small and the proton has 3 Quarks in it, two Up-Quarks and one Down-Quark.  The mass of the 3 Quarks is only 5% of the mass of the Proton.  The other particles in a proton are the Gluon, but they are massless.  So, where does the proton get the other 95% of its mass? 
-
-  The answer is that the rest of the mass inside the proton is all in the form of energy.  The mass is the energy / c^2, according to E=mc^2.  The energy is the Strong Nuclear Force that is holding the Quarks together. 
-
-  The Gluons are the force carriers and they provide the strong nuclear interactions between the Quarks.  If we can calculate this energy and convert it to mass by dividing by 90,000,000,000,000,000 meters^2 * second^2 we will get the 95% missing mass.
(c^2   =  9*10^16   m^2/s^2)
-
-  The energy calculation uses Quantum Mechanics equations that are called Quantum Chromodynamics.  The Quarks are bound together by what is known as a “ color charge”. It similar to an electric charge except it comes in 3 colors instead of 2 polarities. 
-
- The three color charges are red, green and blue, and , this is where the “chromo” comes in Chromodynamics.  There are six different types of Quarks.  The proton only has three Quarks but the Up-Down changes to Charm-Strange, which changes to Top-Bottom Quarks at higher and higher energies.  So, calculations have to deal with all six Quarks.
-
-  Then there are eight varieties of Gluons. All 14 of  these fundamental particles are in the equations.
-
-   Now, the equations “approximated the continuum of spacetime with a four-dimensional crystal lattice composed of discrete points spaced along columns and rows. 
-
-  The equations were solved on finer and finer lattices and then extrapolated the results to the continuum, painstakingly accounting and measuring every approximation and uncertainty along the way.”   No wonder it took  6,320,000,000,000,000,000,000 calculations  and over a year for a supercomputer to do this.  And, super physicists to figure out how to do it.
-
-  The answer:  The mass of all protons is 0.000000000000000000017626231 kilograms.
-
-  The mass of all protons expressed in energy units is 938,272,310 electron volts /c^2
-
-  Only 5% of this mass in all proton is the Quarks.  The rest is energy in the form of Strong Nuclear Interactions.  The interactions carried by Gluons that are constantly popping into existence and disappearing again.  It is a form of energy of vacuum fluctuations that are holding everything together.
-
-  These exact calculations apply equally well to the neutron and to the nuclei of all the atoms.  I only illustrated with the proton.
-
-  A coincidence exists when we measure the mass of the Universe as well.  The Universe is composed of:
-
-----------------1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms,
-
----------------   (10^78 atoms, mostly hydrogen).
-
And, like the proton’s Quarks, all of these atoms only account for 5% of the entire Universe mass.  95% of the Universe is composed of something we do not understand.
-
-  Today we call the stuff Dark Matter if it has gravity and Dark Energy if it has antigravity.  Could the missing mass in the Universe be vacuum fluctuations of energy as well?  The same stuff that makes up the proton makes up the entire Universe.  My guess is YES.  This is no coincidence.
-
-  The diameter of a Quark is 10^-19 meters.
-
-  The diameter of the Universe is 2*10^58 meters.
-
-  That is 77 orders of magnitude difference but I believe it is all the same stuff.  Somehow all this stuff is matter and antimatter, positive and negative electric charge, north and south magnetic poles, gravity and antigravity and, it all cancels out.
-
-   Somehow the entire Universe adds up to nothing.  In the beginning the Universe popped out of nothing.  Just a vacuum fluctuation that popped and went haywire.
-
-    Put that one in your supercomputer and figure it out.
-
-  March 30, 2020                                 979                                        2686             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Monday, March 30, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

MOLECULE - how a molecule works? -

-  2685  -  MOLECULE  -  how a molecule works?  When there is more than one proton in the nucleus and more than one atom in orbit this classical physics math just becomes overwhelming.  That is the reason the math of Quantum Mechanics was invented. When Quantum Mechanic’s math is used, the concept of the electron orbiting the proton completely disappears.  The electron’s position around the nucleus becomes a probability distribution
-
-

-
-----------------------------  2685  -  MOLECULE  -  how a molecule works?
-
-  See Review 983, “How an Atom Works”, and
-
-   Review 985, “Measuring How an Atom Works”.
-
-  Now, we want to learn how a “molecule” works after learning from the reviews about how the atom works.  It is not simple, Classical Physics reaches its limits beyond the hydrogen atom, one electron, one proton. 
-
-  When there is more than one proton in the nucleus and more than one atom in orbit this classical physics math just becomes overwhelming.  That is the reason the math of Quantum Mechanics was invented.
-
-   ( An interesting thought: Was the math invented or was it discovered?)
-
-  When Quantum Mechanic’s math is used, the concept of the electron orbiting the proton completely disappears.  The electron’s position around the nucleus becomes a probability distribution. 
-
-  The “Square of the Wave Function” for the position at a given point becomes the “Probability Distribution Function“.  The Wave Function is an equation that defines the amounts for energy levels, angular momentum, and spin.
-
- As we learned from the two previous Reviews , 983 and 985, the angular momentum is not continuous, it comes in quantum levels of 0,1,2,3,  etc multiples of Planck’s Constant of Action per 2*pi radians,( h/2*pi).
-
----------------   h / 2*pi  =  Planck hbar  =  6.58212110^-16 electron volt * seconds
-
-   What further complicates this is that in the 3-dimensions of space the angular momentum must be defined along the x, y, and z axis, that is left - right, up - down, and forwards - backwards.
-
-  When these more complicated equations are used the radiation spectrum for even the simplest atom of hydrogen becomes a whole spectrum of frequencies.  The spectrum of wavelengths is called the Balmer Series and the wavelengths range from 653 nanometers to 363 nanometers for the hydrogen atom. 
-
-  The Balmer series is in the visible light spectrum.  There is also a Lyman Series in the Ultraviolet and a Paschen Series in the Infrared.  All the details of the Periodic Table of Elements can be understood both qualitatively and quantitatively using the Quantum Mechanic’s equations along with Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, which says that no two electrons can share the same energy state.
-
-  For example, take the element Rubidium which has 37 protons and 37 electrons.  When we complete the calculations we can determine the energy levels and the number of electrons in each orbit:
-
------------- orbit, n = 1  ------------------  2 electrons
-
------------- orbit, n = 2  ------------------  4  or 10 electrons
-
------------- orbit, n = 3  ------------------  12 or 18 or 28 electrons
-
------------- orbit, n = 4  ------------------  30 or 36 0r 46 electrons
-
-  For Rubidium the 37th electron lies in the shell 4, or orbit 4.  Only the electrons in the outer shell determine the electrical properties of each element.  To make molecules, which is a combination of 2 or more atoms, electrons pair up with partners from their own or from another atom depending on which configuration is at the lower energy level.
-
-   For example, 2 hydrogen atoms come together to form hydrogen gas, H2.  Hydrogen gas and Oxygen come together to form H2O, or water.  A sodium atom and chlorine gas come together to form salt.
-
-  When atoms join to become molecules even more interactions and more energy level consideration are involved.  These subtleties become important in the study of chemistry and biology. 
-
-  In addition to electron energy levels in the atoms we have vibrational levels that have energies in the neighborhood of a 1/10th of an electron volt.  After that we have electron degeneracy levels that shift between molecules that have energy levels in the 1/1000th of an electron volt. 
-
-  Two molecules of hydrogen gas do not simply come together to form one molecule of helium gas.   There are vibrational interactions which act as a spring constant in oscillation causing a force between atoms.  There is an electron and proton spin that acts as a rotational force of a charged particle creating electric and magnetic forces.
-
-  You can see this stuff gets really complicated.  That is why you have to go to college if you are going to learn chemistry and biology.  But, what does this stuff have to do with astronomy? 
-
-  It has to do with gravity.  Somehow all this stuff is influenced and brought together by the force of gravity.  Gravity takes these gas molecules, mostly hydrogen gas, and begins compressing these atoms into a nebulous cloud.  The cloud continues to collapse towards its center.
-
-   Gravity’s Potential Energy is converted into the Kinetic Energy of motion and vibration.  The density increases.  The atoms vibrate more rapidly with more Kinetic Energy.  Heat rises as the thermal energy of the vibrating atoms increases.
-
-    As compression continues the electron energy levels brake down and the electromagnetic forces between electrons and nuclei collapse.  Compression of 4 protons to form one helium nucleus and 2 anti-electrons happens when thermonuclear reactions occur.  The star is born. 
-
-  Further compression from gravity fuses helium into higher level elements until you reach iron on the periodic table.  Iron does not fuse in a nuclear reaction.  Its reaction absorbs energy; it does not emit energy.  Thermonuclear energy stops. 
-
-  The star collapses further until the electron exclusion principle causes electron degeneracy pressure to match the gravitational pressure and a White Dwarf Neutron star is born.
-
-   If the stars mass is great enough the gravity collapses it further until the neutron exclusion principle can no longer hold up against the pressure and a Blackhole is born.
-
-  Where it goes after the Blackhole we do not know.  It is a black hole. 
-
-  Be sure and read 983 and 985 to learn how an atom works.
-
-  March 30, 2020                                 986                                         2685                                                                                                                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Monday, March 30, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIGHT - keeps getting stranger?

-  2684 -   LIGHT -   keeps getting stranger?  We have wave- particle duality, photon entanglement and anti-matter, matter asymmetry as three courses in our college of future study.   Entanglement bothers me the most.  My imagination can wade through the other two, but not that one.  It is just too weird for me to comprehend.  Entanglement in the brain?  Here is a Review for you to try it.
-

-
-----------------------------  2684  -  LIGHT -   keeps getting stranger?
-
-  The more we learn about light the stranger it gets.   We can’t decide if it is a wave or a particle.  The search for answers gets us wandering into anti-matter, and entanglement.  It does not get any stranger than that.
-
-   Light is bundles of energy we call “ Photons”.  We know photons have momentum.  Therefore, we tend to think of them as particles of energy with momentum.  It is the momentum of all the photons trying to leave the star that prevents the star from collapsing under the pressure of gravity.
-
-    Momentum is defined as mass times velocity.  We know the velocity of light to be 186,000 miles per second, but the mass of a photon is zero.  So, momentum must have another definition as well? 
-
-  In the early 1900’s momentum of light was discovered to come in “quantums“.  Every bundle of light we call a photon was equal to a “Constant of Action“, which is the product of energy and time, per wavelength of the light.
-
-   In physics the product of energy and time is called “Action”.   Momentum  =  Planck’s Constant of  Action / wavelength.  The shorter the wavelength the higher the momentum.  The longer the wavelength the less momentum it has.  X-rays hurt a lot more than radio waves.
-
-  Planck’s Constant of Action = 6.6*10^-34 kilograms * meters^2 / second, which is a very small quantity.  In other units “h”  4.14 * 10^-14 electron- volts * seconds. 
-
-  This momentum of energy is enough to make you see.  Light bounces off what you see and ends up in your eye.  It is the momentum of light that strikes the cells, or cones, in you retina that stimulates the nerves leading to the brain. 
-
-  Although we think of these as particles with momentum photons actually travel through space as waves.  No two photons travel the same way every time.  Different photons take different routes and form different patterns.
-
-    But, statistically these wave patterns are a function of probabilities of the photon’s positions.  If you send one photon at a time through 2 slits an interference pattern will build up over time.  It is the same pattern you would get if you sent 1000 photons through the 2 slits at the same time. 
-
-   The interference patterns represent the distribution of probabilities for the location of the photons.  The pattern can be a diffraction or an interference pattern, or , it can be a focused image of the two slits.  In the latter case the waves behave like a lens.
-
-   Because of this dual property for light science has had 400 years of disagreement whether light is a particle or a wave.
-
-  If it is an interference pattern it must be a wave.  It if reflects or ricochet’s according to mathematical formulas it must be a particle.  Maxwell’s equations of electromagnet radiation treated light as waves.  Einstein’s paper on the photoelectric effect treated light as particles.  Particles he called “photons“.
-
-  The energy of light is related to its frequency, or inversely to its wavelength, not to its intensity. 
-
--------------------- Energy = E  =  m*c^2  =  m * velocity * velocity  =  momentum * velocity  =  momentum * frequency * wavelength.
-
---------------------  And, Momentum * wavelength  = Planck’s Constant of Action.
  E = momentum * h.   
-
-  These are all equivalent relationships of photons of light.  It turns out that every particle regardless of mass has a wavelength over which it can exist. It is simply that the wavelengths are so small the do not become important until the mass is so small, atomic level small.  Then, wavelengths become important.
-
-   Then, waves are functions of uncertainty.  Statistical probabilities control the existence of atomic level particles.  Waves are the probabilities particles operate within.  Photons have been shown to behave like waves, but , science has also shown this phenomena to exist with electrons, with atoms, with molecules, even with bacteria.  These are all small enough masses to exhibit wave like properties that we can detect.
-
-  Two photons emitted form the same source can be entangled.  If a photon is absorbed by a certain material and two photons are re-emitted.  These two photons are of a lower energy than the original photon but they came from the same source and are “ entangled”. 
-
-  They are inextricably linked together regardless of the distance in space they become separated.  If the quantum state of one is changed, the other photon will experience the change, instantly.  The quantum state of one is communicated to the other instantly, faster than the speed of light.
-
-   Experiments have proven this to be true although theories as to how have not.  Once we can understand this it could be an extremely powerful technology in sending and encrypting information using light beams.
-
-  When the Universe first formed all particles were massless.  As the Universe expanded and cooled particles gained mass in the forms of quarks and anti-quarks.  Somehow, the Universe ended up with an excess of quarks.  This excess of quarks accounts for the dominance of matter over anti-matter in our World.
-
-   Quarks make up the protons and neutrons that we call matter in our world.  Calculations are that 30,000,001 quark particles were created for every 30,000,000 anti-quark particles.  What can account for this slight imbalance, this slight asymmetry, remains a mystery for future scientists to study.
-
-  So, we have wave- particle duality, photon entanglement and anti-matter, matter asymmetry as three courses in our college of future study. 
-
-  Personally, entanglement bothers me the most.  My imagination can wade through the other two, but not that one.  It is just too weird for me to comprehend.  Entanglement in the brain?
-
----------------------------------------- Other Reviews:
-
-  2683  -  LIGHT -   the wave-particle duality?  -  At the time of Isaac Newton in 1687 science considered light to be a beam of particles.  In the 1900’s some experiments measuring interference and diffraction concluded that light was indeed waves.  Interference is when two waves come together and the beams amplify or cancel each other out depending on how the phases of the waves are intersecting.  So, when did light become particles again?
-
- 2661  -  LIGHT  -  What It Means To Be Visible?   If something is visible it usually means that your eyes are sensitive to the electromagnetic radiation they are receiving.  Of course, other detectors besides eyes can be used to detect a much wider range of electromagnetic radiation.
-
-  2609  -  LIGHT  -  how to measure its speed ?  One of the most common questions  asked is whether gravity is instantaneous, or whether there’s a speed limit to how fast the force of gravity can travel. This is not as simple a question as it seems on the surface.  Most would say at the speed of light. However the  problem with the speed of light, is it gets here too early in the morning.
-
-  2537  -  LIGHT  -  stranger than you can imagine?  -  Is “light” energy what is warping space and time?  What about Dark Energy that is the repulsive force expanding space in the Universe?  Is “light” responsible for this as well?  “Light” has a much bigger role to play in the Universe than what we can “see”.  All that we do not see is stranger still. 
-
-  2402  -  LIGHT  -  There is not enough light.  We can never understand the Universe by studying starlight.  There is just not enough of it.  Starlight comes from the energy, or radiation, from ordinary matter and ordinary matter comprises less than 5% of the Universe.  30% more is Dark Matter and 65% more is Dark Energy.  We need a telescope that can see in the ”Dark”. 
-
-  2387 -  LIGHT  -  how light moves particles. Einstein had developed the theory of special relativity that revolutionized the way we understand light. To this day, it provides guidance on understanding how particles move through space.
-
-  2310  -   Getting Light from Electricity and Magnetism.  Light, electricity, and magnetism seem to me to be three separate things.  How can they be connected into electromagnetic waves?  We had to discover each one at a time before Einstein even connected them with mass and space.
-
-  2306 -   How far away is the Sun?  When at sea how can we use the Sun to determine our position, longitude and latitude?  How can the moons of Jupiter be used as a clock?  How can that clock be used to determine the speed of light?  Learn from Ole the Danish astronomer:
-
-  2210  -  There is a star that is looping around the blackhole at the center of our galaxy.  Theory of Relativity tells us that light would loose energy leaving a gravity well and it would gain energy entering the gravity well.  This energy difference shows up in the change in wavelength of the light.  Einstein’s math is tested again. 
-
-  2260  -  Getting light from electricity and magnetism?  How do the electric and the magnetic forces, or, waves create light.  Or, is it the opposite?  Is light that creates the electric and magnetic forces?  See here, to learn the answer.
-
-  March 30, 2020                                 912                                        2684             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Monday, March 30, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIGHT - the wave-particle duality?

-  2683  -  LIGHT -   the wave-particle duality?  -  At the time of Isaac Newton in 1687 science considered light to be a beam of particles.  In the 1900’s some experiments measuring interference and diffraction concluded that light was indeed waves.  Interference is when two waves come together and the beams amplify or cancel each other out depending on how the phases of the waves are intersecting.  So, when did light become particles again?
-

-
-----------------------------  2683  -  LIGHT -   the wave-particle duality?
-
-  Light is what we take for granted.  We don’t think about it.  It travels very fast.  180,000 miles per second.  It takes 8 minutes to reach us coming from the Sun.  From the nearest star it takes 4 ½ years to get here. 
-
-  If it is a particle it must be very, very small.  Light brings us all the colors.  Scientists have been thinking about light for very long time.  Here is some of what they have come up with:
-
-  Light is a wave.  Diffraction results in the boundary of a shadow not being sharp.  The light is not propagated strictly in straight lines and peculiar patterns are produced near the edges of the shadow.  Both of these behaviors are not that of particles, but of a wave nature of light.
-
-  Maxwell’s equations for electricity and magnetism determined that the light was made up of an electromagnetic wave.  Light is electromagnetic radiation consisting of interdependent mutually perpendicular transverse oscillations of alternating electric and magnetic fields.  That’s a mouthful.  The alternating fields are the frequency of light and they extend from radio waves, to visible light, to X-rays and Gamma rays.
-
-  There are three experiments in the 1900’s that discovered the wave-particle duality of light.  One was the blackbody radiation,  the second the photoelectric effect and the third the Compton scattering effect. 
-
-  Every body radiates light depending on its temperature.  Infrared we can not see,  but a hotter body gets red hot, and hotter still it gets white hot.  If you plot this radiation intensity versus  the wavelength of light you get the same curve for every Blackbody.
-
-   A Blackbody is a physics term for a perfect emitter or absorber of energy.  Science expected the energy to keep increasing with frequency.  But, that is not what happens.  The curve rises then peaks and decreases with the same shape for all Blackbodies.
-
-  Light is a particle.  Max Planck came up with the solution to explain the Blackbody Curve, light intensity versus wavelength.  The equations for the curve worked perfectly if you assumed that light came in discrete quantum.  It was not a continuous wave as everyone was assuming.
-
-    In 1905 Einstein used this data to propose the “particle theory of light“.  He called each discrete quantum a “photon “ and he claimed that each photon contained energy equal to:
-
----------------------------- 6.6*10^-34 times the frequency
-
-  The Planck Constant of Action  =  6.626076*10^-34  kilogram * m^2 / sec.
Energy is the rate of change of Action with respect to time.
-
------------------------  Energy = 6.6*10^-34 * frequency
-
-  The photoelectric effect was first discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz.  It is the process of shining light on a metal surface causing a current to flow.  The metal is given an electric potential by hooking it up to a battery.  When light shines on the metal surface a current instantaneously flows.  (This is how the safety beam works with your garage door opener).
-
-  Experiments with the photoelectric effect show that for each metal there is a threshold light frequency that must be exceeded before the current will flow.  No electrons are emitted from the metal unless this  frequency is exceeded regardless of how great the light intensity is. 
-
-  The energy of electron emission then increases with a constant rate of change with frequency.  The plot of energy versus frequency is then a straight line with a constant slope.  The slope is the same for all metals and it is called:
-
----------------------   Planck’s Constant of Action = 6.6*10^-34.
-
---------------------  Energy = 6.6*10^-34 * frequency, above that threshold frequency
-
-   Some 20 years later the “Compton Effect” was used to demonstrate that the “photon” actually existed.  In 1923 the experiment concerned the collision of a photon with  a charge particle, an electron.  When the photon collides with an electron it scatters at an angle and its frequency changes.
-
-    Applying the Conservation of Energy  Before the collision and After the collision:
-
----------------  h * frequency + Eo  =  h * frequency 2  + E1
-
----------------  without going through the math, the change in wavelength that occurs with this collision is:
-
----------------  Change in w = h / m*c * (1 - cosine angle)
-
----------------  Change in w is the change in wavelength
-
----------------  h = Planck’s Constant  =  6.6*10^-34
-
----------------  m = mass of the electron  =  9.108 * 10^- 31 kilograms
-
----------------  c  = speed of light = 3*10^8 meters /sec
-
----------------- angle is the scattering angle.
-
----------------   h / m*c  = 2.43*10^-12 meters and is known as the Compton wavelength.
-
------------------  Change in w =  2.43*10^-12  * (1 - cosine angle)
-
-  Compton scattering occurs in all materials with photons of medium energy ( 0.5 to 3.5 * 10^6 electron volts).   High energy photons have sufficient energy to eject the bound electrons from the atoms.  This is called the “photoelectric effect“.
-
-  In 1913 Neils Bohr used these theories of what was to become Quantum Mechanics to develop a model for the hydrogen atom.  He determined that the electrons move in orbits restricted by the requirement that the angular  momentum be an integral multiple of;
-
------------------------------   h/2*pi = 6.6/6.28 = 1.05*10^-34.
-
-----------------------------  For a circular orbit of radius, r, the electron velocity, v, then:
-
----------------------------  m*v*r  = n * 1.05*10^-34  where n = 1,2,3,4,etc
-
-  The relation between the Coulomb force, the electrostatic attraction between the positive proton and the negative electron, and , the centrifugal force of the electron’s orbit -
-------------------------  e^2*r^2  =  m*v^2 / r
-
------------------------  where e is the electric charge of the electron
-
--------------------  m*v^2 is the kinetic energy of the electron in orbit, mass * velocity^2.
-
-  When electrons make discontinuous transitions from one orbit to another the change in energy will appear as the emission or the absorption or radiation at a particular frequency equal to that energy level.
-
-------------------------------  Frequency = (E1 - E2) / 6.6*10^-34
-
-------------  In 1923 De Broglie determined that:
-
-------------  Wavelength  =  6.6*10^-34 / momentum
-
-------------  Wavelength  =  6.6*10^-34 / mass * velocity
-
-  This conclusion states that not only light but all particles, all mass, even your body has a dual wave-particle duality.  But, do the math.  If the mass is very large at all you will not notice the wave nature of matter.  It only comes into effect at the atomic level of masses.  But, it is still there. 
-
-  If you feel a little queasy it is probably the wave nature of your body atoms acting up again.
-
-  March 29, 2020                                 768                                         2683           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Monday, March 30, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ATOMIC CLOCKS - keep accurate time?

-  2682  -  ATOMIC  CLOCKS  -  keep accurate time?   This Review explains how atomic clocks keep time.  It reviews the history of how these clocks were developed.  It reviews fantastic facts that should amaze you.  They are by far the most accurate instruments ever built. 
-
-

-
-----------------------------  2682  -  ATOMIC  CLOCKS  -  keep accurate time?
-
-  Today atomic clocks are on the ground helping satellites and deep space probes navigate throughout the solar system.  Soon they will be on board these space probes providing built-in transmission accuracy.  This will allow one way communications instead of the clock being on the ground and the signal traveling to the space probe and traveling back.
-
-  That accurate clock signal allows astronomers to accurately measure the speed and position of the space craft.
-
-  Most of today’s atomic clocks are too large and power hungry  to be carried on the spacecraft.  But, NASA did launch a 35 pound toaster size atomic clock to prove the concept of their improved accuracy of navigation just to see how it worked.
-
-  When spacecraft can routinely carry their own atomic clocks it will cut the time in half of the time needed to determine speed and position.  These clocks will be accurate enough to measure one second in a period of 10,000,000 years.  Read this again.  Too amazing.  This is 50 times more accurate than today’s Global Positioning System that is using atomic clocks.
-
-  Most of today’s atomic clocks us the silver-white metal cesium.  This element melts at 83.1 degrees Fahrenheit.  It is not radioactive and is the only stable isotope of Cesium , Cs-133. 
-
-  The technology being investigated today has aspirations of designing a clock the size of a grain of rice.  Wow, what a difference that will make!  We will have to wait a few years for this one.
-
-  Today the 31 satellites in the GPS system use “rubidium atomic clocks“.  Every new satellite has four of these on board.   In addition there are 400 atomic clocks around the world keeping track of “Coordinated Universal Time“. 
-
-  Because the Earth’s rotation is not 100% consistent, every year the clocks need to add a “leap second”, to our standard time every year or so.  23.59.59  goes to 23.59.60 in order to sneak in that extra second to account for the Earth’s rotation slowing down.  This slower rotation is primarily caused by the friction of the tides as the Moon is pulling them back and forth across the Earth’s oceans. 
-
-  The atomic clock works by precisely controlling the oscillations of the cesium atom.  The lock itself is constructed of 8 parts.  It starts with s vacuum tube of cesium.  This is surrounded by a shield to protect stray magnetic fields from entering the tube. 
-
-  Next there is an oven to keep the cesium atoms at a constant temperature.  The Cs-133  isotope is heated to evaporate the metal in to a gaseous state.  The gas atoms then can escape the oven in a hole that sends the atoms in to a tube.
-
-  The free atoms are traveling at 820 feet per second into this chamber where a magnet separates those atoms that can still absorb energy.  The others are deflected into a graphite “getter“.  One gram of cesium is this oven will last about one year.
-
-  The beam then enters a microwave cavity, called a “Ramsey cavity“, where microwave energy resonates at a frequency near to the natural frequency of the cesium atom’s vibration.  When the frequencies exactly match the oscillations absorb the microwave energy 
-
-  A second magnet follows to separate those atoms that have absorbed the energy and discard those that haven’t into another getter. 
-
-   Next a detector captures the higher energy atoms. These atoms resonant at the same frequency as the microwaves in the Ramsey cavity. 
-
-  The last step after the detector is the frequency divider that matches the atom frequency of the cesium atom, 9,192,631,770 vibrations per second.  This is the frequency that accurately measures the time durations.
-
-  In 1989 Norman Ramsey , (1915  -  2011), was awarded the Nobel prize for his work on this atomic clock. 
-
-  But, he stood on the shoulders of many other scientists.  Starting in 1879,  Lord Kelvin proposed using atoms to measure time.  In 1945 scientists used his suggestion to design a clock using atomic beam in magnetic resonance.  And, in 1949, the first atomic clock was built using ammonium molecules , but , it was less accurate than the currently available quartz clock.
-
-   In 1955, the first atomic clock based on cesium atoms was finally built.    In 1967, the International Standards set the definition of one second as 9,192,631,770 vibrations of
C-133.   Previously the second was defined as 1 / 86,400  of a “mean’ solar day. 
-
-  In 1972, Greenwich Mean time was based on the atomic clock.  In 1999, an atomic clock was invented using laser cooled cesium atoms.  This clock was accurate to one second in 20,000,000 years. 
-
-  In 2008, NIST even improved on that accuracy using strontium ions instead of cesium.  In 2011, the National Lab claimed to have accuracies of one second in 130,000,000 years. 
-
-  It doesn’t get any better than that.  I will never be late to class again.
-
-  March 28, 2020                                                                             2682                                                                                                                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Sunday, March 29, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PULSARS - rotating neutron stars?

-  2681  -  PULSARS  -  rotating neutron stars?  -  Neutron Stars can spin!  Our own star, the Sun, spins.   Rather slowly, one rotation takes 25 days.   This is the story about PSR J17482446 whose name will be referred to as Neutron Star henceforth.   This Neutron Star is located in a Globular Cluster of stars in the Constellation Sagittarius the Archer (the “teapot” in the southern night sky).  It is 18,000 lightyears away.  This star is spinning at 716 rotations per second.
-

-
-----------------------------  2681  -  PULSARS  -  rotating neutron stars?
-
-  This Neutron Star is part of a binary system.  Its companion is a Red Giant star that is 1/7 the mass of our Sun.  The two stars orbit each other every 26 hours.
-
-  The Neutron Star is spinning so fast it would fly apart except for the fact that its surface is solid and harder than a diamond.  The density of the star is 50 trillion times heavier than the density of solid lead.  Its magnetic field is a trillion times more intense than that of our Sun.
-
-  A Neutron Star is a collapsed star that no longer has any more fusion fuel to burn.  It remains a hot cinder.  In this case a hot spinning cinder that can not offer any radiation or resistance to the gravity that is compressing it. 
-
-  For a normal collapsing star the size- of- our- Sun , gravity would compress it to the size of our Earth before a resistance could stop it.  At this point compression would stop because the electron’s pressure to refuse to collapse any further would hold up the gravity.  The star this size would remain a White Dwarf Star. 
-
-  However, if the size of the star was 40% larger than our Sun ( >1.4 Solar Mass), then the electron’s pressure would break down.  The electrons would collapse into the protons in the nucleus and become neutrons.  When this happens the star collapses from Earth-size to a ball 20 miles in diameter.  A Neutron Star is 20 miles in diameter and still weighing more than the Sun.
-
-  When this collapse is happening the spinning star is speeding up its rate of rotation.  Just like an ice skater pulling in her outstretched arms speeds up her rate of spin.  When a star’s diameter shrinks it spin rate goes up to maintain the equivalent Angular Momentum.  This is the law of the Conversation of Energy, or , in this case the Conservation of Angular Momentum energy.  This particular Neutron Star is spinning at 716 revolutions per second.
-
-    How does a law of conservation make a Neutron Star spin so fast?  Emmy Noether proved mathematically in 1916, when she was 34 years old, that spatial symmetry ( a rotating sphere looks the same from any direction) required a law of conservation. 
-
-  That law was the Conservation of Angular Momentum.  She also proved that time symmetry, time translation, ( the law that physics is the same no matter when you apply it) required the Conservation of Energy.
-
-  A kitchen blender on its highest speed is rotating a  hundred revolutions per second.  This 20 mile diameter ball is rotating 716 revolutions per second.  The equator on the ball is traveling at 43,000 miles per second.  If the Earth were doing this instead of a day taking 24 hours we would have 2 days per second.  How time flies. 
-
-  Not only would you be spinning this fast standing on the equator, the gravity is so intense that your whole body would be crushed to the size of a protoplasm.  You would spread across the surface of the star like a film of oil only one atom thick. 
-
-  If life were not difficult enough under these conditions the star would be releasing quick bursts of energy with every rotation.  Each flash of radiation occurs across a wide range of wavelengths.  The flashes are so fast that we can not see them.  The star looks like a continuous source of light.  Our eyes can not separate flashes that are faster than 30 times per second, let alone 716 flashes per second.
-
-  The spin rate was not detected until 2004 when radio signals were analyzed.  This radio signal became a flash along our line of sight because the beam axis of the jets is slightly off center from the rotation axis of the star.  This causes the beam to rotate like a lighthouse beacon.  Radio signals could be analyzed to pull up the repetition rate of 716 times per second.
-
-  For astronomy to date, this is the fastest spinning star in the Cosmos.  It could not be crushed any denser without becoming a “Quark Star”.  This phenomena is in theory only.  Yet to be discovered.  Theoretically, just as electrons give out and get crushed down to neutrons, the neutrons could get crushed down to their fundamental particles the Quarks.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-
-  Angular Momentum is the product of mass and velocity and radius of a rotating body.  Mass stays the same so if the radius is reduced in order for the product to remain unchanged the velocity of rotation must increase.
-
---------------------------  L  =  m * v * r
-
- If the Neutron Star has a radius of 10 kilometers and it is spinning at 716 rotations per second how big was it to start with?
-
----------------  Circumference  =  2 * pi * r  =  2 * pi * 10 km  =  62.8 kilometers
-
----------------  Completing 716 rotations per second is a velocity of 44,988 kilometers per second.  ( 32 million miles per hour or 5% the speed of light.)
-
----------------  The mass of the Neutron Star is 2 Solar Mass  =  2 * 6 * 10^24 kilograms
-
---------------  The Big Stars rotation was 57 days.
-
---------------  Angular Momentum  =  12 * 10^24 kg  * 4.5 *10^24 km/sec * 10 km
-
--------------  57 days is 4,924,800 seconds
-
--------------  The velocity  =  2 * pi * r km   /   4.9* 10^6 seconds
-
--------------  The mass stays the same, and cancel out of the equation.
-
--------------  4.5 *10^24 km/sec * 10 km    =  ( 2 * pi * r   km   /   4.9* 10^6 sec ) * r
-
------------------  r^2  =  35 * 10^10 km
-
-----------------  r   =   5.9 * 10^5 km
-
-----------------  r  =  367,950 mile radius
-
------------------  Our Sun’s radius is 432,292 miles.
 -
-  Neutron Stars are leftovers after supernova explosions.  These stars are the remnant cores of bigger stars.  Stars burn their nuclear fusion fuels for millions to billions of years.  Big stars burn hotter and have shorter lifetimes, maybe 10 million years..  Smaller stars like our Sun will have a lifetime of some 10 billion years.
-
-    When the Big Stars go supernovae they leave behind a Neutron Star that can range in mass from 0.7 to 2.7 Solar Mass.  However, that mass is concentrated into a rotating sphere that is only 12 miles in diameter.
-
-  When the Big Star starts out it can be 8 to 25 Solar Mass, maybe even as big as 150 Solar Mass.  When it runs out of fuel and implodes into a spinning Neutron Star the collapsing outer layers of the star rebound into a titanic explosion hurtling material into outer space.
-
-  The Neutron Star at the core spins faster in order to maintain the Conservation of Angular Momentum as it collapses to a smaller diameter.  This rapid rotation generates a giant magnetic field, like an spinning electric dynamo.  The magnetic field generates a current of charged particles that escape out the magnetic poles. 
-
-  Often the beam of particles are offset from the rotational axis causing the beam to rotate like a lighthouse beacon.  When the beam flashes across our field of view we call it a “Pulsar”.
-
-  Only 8 supernovae explosions have been recorded witnessed by the naked eye.  One was recorded in August 7, 1181 that lasted for 156 days before becoming too faint for the naked eye.  This supernova was designated 3C58.  Compared to the Crab Nebula supernova that was witnessed beginning July 4, 1054,  3C58 is 2,000 times weaker in the X-ray spectrum even though the X-ray nebula is several time larger than the Crab.
-
-  It was difficult to find the point source Neutron Star at the center of the nebula.  On March 28, 2001 astronomers finally measured the period of this Pulsar at 65.7 milliseconds.  This is roughly twice the period of the Crab Pulsar witch is 30 milliseconds.  The luminosity was measured at 100,000 Solar Luminosity.  The magnetic field was 10 trillion Earth’s magnetic field ,but , about the same as the Crab’s.
-
-  The spin rates of Pulsars slow down as the drag of the strong magnetic fields causes a loss of spin energy.  The initial spin rate of the Crab was 19 milliseconds.  For 3C58 it was 60 seconds.
-
-  Our Sun’s nuclear fusion creates a surface temperature of 5,800 Kelvin.  Temperature is the vibration of atoms and this temperature has a vibration emission wavelength of 500 nanometers, the wavelength of yellow light.
-
-  Neutron Stars have a different source of energy since they no longer have nuclear fuel.  Their spinning magnets generate electric fields that are up to 1,000 trillion volts at the poles.  The charged electrons and anti-electrons spiral around these electric field lines. 
-
-  The constant acceleration of charged particles creates a continuous radiation, called “synchrotron  radiation“.  In the beginning this energy crates a surface temperature on the Neutron Star of 1,000,000,000 Kelvin.  The Neutron Star cools down as it radiates its energy away.
-
-   After 100 years the surface temperature is still 3,000,000 Kelvin.  Escaping neutrinos carry way energy as well as the synchrotron radiation.  3C58 is 820 years old and its surface temperature has cooled to 1,400,000 Kelvin.
-
-  Neutron Stars are so dense because they are collapsed atoms.  A hydrogen atom can be compared to a nuclear pea orbited by an electron 200 feet away.  Most of the atom is empty space. 
-
-  When the Neutron Star is formed this empty space is collapsed as the electron collides with the proton at the nucleus forming a neutron. When the electrons and protons combine neutrinos are emitted carrying away energy.   80% of the star’s mass is these neutrons with maybe 20% remaining electrons and protons in the outer layers.
-
-  The calculations for 3C58 observed temperatures do not match up with the scenario described above.  Something else is going on.  Possibly neutrons are breaking down into individual quarks.
-
-   Possibly other particles are being created and need to be part of the calculations.  Possible particles are up-down-strange quarks creating “ lambdas”.  Up-quarks and anti-quarks are creating “pions”.  Up-quarks and anti-strange quarks are creating “kaons”.  All of these exotic particle creations could increase the stream of neutrinos carrying off more energy and cooling the Neutron Star faster.
-
-  More discoveries are needed to tell us what is going on inside the Neutron Stars.  3C58 has given us more data, but, we need more.  An announcement will be made shortly, stay tuned.
-
-  Emmy Noether born 1882 to a math teacher in Nazi Germany.  She was not allowed go to school or later to teach in Germany because she was a woman and a Jew.  She learned on her own auditing her father’s classes.  She wrote the laws of conservation in 1916. 
-
-  Albert Einstein helped to get her through immigration into the United States, out of Nazi persecution.  She taught math at a girls school in Pennsylvania.   Died in 1935 of ovarian cancer.  She was one of the very first women scientists.  She discovered one of the most powerful laws in all of physics.
-
-  Other Reviews available:
-
-   2659 - PULSARS  -  rotating Neutron Stars?  -  Pulsars are rapidly rotating, highly magnetic compact stars. The rotating magnetic field of a pulsar acts as a generator, accelerating energetic charged particles that then stream along the field lines.---------- This Review lists 13 more reviews available all about pulsars.
-
-   2602  -  PULSAR  -  spinning Neutron Star?  -  Pulsars were discovered more than 50 years ago as beacons of stars that have collapsed into dense cores, behaving unlike anything we see on Earth.   For decades, scientists have been studying pulsars in the hopes of getting a better understanding of their inner workings.
-
- 1897  - The mysterious Neutron Stars, Pulsars, and Quasars create radio bursts of energy that astronomers are still trying to explain.
- 
-  1327  -  Neutron Stars  -  The surface is solid and harder that a diamond, 50 trillion times denser than solid lead.  Its magnetic field is a trillion times more intense than that of our Sun.
-
-   1273  -  Neutron Star mergers.
-
 -  1192  -  The new zoo of Pulsars.
-
-     642  -  Neutron Stars, Pulsars, and Magnetars.
-
-     861  -  Cannon Ball Stars
-
-     625  -  Neutron Stars.
-
-       21  -  Stars grow old.
-
-  March 27, 2020                         1327    1331                                2681                                                                                                                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Friday, March 27, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ORION NEBULAE - what makes it so amazing?

-  2680  -  ORION  NEBULAE  -  what makes it so amazing?  -   Most everyone knows the winter night sky’s most popular constellation, “Orion the Hunter“.  The 3 dominate stars in the center are Orion’s Belt and just below the Belt is Orion’s Sword, and just below the Sword is the Orion Nebula.  This is a spectacular sight with a telescope. 
-

-
-------------------  2680  -  ORION  NEBULAE  -  what makes it so amazing?
-
-  The Orion nebulae is a gas cloud of on-going star formation.  You can actually see stars being born.  It is what our Solar System looked like 4,600,000,000 years ago.
-
-  Our Milky Way Galaxy has two major spiral arms.  The Orion spur is a smaller stream of stars that lie between the Peresus Arm and the Sagittarius Arm.  Our Solar System lies 2/3 rds of the way out from the center, 27,000 lightyears.
-
-   The Orion Nebula lies in the Orion Spur just 1,500 lightyears away.  You see the rim of the Milky Way when you look above the Orion Constellation.  The rim arcs across the sky.  We are looking away from the center in the direction of  the Orion Nebula.
-
-   We would have to follow the arc all the way to the summer sky to see the center of the galaxy.  The center is toward the constellations Scorpius the Scorpian northwest of Sagittarius the Tea Pot.  We can not see the blazing stars at the center because huge clouds of dust and gas are in the way.
-
-  Similar gas and dust can be seen in the Orion Nebula.  The entire gas cloud surrounding the Nebula is called M42, the Orion Molecular Cloud.
-
-  The middle star in Orion’s Belt is the Trapezium.  Using a telescope you learn that it is actually 4 stars, not just one as it appears with the naked eye.  These are young stars, only 300,000 years old.  One of the stars is 40 Solar Mass and has a surface temperature of 40,000 Kelvin. 
-
-  These young stars emit huge amounts of ultraviolet radiation.  The UV rays cause the hydrogen gas surrounding the stars to fluoresce green in color.  The nitrogen gas fluoresces red in color,  The oxygen gas fluoresces blue.
-
-   This middle star is called Theta C in the Trapezium.  It shines 210,000 times brighter than our Sun.  the stellar wind that it emits travels 5,700,000 miles per hour.  Theta C is a massive star, burning its fuel rapidly and will explode in a supernova in about 1,000,000 years.
-
-  The Orion Nebula is 1,500 lightyears away and is 10 lightyears across.  To learn more about the colors in the gas that is condensing into stars we need to learn what goes on inside the atom.
-
-   A hydrogen atom is a proton in the nucleus surrounded by an electron in orbit about the nucleus.  Each orbit is called a shell, or an energy level.  The more energy the atom absorbs the higher the energy level the electron occupies.
-
-    Level 1 is the lowest energy level.  When the electron falls from energy level 3 to energy level 2 the loss of energy is released as a red photon at 656 nanometers.  When an electron falls from level 2 to level 1 the photons released are in the ultraviolet wavelengths.
-
-  Not all the colors are emissions of radiation.  Some are reflections.  When starlight enters a dust cloud the reflected light is blue.  Interstellar dust grains scatter blue light much more readily than red light.  ( This same scattering in our atmosphere causes the sky to be blue.)
-
-  When a hydrogen atom exceeds a certain amount of energy absorption it becomes ionized.  That is, it loses its electron.  The negatively charged electron escapes as a free electron.
-
-   The nucleus that remains is a positively charged proton nucleus, called an ion.  Star formation starts out with a bubble of gas in this high energy state.  The gas cools as it emits radiation and in condenses as gravity compresses the mass of gas towards its center.
-
-  The stages of star formation in the Orion Nebula show cooling and density changes:
-
-------  Hot bubbles of heated gas are created by supernovae shockwaves:
-
---------------------------------------------  temperature  ---------------------- density------------
-
-------  Ionized hydrogen  -------------  1,000,000 Kelvin  -------------  0.01 atoms / cm^3
-
-------  Warm atomic gas that fills much of the galactic disk:
-
-------  Atomic hydrogen  -------------  10,000 Kelvin  ------------------  1 atoms / cm^3
-
-------  Cool atomic clouds as gas condenses to form stars:
-
-------  Atomic hydrogen  -------------  100 Kelvin  ---------------------  100 atoms / cm^3
-
-------  Molecular clouds that are regions of star formation:
-
-------  Molecular hydrogen  -------------  30 Kelvin  ---------------------  300 atoms / cm^3
-
-------  Molecular cloud cores that are actively forming stars, fusion begins at the cores.
-
-------  Molecular hydrogen  -------------  60 Kelvin  -------------  10,000 atoms / cm^3
-
-  These different gases are identified by the wavelength of their emissions.  Each wavelength corresponds to a specific color or frequency of the electromagnetic radiation:
-
----------  Single ionized oxygen  ------------------  375 nanometers  -------------  Blue
-
----------  Double ionized neon  --------------------  400 nanometers  -------------  Blue
-
----------  Atomic hydrogen  ----------------------  410 nanometers  -------------  Blue
-
----------  Atomic hydrogen  ----------------------  435 nanometers  -------------  Light Blue
-
----------  Atomic helium  -------------------------  450 nanometers  -------------  Light Blue
-
----------  Atomic hydrogen  ----------------------  485 nanometers  -------------  Blue Green
-
----------  Double ionized oxygen  ------------------  505 nanometers  -------------  Green
-
-  Orion the Hunter offers the backyard astronomer many more discoveries.  Near the Orion Molecular Cloud is M43, the Running Man Nebula.  Above the Orion Nebula and below the Belt are the Flame Nebula and the famous Horsehead Nebula.
-
-  Have fun with that new telescope.  They even have telescopes that connect to your cell phone.
-
-  March 26, 2020                                    1122                                     2680                                                                                                                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----  Comments appreciated and Pass it on to whomever is interested. ----
---   Some reviews are at:  --------------     http://jdetrick.blogspot.com ----- 
--  email feedback, corrections, request for copies or Index of all reviews
---  to:  ------    jamesdetrick@comcast.net  ------  “Jim Detrick”  -----------
-  https://plus.google.com/u/0/  -- www.facebook.com  -- www.twitter.com
 ---------------------   Thursday, March 26, 2020  -------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------