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----------------------------- 2685 - MOLECULE - how a molecule works?
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- See Review 983, “How an Atom Works”, and
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- Review 985, “Measuring How an Atom Works”.
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- Now, we want to learn how a “molecule” works after learning from the reviews about how the atom works. It is not simple, Classical Physics reaches its limits beyond the hydrogen atom, one electron, one proton.
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- When there is more than one proton in the nucleus and more than one atom in orbit this classical physics math just becomes overwhelming. That is the reason the math of Quantum Mechanics was invented.
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- ( An interesting thought: Was the math invented or was it discovered?)
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- When Quantum Mechanic’s math is used, the concept of the electron orbiting the proton completely disappears. The electron’s position around the nucleus becomes a probability distribution.
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- The “Square of the Wave Function” for the position at a given point becomes the “Probability Distribution Function“. The Wave Function is an equation that defines the amounts for energy levels, angular momentum, and spin.
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- As we learned from the two previous Reviews , 983 and 985, the angular momentum is not continuous, it comes in quantum levels of 0,1,2,3, etc multiples of Planck’s Constant of Action per 2*pi radians,( h/2*pi).
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---------------- h / 2*pi = Planck hbar = 6.58212110^-16 electron volt * seconds
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- What further complicates this is that in the 3-dimensions of space the angular momentum must be defined along the x, y, and z axis, that is left - right, up - down, and forwards - backwards.
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- When these more complicated equations are used the radiation spectrum for even the simplest atom of hydrogen becomes a whole spectrum of frequencies. The spectrum of wavelengths is called the Balmer Series and the wavelengths range from 653 nanometers to 363 nanometers for the hydrogen atom.
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- The Balmer series is in the visible light spectrum. There is also a Lyman Series in the Ultraviolet and a Paschen Series in the Infrared. All the details of the Periodic Table of Elements can be understood both qualitatively and quantitatively using the Quantum Mechanic’s equations along with Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, which says that no two electrons can share the same energy state.
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- For example, take the element Rubidium which has 37 protons and 37 electrons. When we complete the calculations we can determine the energy levels and the number of electrons in each orbit:
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------------- orbit, n = 1 ------------------ 2 electrons
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------------- orbit, n = 2 ------------------ 4 or 10 electrons
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------------- orbit, n = 3 ------------------ 12 or 18 or 28 electrons
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------------- orbit, n = 4 ------------------ 30 or 36 0r 46 electrons
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- For Rubidium the 37th electron lies in the shell 4, or orbit 4. Only the electrons in the outer shell determine the electrical properties of each element. To make molecules, which is a combination of 2 or more atoms, electrons pair up with partners from their own or from another atom depending on which configuration is at the lower energy level.
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- For example, 2 hydrogen atoms come together to form hydrogen gas, H2. Hydrogen gas and Oxygen come together to form H2O, or water. A sodium atom and chlorine gas come together to form salt.
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- When atoms join to become molecules even more interactions and more energy level consideration are involved. These subtleties become important in the study of chemistry and biology.
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- In addition to electron energy levels in the atoms we have vibrational levels that have energies in the neighborhood of a 1/10th of an electron volt. After that we have electron degeneracy levels that shift between molecules that have energy levels in the 1/1000th of an electron volt.
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- Two molecules of hydrogen gas do not simply come together to form one molecule of helium gas. There are vibrational interactions which act as a spring constant in oscillation causing a force between atoms. There is an electron and proton spin that acts as a rotational force of a charged particle creating electric and magnetic forces.
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- You can see this stuff gets really complicated. That is why you have to go to college if you are going to learn chemistry and biology. But, what does this stuff have to do with astronomy?
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- It has to do with gravity. Somehow all this stuff is influenced and brought together by the force of gravity. Gravity takes these gas molecules, mostly hydrogen gas, and begins compressing these atoms into a nebulous cloud. The cloud continues to collapse towards its center.
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- Gravity’s Potential Energy is converted into the Kinetic Energy of motion and vibration. The density increases. The atoms vibrate more rapidly with more Kinetic Energy. Heat rises as the thermal energy of the vibrating atoms increases.
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- As compression continues the electron energy levels brake down and the electromagnetic forces between electrons and nuclei collapse. Compression of 4 protons to form one helium nucleus and 2 anti-electrons happens when thermonuclear reactions occur. The star is born.
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- Further compression from gravity fuses helium into higher level elements until you reach iron on the periodic table. Iron does not fuse in a nuclear reaction. Its reaction absorbs energy; it does not emit energy. Thermonuclear energy stops.
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- The star collapses further until the electron exclusion principle causes electron degeneracy pressure to match the gravitational pressure and a White Dwarf Neutron star is born.
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- If the stars mass is great enough the gravity collapses it further until the neutron exclusion principle can no longer hold up against the pressure and a Blackhole is born.
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- Where it goes after the Blackhole we do not know. It is a black hole.
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- Be sure and read 983 and 985 to learn how an atom works.
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- March 30, 2020 986 2685
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--------------------- Monday, March 30, 2020 -------------------------
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